Rozprawy doktorskie: „Triple differentiation cross section”

1

Haynes, Matthew, i n/a. "Low Energy (e,2e) Studies of Inner Valence Ionization". Griffith University. Centre for Quantum Dynamics, 2002. http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/public/adt-QGU20050902.142912.

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This thesis presents a series of electron impact ionization measurements on the gas phase targets of argon and krypton. The (e,2e) coincidence technique has been employed to measure the triple differential cross section (TDCS) using a new coincidence spectrometer designed to operate in the low energy regime (2 to 5 times the ionization energy) and in the coplanar geometry. The spectrometer is a conventional device utilizing a non-energy selected electron gun and two 1800 hemispherical electron analysers fitted with channel electron multipliers for detection of the outgoing electrons. A series of TDCS measurements were performed on the 3s inner-valence and 3p valence orbitals of argon employing coplanar asymmetric kinematics. Measurements for both orbitals were performed at an incident energy of 113.5 eV, ejected energies of 10, 7.5, 5 and 2 eV and a scattering angle of -15°. The energy of the scattered electron in each case was chosen to satis~' energy conservation and is dependent on the ionization energies of the different orbitals. The experimental cross sections are compared to theoretical TDCS calculations using the distorted wave Born approximation (DWBA) and variations of the DWBA in an attempt to investigate the role that post collisional interaction (PCI), polarization and electron exchange play in describing the TDCS in the low energy regime. To further extend this analysis, a series of TDCS measurements were performed on the 3s and 4s. orbitals of argon and krypton, respectively, employing coplanar symmetric kinematics. Measurements were performed for the 3s orbital at outgoing energies of 50, 20, 10 and 4eV and for the 4s orbital at outgoing energies of 85, 50, 20 and 10 eV. The kinematics were chosen to coincide with several of the (e,2e) measurements made in the same geometry on the 3p orbital of argon by Rouvellou et al (1998). The experimental results were again compared to a DWBA calculation and similar variations to those employed for the asymmetric measurements.

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2

Shrestha, Shruti. "A measurement of Z(vv̄)[photon] cross section and limits on anomalous triple gauge couplings at [square root of]s = 7 TeV using CMS". Diss., Kansas State University, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/2097/15316.

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Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Physics
Yurii Maravin
In this thesis, the first measurement of Z(vv̄)[photon] cross section in pp collisions at [square root of]s = 7 TeV has been done using data collected by the CMS detector. The measured cross section is 21.3 ± 4.2 (stat.) ± 4.3 (syst.) ± 0.5 (lumi.) fb. This measurement is based on the observations of events with missing transverse energy in excess of 130 GeV and photon in the rapidity range [eta] < 1.44 of transverse momentum in excess of 145 GeV in a data sample corresponding to an integrated luminosity of 5 fb⁻¹. This measured cross section is in good agreement with the theoretical prediction of 21.9 ± 1.1 fb from BAUR. Further, neutral triple gauge couplings involving Z bosons and photons have been studied. No evidence for the presence of such couplings is observed and is in agreement with the predictions of the standard model. We set the most stringent limits to date on these triple gauge couplings.

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3

Mengarelli, Alberto <1981&gt. "Measurement of the ZZ production cross section and limits on anomalous neutral triple gauge couplings with ATLAS". Doctoral thesis, Alma Mater Studiorum - Università di Bologna, 2013. http://amsdottorato.unibo.it/5196/.

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The main work of this thesis concerns the measurement of the production cross section using LHC 2011 data collected at a center-of-mass energy equal to 7 TeV by the ATLAS detector and resulting in a total integrated luminosity of 4.6 inverse fb. The ZZ total cross section is finally compared with the NLO prediction calculated with modern Monte Carlo generators. In addition, the three differential distributions (∆φ(l,l), ZpT and M4l) are shown unfolded back to the underlying distributions using a Bayesian iterative algorithm. Finally, the transverse momentum of the leading Z is used to provide limits on anoumalus triple gauge couplings forbidden in the Standard Model.

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4

Edwards, Nicholas Charles. "Measurement of the ZZ production cross section and limits on anomalous neutral triple gauge couplings with the ATLAS detector". Thesis, University of Glasgow, 2013. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/4478/.

