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1
Ngoga, Eustache. "The current trends towards trade related aspects of intellectual property tights (TRIPS) compliance by the least developed countries: a Rwandian persepctive". Thesis, University of the Western Cape, 2007. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/index.php?module=etd&action=viewtitle&id=gen8Srv25Nme4_6431_1242717375.
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Many critics have questioned whether the protection of the IPRs would benefit developing countries. It was argued in this paper that developing countires have the interest in protecting IPRs as well. However, it was showed that the benefit of this protection can be realized only if there is a fair rule of the game to all players in the multilateral trading system. The general objective of this research was to examine the current status of IPRs protection and the levels of TRIPS compliance by Rwanda in the area of copyright.
2
Soleimani, Hassan. "A legal study of the Iranian intellectual property system and trade related aspects of international property rights agreement : implementation and impacts". Thesis, Aberystwyth University, 2006. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.444127.
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Matsinhe, Tania Romana. "The likely impact of trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights (TRIPS) in Mozambique : the case of anti-malarial drugs". Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/6990.
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Bibliography: leaves 94-99.Since 1994, there has been a lot of attention drawn on the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) as the most important international instrument ever negotiated in this area. TRIPS establishes minimum universal standards in all areas of intellectual property and the intention is to implement these standards globally through a strong enforcement mechanism established in WTO. These standards affect pharmaceuticals, which many countries had previously excluded from patent protection in order to produce drugs at reduced prices and hence contribute to the improvement of public health. But now any Member State must comply with these minimum standards since failure to do so will result to the WTO dispute settlement system. No extensive review of the practical implications of the TRIPS Agreement has taken place at the global and national levels. The main objective of this paper is to examine the likely impact of this agreement on anti-malarial drugs in Mozambique. Given the persistence of the malaria epidemic in the country and the resistance to the drugs being utilized for this disease there is an acknowledged need for a new drug to eradicate the problem. The problem is that this new drug is likely to be under patent and this country has relied on generic drugs for all its existence and being a Member of the WTO Agreement they now have to wait until patents on the required drugs have expired or be submissive to the more expensive original brand. To accomplish this objective and to ascertain the end result of the above situation, past experiences were a major tool. By reviewing experiences of less developed countries in relation to patent protection and pharmaceuticals, some conclusions were made possible. In order to narrow down the conclusions drawn from these country experiences, a study was done in the Mozambican public sector by reviewing and analyzing the existing laws and regulations pertaining to pharmaceuticals and patent protection. This was done through questionnaires and interviews of the main stakeholders in this area. With this information the researcher was able to describe where Mozambique stands in relation to patents and how this might affect the pharmaceutical industry as a Member of the WTO agreement in the long run. This study therefore, relies heavily on secondary data.
4
Satardien, Mogammad Zain. "A critical analysis of the trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights agreement and has South Africa complied with this agreement with special reference to patented pharmaceuticals". Thesis, University of the Western Cape, 2006. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/index.php?module=etd&action=viewtitle&id=gen8Srv25Nme4_5140_1205413683.
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The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS) ia a multilateral international treaty introduced by the World Trade Organization (WTO) that came into effect on 1 June 1995. At a basic level it attempted to establish minimum standards for the regulation of intellectual property rights within those countries that are members of the WTO and signatories to it. This thesis served a dual purpose. The first leg was to embark on an investigation into TRIPS, criticallt analyzing the provisions of the Agreement. The important aim here was to analyze and discover whether TRIPS is sensitive to weaker countries. The second leg was to probe within the the legislative framework of South Africa and determine whether South Africa as a "
developing copuntry"
, has complied with the demands as expressed by TRIPS. This investigation was done with specific reference to South African patent law.
5
Kuudogrme, Barbara Bangfudem. "Towards the effective utilisation of trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights flexibilities to improve access to essential medicines in Ghana". University of the Western Cape, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/11394/6825.
