Artykuły w czasopismach na temat „Turkish Numismatics”

The article deals with two particular topics of Juchid numismatics. The author examines the legend written in Arabic letters on the obverse of copper coins struck at Shahr al-Jadid, a town once located on the site of nowadays’ Old Orhei settlement (Moldova). Researchers use to attribute the coinage of this type to the final stage of Juchid presence in the region (second half of the 1360s). Silver coins of that period, save for the latest issues (AH 769–770), bear the name of Khan ʿAbd Allah (1363–1370). As for copper coins, all belonging to the same undated type, those were long considered anonymous. Early in the 2000s the Romanian numismatist Eugen Nicolae suggested to see on them the Turkic name ﻗﺘﻠﻐﺒﻮﻏﺎ Kutluğboğa, implying certain graphic errors in the coin inscriptions. On the basis of written sources researchers use to associate this name with one of the Juchid Khan’s regional governors, a dignitary who took part in negotiations with Venice in the middle of 1340–1350 and later also in the battle against the Lithuanian prince Olgerd’s army at Sinie Vody (‘Blue Waters’) in 1362. Two completely different reading versions of the same coin inscription have induced the author to carry out a study aimed at clarifying the real spelling and translation of the obverse legend. In the course of joint work with colleagues (Vladimir Nastich), the author has come to the conclusion that Eugen Nicolae’s reading of the obverse legend on the copper coins in question is critically erroneous and the proposed reading of the legend as the name Kutluğboğa is impossible, which is confirmed by a detailed analysis of the arabographic legend, accompanying with high quality photos of clearer samples. The author has succeeded to reaffirm the reading of the legend proposed by Svetlana Yanina in 1977. Vladimir Nastich offered a refined translation of the cited expression as “glorious [is] who is moderate”. Other types of Juchid copper coins of the late 14th century containing the same legend were also found. A similar dictum was detected as part of a more complete saying on a copper coin of the Qajar dynasty (Rasht, AH 1229 / 1813–1814 [Zeno numismatic database, #9077]). All this has led the author to transferring his search from numismatics to Islamic texts. As a result, the cited saying has been found among the Hadith ascribed to Prophet Muhammad. Spelling, transcription and translation of the expression look like this: ﻋﺰ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻨﻊ ﻭذل ﻣﻦ طمع ʿazza man qanaʿa wa-d̠alla man ṭamaʿa “glorious [is] who is moderate, and despicable [is] who is greedy”. The result of the described work can be outlined in several paragraphs: The legend on the ‘New City’ copper coin obverse is not Turkic as per Eugen Nicolae, just Arabic. Instead of whatever name, it contains the first part of the saying ﻋﺰ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻨﻊ ʿazza man qanaʿa “glorious [is] who is moderate”. The cited saying is present within the set of Hadith allegedly uttered by Prophet Muhammad. Thus, the question of correctness of its reading and translation can be considered settled and closed. The text of Hadith has been fixed on a Juchid coin for the first time. The use of part of the Hadith in the design of a mass coin issued in Eastern Europe before the withdrawal of the Juchids requires special attention and further study. The article should be interesting to historians and numismatists studying the history of Juchi Ulus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the earliest history of the Moldavian principality, Islamic numismatics, and also to all those who are curious about the given topic.

The article analyzed the names of the Turkic Khaganate, as well as studied in detail the ancient Turkic bityktashi, Chinese Chronicles, Sogdian and Bactrian language documents, Armenian, Syrian, Arabic and Persian sources, as well as numismatic materials. In addition, the military ranks present in the Turkish khanate have been highlighted as a separate research obiacus of epithets related to the courage and virtue ofman

The article discusses some of the issues related to the reforms of the Western Turkic Khanate in the early Middle Ages under Chach, based on written sources and archeological (mainly numismatic) materials, as well as research on the history of the oasis in recent years. In particular, the existence of administrative or political governance in the Chach oasis management system during this period, the location of the administrative centers, the reforms carried out by the khanate in the management of the oasis, and the methods and tools used in oasis management among researchers were analyzed. The article also provides a detailed analysis of the history of Chach's administrative reforms by the Western Turkic Khanate on the basis of scientific sources, especially numismatic materials.