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This thesis presents measurements of the ZZ production cross section in proton-proton collisions at √s = 7 TeV and at √s = 8 TeV, using data recorded by the ATLAS experiment at the LHC in 2011 and 2012. Events are selected which are consistent with two Z bosons decaying to electrons or muons. The cross section is first measured in a fiducial phase-space corresponding closely to the detector acceptance. For the 7 TeV measurement, this phase-space is defined by requiring four electrons or muons with pT > 7 GeV and |eta|<3.16, with a minimum separation between any pair of leptons (electrons or muons) of delta(R)=0.2. The leptons must form two opposite-sign same-flavour pairs, each with invariant mass 66 < m(ll) < 116 GeV. The fiducial cross section times branching ratio to four electrons or muons measured in a dataset corresponding to an integrated luminosity of 4.6 fb−1 is 25.2 +3.3 −3.0 (stat) +1.2 −1.0 (syst) +1.1 −0.9 (lumi) fb. For the 8 TeV measurement, the fiducial phase-space is defined in the same way, except with the lepton pseudo-rapidity requirement tightened to |eta| < 2.7. The fiducial cross section measured in a dataset corresponding to an integrated luminosity of 20 fb−1 is 20.8 +1.3 -1.2 (stat) +1.0 -0.9 (syst) +0.6 -0.6(lumi) fb. Additionally, a fiducial cross section allowing one of the Z bosons to be off shell is measured at √s = 7 TeV by relaxing the mass requirement on one of the lepton pairs to ml−l+ > 20 GeV. This is found to be 27.8 +3.6 -3.4 (stat) +1.8 -1.6 (syst) +1.1 -1.0 (lumi) fb. These results are then used to derive the total cross section for ZZ production with Z bosons in the mass range 66 GeV to 116 GeV, by correcting for the acceptance of the fiducial phase-space and the Z -> ll branching fractions. The total cross section is measured to be 7.0 +0.9 -0.8 (stat) +0.4 -0.3 (syst) +0.3 -0.2 (lumi) pb at √s = 7 TeV and − 7.1 +0.4 -0.4 (stat) +0.4 -0.3 (syst) +0.2 -0.2 (lumi) pb at √s = 8 TeV, which is consistent with the Standard Model expectation of 5.9 +/- 0.2 pb at √s = 7 TeV and 7.2 +/- 0.2 pb at √s = 8 TeV, calculated to next-to-leading order in QCD. The differential cross section in bins of three kinematic variables is also presented. The differential event yield as a function of the transverse momentum of the highest transverse momentum Z boson is used to set limits on the strength of anomalous ZZZ and ZZgamma neutral triple gauge boson couplings, which are forbidden in the Standard Model. The limits obtained with the √s = 8 TeV data are the most constraining to date.

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5

Armitage, Lewis. "Measurement of the Drell-Yan triple-differential cross-section in pp collisions at √s = 8 TeV with the ATLAS detector". Thesis, Queen Mary, University of London, 2017. http://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/xmlui/handle/123456789/24549.

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This thesis presents the measurement and results of the Z/γ* → μ⁺μ⁻ Drell-Yan triple-differential cross-section, using 20.24 fb⁻¹ of ATLAS data recorded in 2012 at a centre-of-mass energy of √s = 8TeV. The triple-differential cross-section is measured as a function of dimuon invariant mass, m_μμ, dimuon rapidity, γ_μμ , and lepton decay angle in the Collins-Soper frame, cosθ*. These dimensions provide sensitivity to the parton composition of the proton through the parton density functions, PDFs, and the weak effective mixing angle, sin²θeff./W, via the forward-backward asymmetry, A_FB. The measurement is performed on and around the Z-boson's invariant mass peak, 46 < m_μμ < 200 GeV, in a kinematic ducial volume of muon transverse momentum, pT > 20 GeV, and muon pseudo-rapidity |η|≤2.4. The results are unfolded from the detector level to the Born, bare and dressed levels, where a precision of < 0:6% is reported in the central bins. The data is combined with an electron channel measurement resulting in a combined result with reduced total uncertainty. The combined result is shown to constrain PDF uncertainties and achieve the most constrained sin²θeff./W uncertainty yet reported at the LHC.