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Magister Legum - LLMAccess to medicines is an essential component of the basic human right to health and a key determinant of the importance attached to the health care system of a country. It essentially entails the availability and acceptability of the essential medicines on the market and the ability of patients to afford such medicines when needed. Globally, countries face access to medicine challenges partly because of patents which undoubtedly accounts for excessive pricing of medicine. As such, efforts have been made to ensure the accessibility of medicines through the Trade-Related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) flexibilities of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Beyond these interventions, it is incumbent on Members of the WTO to domesticate the flexibilities of the TRIPS Agreement before their utilisation because by their very nature, they cannot be self-executed. With an estimated population of 29.6 million, about 310 000 people in Ghana are living with HIV. The country’s health facilities record 40 per cent of outpatient visits each year and about 14 550 per 100 000 of the population are infected with tuberculosis with cancer on the rise. These diseases require medicines which are mostly patented yet Ghana has access to medicine problems despite the existence of a national health insurance system. Ghana has however not fully incorporated the TRIPS flexibilities in its national legislations and therefore unable to fully utilise the flexibilities as an option to access essential medicines. Questions therefore remain as to why and how Ghana can utilise the flexibilities to improve access to medicines. Based on an examination of the WTO’s patent system and legislations of Ghana, this mini- thesis contends that, the extent of incorporation of the flexibilities are inadequate due to the existence of lacunas in the Ghanaian legislations. Furthermore, a comparative assessment with South Africa supports an understanding that conditions are not ripe for full utilisation of all the flexibilities. It further argues that the utilisation of the TRIPS flexibilities by Ghana has been rendered ineffective due to administrative, political, economic and social challenges which adversely affects the full utilisation of the flexibilities incorporated and those yet to be incorporated. It is therefore important that Ghana adopts holistic approaches taking into consideration best practices if the TRIPS flexibilities must be effectively utilised. This mini-thesis concludes that, the TRIPS flexibilities are necessary for accessing essential medicines in Ghana to promote the right to health and that a review of Ghana’s current legislations to fully incorporate the TRIPS flexibilities and addressing other non-legal challenges are the required linchpin for effective utilisation of the TRIPS flexibilities.
6
Bidie, Simphiwe Sincere. "The obligation of non-discrimination under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and the agreement on Trade-related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS): a developmental perspective". Thesis, University of Fort Hare, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/10353/338.
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The non-discrimination obligation has existed since the twelfth century. It has been practiced since then, changing from a conditional to unconditional form with the passage of time. It became firmly applied unconditionally at the multilateral level in 1947 after the formation of the GATT trading system upon which several countries based their trading relations. In 1995 when the WTO was formed, the underlying principles of the GATT 1947 became part of the WTO trading system, including the non-discrimination obligation. When countries join the WTO they automatically become subject to the non-discrimination obligation. The ever increasing value of services and trade in the value of intellectual property has necessitated a look at the fundamental principles of world trade that countries have to adhere to in their trade relations. Incidentally, countries are not at the same level economically, hence one of the purposes of the WTO is to facilitate development in developing countries. Accordingly, this requires different application and/or interpretation of these fundamental principles in different situations, depending on the development level of each Member country. Amongst the five principles that underlie the international trading system, the non-discrimination principle is the focus of this study. The sustainability of the entire economic relations between WTO Member countries is dependent upon their fair compliance with this obligation. The obligation is found in Articles II and XVII of the GATS and Articles 3 and 4 of the TRIPS. The Membership of the WTO is made up of developed and developing countries. As a result of the fundamental nature of the obligation it is imperative that the scope and interpretation of this obligation, as developed by WTO adjudicating bodies, be analysed to determine if the obligation’s application and/or interpretation satisfies the above fundamental object and purpose of the multilateral system of trade. The intention here is at all times to show the importance that the non-discrimination obligation carries in international economic and legal interactions and how non-observance of this obligation would negatively affect relations between Member countries of the WTO.