In the paper the attempt to identify the geographical toponyms and hydronyms of the 14th century is made. It contains an analysis of the hypotheses about the Beloberezhye site of the 14th century in the written sources. Based on the examination of the written, cartographic, archeological and numismatics sources the conception about connection of Beloberezhye with the bank of Southern Bug River is considered. Also, the information about origin of the river name since antiquity till nowadays — Bug (Boh, Bug, Boug, Bohus, Bohem and other), Hypanis, Kouβoũ (Kuvu), Vagosola, Bagossla, Aksu (White Waters) — is discussed. The conception, according to which the Turkik geographical names of the river (Ak Su — White Water) and its banks (Belobereshye — White Banks) were the territory of the traditional summer and winter nomads roamings has been substantiated. Also, the certain aspects of activity of the Tartars emirs Kutlu-Buha, Khadjibej, and Dmytro, and the landscapes of these regions are examined. Important stimulus for development of the trade routes in these regions were the saline in the lower reaches of the Southern Bug and in Black Sea region. Based on the analysis of numismatics sources the author concludes that in the first part — mid-14th century the trade route in Southern Bug basin was one of the main transit trade routes in the West territory of Golden Horde. The finds of the silver and copper coins of the mid-14th century marked the most important centers in the Bug River region. After the victories of Lithuanian Prince Olgerdas over the Hordes in 1362 at the Syny Vody (Gek-su) and Bili Vody (Ak-su) Rivers the economic resources of the Western Hordes were considerably reduced. According to archaeological and numismatic data, Torhovytsia on the Siniukha River was an important center in the mid-14th century but was destroyed in the beginning of the 1360s. The issues of historical geography, many of which can be solved by assistance of systematic archaeology research of the Golden Horde centers in the Southern Bug River basins are discussed in the paper.

The article introduces a yarlik on appointment of a mint administrator into the Russian-language scientific discussion, the y arlik being included into the Persian treaty “Dastur al-katib” written in 1360s by Muhammad b. Hindushah Nakhchivani, an official at the court of rulers of the Mongol Iran — Hulaguids and their successors Jalayirids. There is a comparative translation from the original Persian and from the German translation made by famous Austrian orientalist J. von Hammer-Purgstall in the first half of the 19th c. There is also a complex interdisciplinary analysis of the yarlik as an official document and a legal account. The authors clarify the status of the mint administrator, requirements for candidate for this position, rights and duties, legal base of his activity. There is also a comparative study of the status of the mint administrator according to yarlik and of similar officials in other Turkic-Mongol states known from other historical sources. The authors find that the text of the analyzed document could substantially improve our knowledge on organization and regulation of coinage in Genghisid states in 13th—14th cc.

Abstract The City of Sinope: Historical and Archaeological ReflectionsThis contribution concentrates on the city of Sinope in antiquity, on the urban morphology of a city constantly under occupation from the time of its founding in the 7th century BC. It starts out by presenting the city of Sinope through literary and numismatic sources and then provides an account of the excavations undertaken during the 20th century (the German-Turkish expedition under L. Budde and E. Akurgal in 1951-1953 and urban prospecting work by British Byzantinists A. Bryer and D. Winfled in the years 1960-1970). The third part of the article brings readers an idea of the archaeology of the city drawing on studies of the walls of Sinope, the urban organization of the city in antiquity and the ancient monuments still visible, such as the “Temple of Serapis” and the “Balat Kilise”. In conclusion new themes for future reflection are suggested such as the identification of the “Temple of Serapis” as a herôon and the location of an aqueduct at Sinope, which had still been visible at the beginning of the 20th century.

AbstractThe current article deals with the forms of local rule at Balkh in the Seljuq and post-Seljuq period up to the Mongol invasion. At all times we observe relatively high degrees of regional autonomy, in which local rulers were far more than “governors”. Balkh was a regional state, or “minimal beylik”, at times included within larger imperial structures and at others continuing more on its own. Military manpower was frequently provided by Turkish nomads (Ghuzz), who are seen throughout the period as a powerful regional force. Urban notables (aʿyān) played a decisive role in local rule, in particular the qadis, who judged according to sharia rules, and the raʾīs, in charge of fiscal and administrative affairs. Besides these office holders the sayyids must also have been important, alongside other Muslim scholars, mostly Hanafi. Balkh therefore is another example for the amīr-aʿyān system, as has been described in detail for other Iranian cities of the Seljuq period. In the post-Seljuq era the situation continues but becomes more unstable. Hereditary lines of emirs emerge again and again, but the sources do not offer a clear picture of the chronological and prosopographic details.The paper draws on general historiography, the extant city history and other narrative and non-narrative sources, as well as numismatic evidence.