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6

Savoiu, Daniel [Verfasser], i G. [Akademischer Betreuer] Quast. "Triple-Differential Measurement of the Dijet Cross Section at $\sqrts}$ = 13 TeV with the CMS Detector / Daniel Savoiu ; Betreuer: G. Quast". Karlsruhe : KIT-Bibliothek, 2021. http://d-nb.info/1228439273/34.

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7

Atkins, Danielle S., i N/A. "Electron Coincidence Studies of Molecules". Griffith University. School of Biomolecular and Physical Sciences, 2007. http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/public/adt-QGU20070920.112918.

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The electron-electron coincidence (e,2e) technique yields complete kinematical information about the electron impact ionization process. The (e,2e) technique has been widely used to study dynamical effects in ionizing collisions with atomic targets, however studies of molecular ionization using this technique have been very limited. Recently further experimental studies of small molecules have been proposed, as the cross sections of small molecules are now computable using sophisticated theoretical approaches [77, 24]. This thesis presents dynamical investigations for the electron impact ionization of the molecular targets H2O and H2, employing the (e,2e) technique to experimentally measure the triple differential cross section (TDCS). The TDCS is defined as the probability that a bound electron will be ejected from the target atom or molecule (into a particular direction with a defined energy) and the initial electron will be scattered into a particular direction with a particular energy. All TDCSs presented within this thesis were performed using an electron coincidence spectrometer in the coplanar asymmetric geometry at intermediate incident electron energies. This thesis presents the electron impact ionization TDCSs of H2O. A series of measurements were performed using H2O in the vapour form. Measurements of the TDCS are presented for the 2a1 atomic-like orbital and the 1b2, 3a1 and 1b1 molecular orbitals at a common incident electron energy of 250eV, ejected electron energy of 10eV and scattering angle of -15o. The experimental TDCSs are compared with theoretical cross sections that were calculated by Champion et al [25, 26] using a distorted wave Born approach (DWBA). TDCS measurements for the single ionization of the hydrogen molecule, H2 were performed as in recent years there has been evidence that indicates the ejected electron angular distribution is perturbed due to Young-type interference effects. The oscillatory structure which is predicted in the cross section is due to the two-centred nature of the molecule [27, 29]. This thesis presents experimental TDCSs for the ionization of H2 which are compared to TDCSs of helium. A series of measurements for the TDCSs of H2 and He are presented at a common incident electron energy of 250eV and scattering angle of -15o, for a range of ejected electron energies between 10eV and 100eV. The experimental TDCSs are compared with two types of theoretical calculations.

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8

Jeanty, Laura Elizabeth. "Measurement of the WZ Production Cross Section in Proton-Proton Collision at $\sqrt s = 7 TeV$ and Limits on Anomalous Triple Gauge Couplings with the ATLAS Detector". Thesis, Harvard University, 2013. http://dissertations.umi.com/gsas.harvard:11023.

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In this dissertation, we present a study of WZ production in proton-proton collisions at a center-of-mass energy of 7 TeV. The data analyzed was collected by the ATLAS detector and corresponds to an integrated luminosity of $4.6 fb^{−1}$ provided by the Large Hadron Collider in 2011. We select WZ events in the fully leptonic decay mode with electrons, muons, and missing transverse energy in the final state. Events are required to have three isolated leptons with significant transverse momentum, a large missing transverse energy, a Z candidate reconstructed from two of the selected leptons, and a W candidate reconstructed from the missing transverse energy and third lepton. The major backgrounds to the WZ signal in the leptonic decay channel are Z+jets events, ZZ production, Z+photon events, and events with top quarks. We estimate the Z+jets and top quark background contributions from data and take the expected contribution for the other background processes from simulation. We observe 317 WZ candidates in data, with a background expectation of $68\pm10$ events. The total production cross section is extracted from the selected sample using a maximum likelihood method and is determined to be $19.0^{+1.4}_{-1.3} (stat) \pm0.9 (syst) \pm0.4 (lumi) pb$, which is consistent with the next-to-leading Standard Model prediction of $17.6^{+1.1}_{-1.0} pb$. WZ production in the Standard Model includes a contribution from the WWZ triple gauge boson vertex. If new physics beyond the Standard Model exists and interacts with W and Z bosons, the coupling of the WWZ vertex could differ from the Standard Model prediction. We set limits on anomalous triple gauge boson couplings using the transverse momentum spectrum of Z bosons in the selected sample. We derive the 95% confidence interval for three model-independent anomalous triple gauge couplings using a frequentist approach and set the most stringent bounds to date on two of the three parameters.
Physics