7
Majok, Daniel Bol. "Access to essential medicines in East Africa: A review of East Africa community and its member states approach to WTO-TRIPS public health flexibilities". University of the Western Cape, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/11394/6202.
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When the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) was
annexed to the Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in 1994, it set
minimum standards for intellectual property (IP) protection, including protection of patent
rights, that must be observed and enforced by all WTO Member States. On the one hand,
stringent Intellectual Property protection as seen innovation in the field of science where
medical innovation hasled to the creation of live saving vaccines which have reduced
prevalence of diseases, ranging from polio to the human Papillomavirus, and invention of
antiretroviral medicines which have greatly improved the lives of people living with the
Huma Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). On the other hand, the fulfilment of the obligations
under TRIPS has generated a lot of controversy especially as they have been seen as the
cause of reduced access to essential medicines in developing countries.Magister Legum - LLM (Mercantile and Labour Law)
8
Ahamadu, Ibrahim. "Intellectual Property Rights : A Barricade to Technological Development. An Ethical Analysis on the Less Developed Countries". Thesis, Linköping University, Centre for Applied Ethics, 2003. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-1915.
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Debate over Intellectual Property Rights ‘IPRs’ particularly patent and copyrights is mainly on forward-looking industries in computer software. As part of a trade deal reached in 1994, the member nations of the World Trade Organisation must adhere to a global agreement known as TRIPS, for the Trade- Related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights.
This study is to analyse the ethical conception of Intellectual Property Rights and in particular its implications on the developing countries in relation to TRIPS. The approach will be to analyse a broad philosophical theories of property to see if there is any justification for a software program to be treated as private property and also argue base on John Rawls two principles of justice in relation to TRIPS Agreement. Some reflections will be put on the use of open-source software by less developing countries.
From the study it was asserted that, strong IPRs protection would hinder technological transfer and indigenous learning activities in the early stage of industrialisation when learning takes place through reverse engineering. And policy makers should consider differentiation in terms of the level of economic and industrial development, if protection and enforcement of IPRs is intended to enhance technological development.
9
Štrosová, Alžběta. "Práva k duševnímu vlastnictví v obchodních jednáních WTO". Master's thesis, Vysoká škola ekonomická v Praze, 2008. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-12294.
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The goal of this diploma thesis is to introduce the intellectual property rights protection in the member states of the World Trade Organization and the main agreement that regulates this area, i.e. Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual property Rights. The only discussed topic in the current round of negotiations are geographical indications and the creation of multilateral system for notifying and registering geographical indications for wines and spirits. Moreover, the thesis deals with the work of the TRIPS Council and several disputes related to TRIPS fulfillment.
10
Mugambe, Lydia. "The exceptions to patent rights under the WTO-TRIPS Agreement : where is the right to health guaranteed?" Diss., University of Pretoria, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/980.
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"The thesis of this study is that the flexibility within the exceptions to patent rights protecton under the TRIPS Agreement has not sufficiently been exploited at the national level. The study conceptualises the regimes for the protection of the right to health and IPRs not as mutually exclusive but as potentially reinforcing. The contention is therefore that the obligations in respect to the right to health limit the manner in which states can exercise the flexibilty within the patent regime of the TRIPS Agreement. Eventually the study seeks to answer the question: Where does the guarantee for the right to health lie in light of the TRIPS regime? ... The study is divided into three chapters preceded by an introduction. The introduction lays the background for te discussion. Chapter one deals with the definition of important concepts and provides the context in which the study is set. The chapter also discusses the background to the creation of the TRIPS Agreement, with an emphatic discussion on the involvement or lack thereof of Africn and other least developed and developing countries in this process. Chapter two discusses the patent rights exceptions clause under the TRIPS Agreement. Against this background, compuslory licensing, government use and parallel importing as means of making accessibility to drugs a reality under the TRIPS Agreement will be discussed. Chapter three identifies other means of making drugs more accessible and identifying places where they have worked well. In this chapter, generic substitution, establishemnt of a pricing committee, therapeutic value pricing, pooled procurement, negotiated procurement and planned donations will be discussed. Finally a conclusion will be drawn from the discussion and recommendations will be advanced." -- Chapter 1.Prepared under the supervision of Riekie Wandrag at the Community Law Centre, University of Western Cape, South Africa
Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2002.