The article analyzes the historiography of the 19th century concerning the problems of the functioning of coin production in Feodosia in the 1780s and the existence of the Tauric coin. The autor highlights the position of the researchers as for the location of the mint, the purpose and reasons for its foundation, the location of the production of copper and silver Tauric coins, their role in the monetary circulation of the region and the empire in general. It has been established that basic research on the outlined issues came to light in the times of the Russian Empire in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The first to mention some of the aspects of the mint activity in Feodosia, the minting of Tauric coins, were A. Skalkovsky (who mentioned the founding of a new mint because the previous one had been destroyed earlier), Baron S. de Schoduar (who mentioned the minting of silver coins on honor of the milestone and empress, characterized the look of the coins, occasionally noticed a copper coin). At the end of the nineteenth century. the most thorough, systematic and fundamental research of that time was carried out by V. Smirnov. In his work, which relied on a large array of Turkish language documentation and archival sources, he raised questions about the causes of the foundation of the mint (exclusively as a favor of G. Potemkin), revealed problems that the leadership of the court encountered during the preparation for coin production and later during directly producing the coins, pointed to the denominations and the total number of coins, analyzed the problem of the origin of the silver Taurian coin (in his opinion it was not minted in Feodosia), wrote about the general contribution of the mint to the Empire coin circulation. The research of P. Winkler is also one of the most systematic and complex. He wrote about the facts of abuse during the purchase of raw materials, about the causes and circumstances which caused the delay of the launch of the Mint for a long time. At the end of the XIX century. and in the early twentieth century. A number of catalogs by I. Lyubomudrov, V. Petrov, H. Gil, A. Ilyin, and I. Tolstoy were published, where coins were described, their rarity was characterized, and their value among collectors at that time was indicated.

Objective: The purpose of the article is an attempt to determine the appro­ximate boundaries of Baraq Khan’s nomads’ territories, to summarize information from various written sources and modern literature, and to determine how the name of this famous ruler should actually be written. Research materials: To achieve this goal, we used medieval Muslim written sources. Among these sources, we have identified four groups based on language. The first group is written in Arabic. It is represented by one source – the work of al-Aini “Iqd al-juman”. The second group is more plentiful: here we drew on the data of Samarkandi’s “Matla ‘as-sa’dain”, Hafiz-i Abru’s “Zubdat at-tavarih”, Mirkhond’s “Rauzat al-safa”, and also Ibn Ruzbihan’s “Mihaman name-yi Bukhara”. The third group includes works in the Turkic language, among them Ötemish Haji’s “Kara Tavarih”, Qyrymi’s “Umdet al-Akhbar”, and Qadyrgali’s “Jami at-tavarih”. Another group of sources is written in Russian; these are the data of the chronicles and materials of the Ambassadorial Department of the Russian state. In addition to these sources, we used numismatic data and that from the letter of the Golden Horde Khan, Ulugh-Muhammad, to the Turkish Sultan Murad I. Results and novelty of the research: According to al-Aini, the lands of Baraq Khan bordered on the lands of Amir Temir. The materials of the Ambassadorial Department drew a direct continuity between the ulus of Baraq Khan and the khanate of the Qazaqs. Persian chroniclers called Baraq Khan the ruler of the Uzbek Ulus whose territory was contingent with the Qazaq Ulus that arose later. Ötemish Haji and Qyrymi call Baraq Khan’s property the “Qazaq summer pasture”. The same lands were called Uzbekiya in the work of Qadyrgali. Coins of Baraq Khan do not clarify his main possessions but nevertheless indirectly refer to the fact that the main territory of his nomads was the steppes east of the Volga. All this information has led to several important conclusions. The main conclusion is that the Baraq Khan’s ulus was located in the eastern part of the Jochid Ulus, mainly in the left-bank area of the Volga region, on the Ural and Emba rivers, and in the northern Aral and Syr Darya regions. Baraq Khan did not pursue the goal of annexing these lands to his possessions. Geographically, the lands of his ulus were contingent with the lands of the future Qazaq Khanate, founded by his son, Zhanibek. Russian and Nogai contemporaries of the Qazaqs perceived them precisely as the heirs of Baraq Khan and his grandfather Urus Khan. That last fact testifies to the continuity of not only the dynasty, but also the territories. In conclusion, the etymology of the name Baraq, which is a common Turkic anthroponym, is considered while attempts to establish Arabic roots for it are ruled out as erroneous.