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9

Moreno-Lopez, Deywis [Verfasser]. "Measurement of the ZZ production cross section and limits to the anomalous triple gauge couplings with forward electrons with the ATLAS detector / Deywis Moreno-Lopez". Mainz : Universitätsbibliothek Mainz, 2015. http://d-nb.info/1070829056/34.

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10

Kagan, Michael Aaron. "Measurement of the $W^{\pm}Z$ Production Cross Section and Limits on Anomalous Triple Gauge Couplings at $\sqrt s = 7 TeV$ using the ATLAS detector". Thesis, Harvard University, 2012. http://dissertations.umi.com/gsas.harvard:10380.

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This dissertation presents a measurement of the $W^{\pm}Z$ production cross section and limits on anomalous triple gauge couplings in proton-proton collisions at a center of mass energy of 7 TeV using data produced by LHC collisions and acquired by the ATLAS detector in 2011. The measurement and limits probe the electroweak sector of the Standard Model at high energies and allow for generic tests for new physics that could be present at high energy scales. This analysis is also useful for understanding the ATLAS detector response in the presence of multi-lepton signatures. The dataset used corresponds to an integrated luminosity of $1.02 fb^{−1}$. The measurement relies on the leptonic decay modes of the W and Z, resulting in final states with electrons, muons, and missing energy. Events are selected by requiring three high momentum leptons, a large missing transverse energy, a Z candidate (reconstructed from two of the leptons) with a mass consistent with the Z pole mass, and a W candidate (reconstructed from the third lepton and the missing energy) with a large transverse mass. The backgrounds to the $W^{\pm}Z$ process are estimated using Monte Carlo simulations and Data-Driven techniques. A total of 71 $W^{\pm}Z$ candidate events are observed in data, with 50.3 signal and 12.1 background events expected. The production cross section is extracted from these events using a maximum likelihood method, and is found to be in good agreement with the Standard Model expectation. Limits at the 95% confidence interval on anomalous triple gauge couplings are extracted from the observed event yields using a frequentist limit setting approach.
Physics

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11

Kaneti, Steven. "A measurement of the ZZ --> l⁻l⁺ vv̄ cross section at 8 TeV and limits on anomalous neutral triple gauge couplings with the ATLAS detector". Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2015. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.709405.

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12

Berger, Thomas [Verfasser], i G. [Akademischer Betreuer] Quast. "Jet energy calibration and triple differential inclusive cross section measurements with Z (→μμ) + jet events at 13 TeV recorded by the CMS detector / Thomas Berger ; Betreuer: G. Quast". Karlsruhe : KIT-Bibliothek, 2019. http://d-nb.info/120207670X/34.

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13

Chang, Chih-Hsiang. "Proteomic studies on protein N-terminus and peptide ion mobility by nano-scale liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry". Doctoral thesis, Kyoto University, 2021. http://hdl.handle.net/2433/263596.

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14

Hmouda, Bassem. "Étude détaillée du deuxième terme de l'approximation de Born : applications à l'ionisation de l'atome d’Hydrogène et à la double ionisation de l'atome d’Hélium par impact d’électrons et de positrons". Thesis, Université de Lorraine, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014LORR0383/document.