http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html
Centre for Human Rights
LLM
11
Brennan, Jade. "Tripping over our own feet : a critical discussion of Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) with specific reference to their impact on South Africa's ability to combat HIV and AIDS". Thesis, Rhodes University, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1006316.
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This thesis aims to look at the agreement on Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) with specific reference to their impact on South Africa's ability to combat HIV and AIDS. It begins by looking at the history of patents and intellectual property rights and illustrates why and how the TRIPS Agreement came into existence. The TRIPS Agreement exemplifies the disparities between developed and developing countries and this can clearly be seen with regard to the provision of anti-HIV and AIDS drugs. The developing world deals with the bulk of the HIV and AIDS epidemic whilst the developed world holds most of the patents on the medication needed to treat those living with HIV and AIDS. This situation lends itself to a rift between patient rights on the one hand, and patent rights on the other. Traditionally the state has been the provider of rights such as health, but TRIPS alters this to include strong patent protection that is in line with neo liberal doctrine. The thesis examines these tensions with specific reference to South Africa's ability successfully to implement programmes to combat HIV and AIDS.
12
Joelle, Dountio Ofimboudem. "The protection of traditional knowledge: challenges and possibilities arising from the protection of biodiversity in South Africa". University of the Western Cape, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/11394/2887.
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Magister Legum - LLMTraditional Knowledge (TK) is the long standing wisdom, teachings and practices of indigenous communities which have been passed on orally, in the majority of cases, from generation to generation. TK is expressed in the form, medicine, agriculture, understanding of the ecology, music, dance, stories, folklore, poetry, spiritual, cultural and artistic expressions, and knowledge relating to bio-diversity. This thesis focuses on plant bio-diversity, as part of TK, and the problem of bio-piracy. We attempt a definition of TK; its characteristics; possible measures that can be taken to ensure its protection; and challenges that are likely to be faced in seeking to ensure its protection, first at the global level, then with particular attention to South Africa. Some of the suggested measures include the enactment of sui generis laws to protect plant biodiversity, rather that the adaptation of the existing IP regime. Some of the challenges include unwillingness of some countries to participate in international initiatives, like the US, which is not even a signatory of the CBD, and the difficulty of identifying the persons in whom ownership of the TK should be vested when it is possessed by many communities. This issue is a very sensitive one because there have been numerous cases of bio-piracy in developing countries perpetrated by corporations from industrialised countries. Some of the notable examples of bio-piracy include; The Neem tree from India whose products are used in medicine, toiletries and cosmetics; the Ayahuasca a vine used in India for religious and healing ceremonies; the Asian Turmeric plant used in cooking, cosmetics and medicine, the Hoodia Cactus plant in the Kalahari Desert of southern Africa used by the San people to stave off hunger. These instances have given rise to increased talks about the necessity of a law on the protection of TK relating to bio-diversity in general at the international, regional and national levels. The World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) is working on enacting measures to ensure the protection and conservation of TK at the international level; in 2002 it created nine fact finding commissions on TK in general. These fact finding missions on TK innovation and creativity were undertaken with the intention of seeking possibilities of protecting the intellectual property rights of TK holders. In 2002, The WIPO Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC) was created to continue with this task. The 1993 Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) encourages States to enact measures to implement its provisions on the protection of knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities. This trend in protection of TK relating to biological resources has been followed by the Nagoya Protocol of October 2010. The World Trade Organisation (WTO) also makes mention of protecting plant varieties. The research suggests that one could use both Intellectual Property Rights and Sui Generis measures to address and secure protection of TK, and provide compensation to holders for the use of the intellectual property.