Found by chance in 1912, the hoard from Țifești (in the former Putna County) immediately came to the attention of numismatists. First published in 1915 by Constantin Moisil, it remained in oblivion for a long time, at most barely mentioned in various articles. The beginning of the First World War and the entry of Romania in the middle of these events had, as a consequence, the evacuation of the country’s treasure to Russia. After arriving in Moscow, it was returned to the Romanian state in 1956. The coins of the treasure came from both the Ottoman Empire and Hungary. The Turkish coins (the akçe) were issued during the reigns of Sultans Mehmed the Conqueror (1451 – 1481) and Bayezid II (1481 – 1512). The coins issued in Hungary are from the time of kings Matthias Corvinus (1459 – 1490) and Vladislaus II (1490 – 1516). So far, they have not yet been published in full. The buttons (seven) are manufactured of filigree silver wire wrapped in the shape of a ball. The other two items, manufactured of foil, are dress accessories rather common in the Middle Ages, widely circulated both chronologically and territorially. There are also parts of buttons which are not mentioned in the article published in 1916. The adornments consist of two pairs of silver earrings manufactured in the filigree and granulation techniques. In the case of the items from Țifești, they are dated to the second half of the 15th century.

The article summarizes the results of the Fourth All-Russian (national) research conference “History, Economy, and Culture of the Medieval Turkic-Tatar States of Western Siberia”. It took place in the city of Kurgan on October 30, 2020. The conference was held on the Zoom platform due to the current epidemic situation. From various regions of Russia and the Republic of Kazakhstan, 34 researchers took part in it. The reports were chronologically and thematically divided into the following areas: the issues of the historiography and source studies of the political and ethnic history of the Siberian states; the Tyumen Khanate and its heritage, the Siberian Khanate and its neighbors; and Western Siberia from the end of the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries: politics, population, and culture. The speakers summed up and set new prospects for research on the problems of archaeological and historical source studies related to Siberian statehood, the ethno-social and political history of the Tyumen and Siberian yurts, and issues of political relations of late medieval Siberian states with their neighbors including the Muscovite state and the Bukhara Khanate. In the latter case, it was proposed to consider these relations in the context of larger geopolitical realities in Eurasia in the sixteenth century. Special attention was paid to the discussion of Tatar-Ugric relations which continue to be a promising research area. The problems and chronology of the entry of the Turkic-Tatar and Ugric peoples of Western Siberia into the Russian state were discussed as well. Further ways of studying the problems of the history, economy, and culture of the medieval Turkic-Tatar states of Western Siberia were considered for the preparation of the next conference in Kurgan in 2023. Using the possibilities of interdisciplinary research by specialists in the field of history, archaeology, ethnology, numismatics, and genetics is of great importance in determining the prospects for further research. Taking into account the limited written base of sources on the history of Western Siberia of the late Middle Ages and early modern period, interdisciplinarity and a combined approach can solve some controversial issues and problems, as well as provide us with new potential opportunities to study the history of the Tyumen and Siberian Khanate.