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Les méthodes perturbatives, telle que l’approximation de Born, sont nécessaires pour résoudre les problèmes inhérents à l’ionisation d’atomes et de molécules par impact d’électrons ou de positrons. Afin d’optimiser les calculs nécessaires pour le second terme de l’approximation de Born, nous avons commencé par étudier l’ionisation de l’atome le plus simple : celui d’hydrogène. Nous avons utilisé une base contenant un grand nombre d’états (294) nous permettant d’éviter la relation de fermeture qui nécessite l’introduction d’un paramètre qui représente la valeur moyenne d’excitation. Nos résultats ont montré un bon accord avec l’expérience surtout pour les faibles énergies des électrons éjectés. Nous avons ainsi pu montrer l’importance de la contribution des états du continuum (représentés par des pseudo-états), en particulier pour les transitions de type dipolaire. Pour la double ionisation de l’atome d’hélium, nous avons appliqué la même méthodologie de calcul numérique complet tout en incluant 20 états et pseudo-états intermédiaires et en utilisant une fonction d’onde corrélée d’interaction de configuration, on a trouvé pour les grandes énergies d’incidence (5 keV) que l’effet du terme Born 2 est presque nul. Par contre l’application de « SBA » avec la relation de fermeture pour l’état fondamental et les premiers états excités montre une petite différence avec « FBA » en particulier en dehors de la région du transfert. Dans le cas des faibles énergies d’incidence (601 eV) il était attendu d’obtenir un effet important de « SBA » surtout que des études sur les (e,3-1e) de l’hélium montrent un déplacement du pic principal par rapport à « FBA ». Donc on peut dire que les 20 états intermédiaires contribuent de façon insuffisante et qu’il faudra considérer beaucoup plus d’états
The perturbative methods, such as Born approximation, are necessary to solve the problems concerning the ionization of atoms and molecules by electrons or positrons impacts. In order to use Born approximation in an optimized way, we tested it on the simplest atom « Hydrogen » by using a basis of large amount of intermediate states (294) and complete numerical calculation without using the closure approximation whose application needs the introduction of a parameter which is the excitation mean value. Our results proved a significant agreement with the experiment particularly for small energies of the ejected electrons. We also proved an important contribution of the continuum (represented by the pseudo-states), and particularly the dipolar transition. For the double ionization of Helium atom, we applied the same methodology of complete calculation by including 20 intermediate states and pseudo-states and by using a configuration interaction wave function, we found that for high incident energy (5 keV) the effect of the second term of Born is almost zero. However, the application of the « SBA » with the closure approximation by using the fundamental state and the first excited states show a slight difference relative to the « FBA » particularly outside the transfer region. In case of low incident energy (601 eV), it was expected a crucial effect of the « SBA » especially that previous studies of (e, 3-1e) of Helium show a significant shift of the main peak relative to the « FBA ». So we can say that 20 intermediate states are not enough and the application of the « SBA » needs more states

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15

Mouawad, Lena. "Monte Carlo simulations and a theoretical study of the damage induced by ionizing particles at the macroscopic scale as well as the molecular scale". Thesis, Strasbourg, 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017STRAE009/document.

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Le travail présenté dans cette thèse se place dans le contexte de la simulation de dommages biologiques. D'abord une étude macroscopique met en question la pertinence des plans de traitement basés sur la dose absorbée et le passage à une étude de micro-dosimétrie permet l'utilisation de paramètres biologiques plus pertinents, tels que les cassures de brins d'ADN. La validité des sections efficaces d'interaction sur lesquelles se basent ces simulations est discutée en plus de détails. Suite à la complexité du milieu biologique, les sections efficaces d'interaction avec l'eau sont souvent utilisées. Nous développons un algorithme qui permet de fournir les sections efficaces d'ionisation pour n'importe quelle cible moléculaire, en utilisant des outils qui permettent de surmonter les difficultés de calcul, ce qui rend notre programme particulièrement intéressant pour les molécules complexes. Nous fournissons des résultats pour l'eau, l'ammoniac, l'acide formique et le tétrahydrofurane
The work presented in this thesis can be placed in the context of biological damage simulation. Webegin with a macroscopic study where we question the relevance of absorbed-dose-based treatmentplanning. Then we move on to a micro-dosimetry study where we suggest the use of morebiologically relevant probes for damage, such as DNA strand breaks. More focus is given to thefundamental considerations on which the simulations are based, particularly the interaction crosssections. Due to the complexity of the biological medium, the interaction cross sections with waterare often used to simulate the behavior of particles. We develop a parallel user-friendly algorithmthat can provide the ionization cross sections for any molecular target, making use of particular toolsthat allow to overcome the computational difficulties, which makes our program particularlyinteresting for complex molecules. We provide preliminary results for water, ammonia, formic acidand Tetrahydrofuran

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16

Li, Shu. "Mesure de la production W+W− dans les collisions proton-proton à $\sqrt{s} = 7 TeV avec le détecteur ATLAS au LHC". Thesis, Aix-Marseille, 2012. http://www.theses.fr/2012AIXM4107.