South Africa
13
Musungu, Sisule Fredrick. "The right to health in the global economy : reading human rights obligations into the patent regime of the WTO-TRIPS Agreement". Diss., University of Pretoria, 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/931.
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"The implementation of the TRIPS Agreement, within the wider context of globalisation, has brought about a conflict between the obligation of states to promote and protect health and the achievement of economic goals pursued under the WTO regime. Since trade is the driving engine of globalisation, it is imperative that, at the very least, rules governing it do not violate human rights but rather promote them. The problem of IP and the right to health therefore lies in ensuring that the integration of economic rules and institutional operations in relation to IPRs coincide with states’ obligations to promote and protect public health. ...
This study centres on the specific debate about health and IPRs in the context of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and the WTO rules on IP protection. In terms of a human rights approach to the TRIPS Agreement, the ICESCR has been chosen for several reasons. First, the ICESCR specifically recognises both the right to health and the right to the protection of inventions in clearer terms than any other human rights instrument. Secondly, at least 111 of the state parties to the ICESCR are also members of the WTO including a large number of developing countries. Thirdly, if one sees the ICESCR as a vehicle for the fulfilment of the obligation to promote and protect human rights under the United Nations Organisation’s (UN) Charter, it can be argued that in line with article 103, the implementation and interpretation of TRIPS by all UN members states must take into account basic human rights. However, even with primary focus being on the ICESCR, most of the discussion on practical issues will focus on the experiences in Sub-Saharan Africa because the inequalities and problems of access to health care are most dramatically played out in this part of the world.
The objective of the study is to examine the relationship between the obligation of states to progressively realise and guarantee the right to health, and the IP rules under the TRIPS Agreement. The specific objective is to examine the relationship between the exceptions under the TRIPS Agreement and the obligation to protect health and the identification of a consistent way of achieving a convergence between the implementation and interpretation of the rules of the two regimes in the area of health." -- Chapter 1Mini Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2001.
http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html
Centre for Human Rights
LLM
14
Bester, Juan. "The political economy of the intellectual property rights regime : Aids and the generic medicine debate in South Africa". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/53144.
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Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002.ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis is a descriptive and interpretive study into the political economy of intellectual property rights, the conceptual and practical implications for the phenomenon of global governance, and how developing countries experience problems with the implementation of national policies that infringe on international intellectual property rights. The specific area of interest is the generic medicine debate that ensued in South Africa after the alleged violation of patent rights of anti-HIV/Aids drugs by the Department of Health. The research question that is addressed is to what extent has the existing international intellectual property rights regime been influenced and/or undermined by South Africa's intended application of WTO regulations in terms of compulsory licensing and parallel imports of "essential" medicines. In doing so, the paper examines the roles of the important states, international organisations, institutions, and private sector firms within the sphere ofthe political economy of intellectual property and how they impede upon or improve the functioning of the intellectual property rights regime. The methodology entails analytical inquiries into documentary evidence on the nature of the international intellectual property rights regime. Areas that are examined are the agendas of the important actors, namely states and their respective departments; individuals and firms; and international organisations. The concept of intellectual property is examined to determine its dynamic role within the generic medicine debate. The thesis concludes that the agendas of pharmaceutical firms and states are exploiting current political stalemates in the negotiations for a fair intellectual property rights regime. National health agencies, and specifically the South African Department of Health, are under enormous pressure to provide affordable health services. Specifically, the US Government and US pharmaceutical firms are dominating discussions on the architecture of the international intellectual property law regime. By using an analysis incorporating systemic, domestic interest, institutional, and ideational perspectives, it is argued that South Africa's drive for a more distributive intellectual property rights regime has placed the issue of health, Aids and generic medicine firmly within the sphere of the political economy of trade agreements.