The coin material of Roman times, which was found during archaeological studies of an ancient settlement on the island of Berezan, is analyzed in the paper. The ancient settlement on the island of Berezan is primarily known as the first Greek colony in the Northern Black Sea region. In addition to the sites of the archaic period of the 6th – 5th centuries BCE, the objects belonging to other historical epochs are studied on the island. Roman times are represented by a large number of materials: ceramics, epigraphic finds, damaged archaeological sites (remains of dwellings, utility pits, etc.). Almost all researchers of the site have singled out single artefacts from Roman times. Unfortunately, the cultural layers of the first centuries of the New Era were destroying starting from the construction of the Turkish fortress finishing the works that preceded World War II. And nowadays, the process of destruction is still in progress due to large-scale grave robbery. In recent years, during archaeological studies, the coins of Roman times have usually been found in mixed redeposited layers. Coins of the 2nd – 3rd centuries CE are rare archaeological artefacts, found during research on the island, but at the same time, they are not unique finds. Currently, there is no generalized work cataloguing the numismatic material of the Roman times found during more than a century of archaeological study of the ancient settlement on the island of Berezan. Information about coins can be found in archeological reports and publications only as additional material. Such finds are mentioned in the works of P.Y. Karyshkovskyi, V.A. Anokhina, M.F. Boltenko, S.B. Buiskykh, V.V. Krutilov, and others. At the end of the 20th – beginning of the 21st century, coins of the Roman times were found at different excavation units of the archaeological research on the island headed by various scholars. V.V. Nazarov found coins at excavation units ‘R-1V’ and ‘T’, V.V. Krutilov at ‘T’ and ‘O’, and O.I. Smirnov and D.V. Bondarenko at ‘HSh’. All material is clearly dated to the 2nd – 3rd centuries CE, classified by Roman and Olbia minting of bronze and silver and belongs to the reigns of the emperors Antoninus Pius, Septimius Severus, and Archon of Olbia Dada son of Satyros. This gives us the opportunity to support the assumption of Ukrainian archaeologists that in the second half of the 2nd – beginning of the 3rd century CE on the island of Berezan there was a fortification of Roman troops detachment which garrisoned in Olbia.

We researched the monetary policy pursued by the monarchs of the south-east-Caucasian polities nascent in the 2nd half of the 18th century, after the murder of Nāder Shāh, and lasting through the 1st quarter of the 19th century, when they were one by one either annexed by the Russian Empire or Qājār Iran. We concentrated upon the general numismatic history of the region, rather than the coin type sequences issued locally. From methodological point of view, we considered it promising to conduct the comparative analysis of the monetary policies pursued by the polities classified into two major groups according to the ethnicity and religion of the ruling elite (and population, to an extent): 1) the Kingdom of Kartl-K’akheti (henseforward, KKK), a national Georgian state with predominantly Christian and Georgian population, ruled by Christian Georgian kings; and, 2) khanates governed by Muslim (mostly Turkic) rulers, with mixed population comprising various, mostly (Shī‘a and Sunni) Muslim, but also Christian (Georgian, Udi, and Armenian) ethnic groups. Our article is divided into three major sections: 1) Descriptive, comprising four subsections (Producing the coinage, Designing the coinage, Manipulating the coinage, and Controlling the coin market); 2) Analytical, researching the underlying factors predetermining and affecting the monetary policy pursued by the local rulers; and 3) Qualificatory, in which we attempt to evaluate its efficacy. We came to a conclusion that differences in monetary policy of the KKK and khanates authorities could be foredestined by 1) The economic geography of the region (availability vs. presumably limited supply of the traditional coin metals in correspondingly the KKK and khanates; involvement in international trade, i.e. location with regard to trade routes; extent of territory and population); 2) The local minting traditions and paradigm (centuries long tradition and technical expertise of striking coins manually at some of the local mints, farmed out; retaining Ṣafavīd triadic system of coinage; historical memory of renovatio monetae and weight reductions); however, local rulers also employed novel methods for gaining more profit, like debasing the alloy as a state policy, or countermarking the coins; 3) The omnipresent foreign threat, precluding local rulers from appropriating the right of sikka, and forcing them to acknowledge the prevailing foreign overlord, or issue posthumous or anonymous, frequently immobilized coinage; 4) The mindset of the local monarchs, specifically their adherence to historical and national tradition, obvious in case of the KKK, but not the khanates. The majority of the Caucasian polities pursued some active monetary policy, issuing their own currency, predominantly in silver and copper (the latter also being an integral part of their monetary policy and monetary heritage). Even the khanates operating no mint, or minting coins only during the limited period of time, had to deal with the money circulation on their territory. The meta-analysis of the hoards makes it clear that the KKK and khanates were capable of saturating at least the local economy with their coinage; Irak’li II of KKK even managed to regulate the monetary market in his realm. Farming out the mint provided the king of the KKK with annual (?) income of up to 500 tūmāns (in the 1790s); in the khanates the figure would be comparable, or less. In the KKK the authorities more or less successfully converted their copper coinage into a powerful mass-media outlet aggrandizing the Georgian monarch and disseminating Christian iconography. Both the KKK kings and khans manipulated the coinage minted and circulating locally in many different ways (by altering or immobilizing the weight and silver standards as well as the general design; countermarking; restriking; renovating the coinage) in order to gain more profit. However, it is hard to say whether this policy was reasonable in the long run. Further studies would hopefully further elucidate the monetary policy pursued by the local monarchs. Nevetheless, it is already clear that the currencies issued, and circulating in south-eastern Caucasus in the 2nd half of the 18th century – 1st quarter of the 9th century constitute a powerful tool for researching various issues of regional history. The relatively short story of the KKK and khanates ended in Russian conquest; however, that was an instructive and consequential phase in the history of the region and its population, albeit an abortive one. Consequently, the numismatic history of the local 18th-19th c. polities gains particular significance.