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Cette thèse présente le mesure des sections efficaces de production WW MS et la détermination des couplages triples (TGCs) correspondants en utilisant ces 4.7 fb⁻¹ de donnes 2011 de collision pp. Ces mesures permettent un test contraignant du secteur 'électrofaible non abélien SU(2) X U(1) du Modèle Standard; donnent l'opportunité de sonder la nouvelle physique `a travers les couplages triples anormaux de bosons de jauge (aTGCs) qui seront observés dans la distribution des variables cinématiques des WW produits ou de leurs produits de désintégration finaux dans le secteur de haute 'énergie; et permettent d'avoir une bonne compréhension du bruit de fond irréductible dans la recherche du boson de Higgs dans le canal de d'esint'egration H → W⁺W⁻.Ce travail de th`ese donne un base solide pour les mesures à venir de la production WW avec les ∼25 fb⁻¹ de luminosité intègré de donnes a 8 TeV prévue pour la fin 2012, qui conduiront vers une amélioration de la précision et des limites plus strictes sur les aTGCs
This thesis presents a measurement of the SM WW production cross section and the determination of the corresponding limits on anomalous triple gauge boson couplings (aTGCs), using the 2011 4.7 fb⁻¹ pp collisions data at 7 TeV collected in 2011. The measurement allows for a stringent test of the non-Abelian SU(2) X U(1) SM electroweak sector and probes new physics that could manifest itself through aTGCs that may alter the observed production cross section or kinematic distributions. This measurement also provides a good understanding of the irreducible background in searches for the Higgs boson through the H → W⁺W⁻ decay channel.This thesis work has laid a solid foundation for further measurements of the WW production with the ∼25 fb⁻¹ integrated luminosity 8 TeV recorded data expected by the end of 2012, which will further improve the precision and yield more stringent limits on the aTGCs

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Benedek, Árpád. "Triple differential cross section calculations for the ionization of molecular hydrogen and helium by position impact /". 2007. http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&res_dat=xri:pqdiss&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:NR29318.

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Thesis (Ph.D.)--York University, 2007. Graduate Programme in Physics and Astronomy.
Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 99-102). Also available on the Internet. MODE OF ACCESS via web browser by entering the following URL: http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&res_dat=xri:pqdiss&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:NR29318

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18

Deng, Jianrong. "Measurement of Z +γ Production and Search for Anomalous Triple Gauge Couplings in Proton-antiproton Collisions at √S = 1.96 Tev". Diss., 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/10161/623.

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We present a measurement of ppbar->Zγ + X -> e⁺e^-γ + X production using proton-antiproton collision data collected at the Collider Detector at Fermilab at a center of mass energy of 1.96 TeV. Zγ production provides a direct test of the triple neutral gauge couplings. A measurement of Zγ production cross section and search for anomalous ZZγ and Zγγ couplings are presented. The data presented are from 1.1 fb^-1 of ppbar integrated luminosity collected at the CDF Detector. Electrons from Z decays are selected with E_t > 20 GeV. Photons (E_t > 7 GeV) are required to be well-separated from the electrons. There are 390 eeγ candidate events found with 1.1 fb^-1 of data, compared to the SM prediction of 375.3 Ã Â± 25.2 events. The Standard Model prediction for the cross section for ppbar-> e⁺e^-γ + X production at √s = 1.96 TeV is 4.5 Ã Â± 0.4 pb. The measured cross section is 4.7 Ã Â± 0.6 pb. The cross section and kinematic distributions of the eeγ events are in good agreement with theoretical predictions. Limits on the ZZγ and Zγγ couplings are extracted using the photon E_t distribution of eeγ events with M_eeγ > 100 GeV/c². These are the first limits measured using CDF Run II data. These limits provide important test of the interaction of the photon and the Z boson.
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