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis is 'n deskriptiewe en 'n interpretiewe studie oor die politieke ekonomie van intellektuele eiendomsregte, die konseptuele en praktiese implikasies vir die verskynsel van globale regering, en hoe ontwikkelende lande probleme ervaar met die implimentering van nasionale beleid wat internasionale intellektuele eiendomsregte aantas. Die spesifieke area van belang is die generiese medisyne debat wat onstaan het na die beweerde skending van patentregte van anti-HIVNigs medisyne deur die Departement van Gesondheid. Die navorsingsvraag wat beantwoord word behels die omvang van die impak van Suid- Afrika se voorgenome toepassing van WTO bepalinge, met betrekking tot die verpligte lisensiering en parallelle invoer van "essensiele" medisyne, op die bestaande internasionale intellektuele eiedomsreg regime. Hierdie tesis ondersoek vervolgens die rol van state, internasionale organisasies, instellings, en privaat sector firmas binne die sfeer van die politieke ekonomie van intellektuele eiendom en hoe hulle afsonderlik die funksionaliteit van die intellektuele eiendomsregte regime beïnvloed. Die metodologie behels 'n analitiese ondersoek van die literatuur oor die aard van internasionale intellektuele eiendomsreg regimes. Areas wat ondersoek word, is die agendas van belangrike akteurs, naamlik die staat en sy onderskeie departemente; individue en firmas; asook internasionale organisasies en instellings. Die konsep van intellektuele eiendom word ondersoek om die dinamiese uitwerking daarvan op die generiese medisyne debat te verstaan. Hierdie tesis voer aan dat die agendas van firmas, spesifiek farmaseutiese firmas en state die huidige politieke dooiepunt in die onderhandeling rondom 'n regverdige intellektuele iendomsregte-regime, uitbuit. Nasionale instellings, soos die Suid-Afrikaanse Departement van Gesondheid, is onder groot druk om bekostigbare gesondheidsdienste te lewer. Die VSA en farmaseutiese firmas domineer onderhandelinge vir 'n nuwe struktuur vir die internasionale eiendomsregte-regime. Deur gebruik te maak van 'n analitiese raamwerk wat sistemiese, interne belange, institusionele, en ideologies perspektiewe inkorporeer, word daar geargumenteer dat Suid-Afrika se pogings om 'n meer distributiewe intellektuele eiendomsregte regime te verseker, die probleem van gesondheid, Vigs, en generiese medisyne binnne die sfeer van die politieke ekonomie van handelsooreenkomste, plaas.
15
Dutra, Paula Hebling. "Institution Interaction and Regime Purpose - Considerations Based on TRIPS/CBD". Ohio University / OhioLINK, 2007. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ohiou1180729582.
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Sacco, Solomon Frank. "A comparative study of the implementation in Zimbabwe and South Africa of the international law rules that allow compulsory licensing and parallel importation for HIV/AIDS drugs". Diss., University of Pretoria, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/1100.
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"Zimbabwe and South Africa are facing an HIV/AIDS epidemic of such proportions that the populations of these countries will markedly decline in the next ten years despite the existence of effective drugs to treat the symptoms of AIDS and dramatically lower the communicability of the virus. These drugs are under patent protection by companies in the developed world and the patents raise the prices above the level of affordability for HIV infected persons in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe has declared a national emergency on HIV/AIDS, apparently in conformance with TRIPS and has issued compulsory licenses to a local company that has started to manufacture and sell cheap anti-retroviral drugs. South Africa has not declared a national emergency and has not invoked the TRIPS flexibilities or utilized flexibilities inherent in its own legislation. However, while thousands of people die every week in the two countries, neither government has yet provided an effective HIV/AIDS policy. Extensive litigation and public pressure in South Africa has led the government to announce a policy of supplying free HIV drugs in public hospitals while the Zimbabwean government has announced the provision of the same drugs, also in public hospitals, apparently utilising the state of emergency. The TRIPS agreement under which the two governments undertook to protect international patents allows compulsory licensing under certain circumstances (not limited to a national emergency) and the Doha Declaration on TRIPS and Public Health, and subsequent agreements by the Ministerial Council of the WTO allow the manufacture and, in limited circumstances, the parallel importation of generic drugs. These provisions provide a theoretical mechanism for poor countries to ensure their citizens' rights of access to health (care). The research is aimed at identifying the extent of the effectiveness of the legal norms created by Articles 20 and 31 of TRIPS, the Doha Declaration and subsequent Council of Ministers' decisions, which together ostensibly provide a framework to allow provision of generic drugs. It is further aimed at investigating how the state of emergency in Zimbabwe has been utilised to provide cheap generic drugs to Zimbabweans and whether this would be an option for South Africa. A comparison of the legal provisions governing the provision of drugs in the two countries will also be undertaken to examine the extent to which international and national constitutional and legal provisions may be utilised to give effect to the right to health." -- Introduction.Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2004.