In this study, the sources of the Delhi Turkish Sultanate written in Indic languages between the 12th and 14th centuries are introduced. Their essential features, historical value, and some problems are summarized in this respect. The Delhi Turkish Sultanate has a vibrant diversity of primary sources. Although most of these sources were written in Persian by Muslim names, there are also significant works written in the prevalent languages (Sanskrit, Prakrit, etc.) in the Indian subcontinent by the non-Muslim subjects of the Sultanate. Accordingly, the scope of the study has been determined as the works written in the Indic languages (Sanskrit, Prakrit, etc.) between the 12th and 14th centuries. Introducing the publications and translations of these sources, which are almost unknown to our academic writings and are not used in history studies except for a few minor references, may gain a different perspective and depth to the studies of Delhi Sultanate and medieval India carried out in Turkey. Therein, it has been determined that the works of Ṭhakkura Pherū (b. ca. 1270 A.D.), a Jain assayer who served in the Sultanate's treasury during the Khaljī dynasty, contain precious information. Pherū is a versatile scholar who has left seven works on miscellaneous subjects. His works, written in the Apabhraṃśa dialect, were unearthed in 1946 and were gradually made obtainable in publications and English translations. Some of his identified works are: Jyotiṣasāra is about astronomy and astrology, Dhūtātpatti is about metallurgy and perfumery, Dravyaparikṣā is about numismatics and exchange of coins, Ganitasāra is about arithmetic, Vastusāra is about architecture and iconography, and Rayaṇaparikkhā is about gemology. Besides these, there are other monographs assessed in the Jain religious literature. It has been determined that Dravyaparikṣā and Rayaṇaparikkhā, which are among the aforementioned works written between 1291 and 1323 A.D., contain tables, lists, and explanations showing the crop/land or coin/alloy ratios, which provide precious data on the economic circumstances of India in the middle ages. The data in these tables, created according to the Indian medieval metric and weight systems, were translated into modern measurement standards through English translations and evaluations and brought to Turkish literature. Moreover, it has been revealed that the interlinear information provided by Pherū holds essential glimpses into the essence of Muslim-non-Muslim relations in the Sultanate. At the end of the study, it is pointed out that detailed expert evaluations of Pherū's works will make significant contributions not only to the studies of the Delhi Turkish Sultanate but also to the medieval science history literature.

Using titles and nicknames is a very old tradition in the Medieval Turkish-Islamic world. The rulers cared very much about the titles and nicknames given to them. In this study, the nickname of Mahmud of Ghazni, Sayf al-dawla, will be emphasized. During his thirty-three years of reign, Sultan Mahmud took titles and nicknames with religious, political and military meanings. The titles and nicknames he received were generally given by the two authorities to which he belonged. Some of these titles and nicknames were given by the Abbasid Caliph Kadir-Billah, some of the Samani rulers whom he served as sipehsalar and governor. The nickname of Sayf al-dawla, which we discussed, is the Samani ruler II. Nûh b. Given by Mansur. The best proof of this is the first-hand numismatic data. Numismatic sources are closely related to historical events. For this reason, we discussed nineteen coins with sword motifs belonging to Sultan Mahmud. After giving information about the enthronement process of Mahmud of Ghazni, the sword motif and the nickname Sayf al-dawla on these coins will be analyzed.