Prepared under the supervision of Dr. Enid Hill at the American University in Cairo.
http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html
Centre for Human Rights
LLM
17
Penwarden, Mia. "Suur druiwe? Wyn, die TDCA en Suid-Afrika". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/53076.
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Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002.ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In October 1999 South Africa and the European Union (EU) signed a free trade agreement, the Trade Development and Co-operation Agreement (TDCA), which came into effect on 1 January 2000. The TDCA was developed to enhance bilateral trade, economic-, political- and social cooperation and consists of three components - the creation of a Free Trade Area between South-Africa and the EU, EU financial aid to South Africa through the European Programme for Reconstruction and Development (EPRD), and project aid. However, the EU, in an effort to secure the best possible deal for itself, often behave in its own interests (through the manipulation of the Wine and Spirits Agreement) during the negotiations for the TDCA. The goal of this study was to establish what exactly trademarks are, and what implications the EU's protection of intellectual property rights on wine and spirits trademarks will have on i) the South African wine industry, ii) whether South Africa could have exercised another option, iii) whether this action has created a precedent with which the EU can, in future, again force South Africa or any of its other developing trade partners to make concessions, and iv) who gains the most from the TDCA. The concludes that the EU, through the manipulation of the Wine and Spirits Agreement, left South Africa with no choice by to concede the use of the contested trademarks - something that has already taken its toll on the South African wine industry - in order to save the TDCA. This action created a precedent that the EU will, in future, again be in a position to threaten developing countries with the termination of an agreement should they fail to comply with its demands. Finally, the conclusion is made that even though the TDCA was created to assist South Africa with its reintegration into the world market, it will ultimately be the EU that benefits most from the agreement.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika en die Europese Unie (EU) het in Oktober 1999 In vryehandelsooreenkoms, die Trade Development and Co-operation Agreement (TDCA) onderteken, wat op 1 Januarie 2000 in werking getree het. Die TDCA is ontwerp om bilaterale handel-, ekonomiese-, politieke- en sosiale samewerking te bevorder en bestaan uit drie komponente, naamlik die skep van 'n vryehandelgebied tussen die EU en Suid-Afrika; finansiele steun deur die EU aan Suid-Afrika onder die European Programme for Reconstruction and Development (EPRD) en projekhulp. Die EU het egter dikwels in eiebelang opgetree (deur middel van die manipulasie van die Wyn- en Spiritus Ooreenkoms) tydens die onderhandelingsproses in 'n poging om die beste moontlike ooreenkoms vir homself te beding. Die doel van hierdie studie was om te bepaal wat presies handelsmerke is, en watter implikasies die EU se beskerming van intellektuele eiendomsregte aangaande wyn- en spiritushandelsmerke op i) die Suid-Afrikaanse wynbedryf sal he, ii) of Suid-Afrika 'n ander opsie kon uitoefen, iii) of hierdie aksie In presedent geskep het waarmee die EU Suid-Afrika of enige van sy ander ontwikkelende handelsvennote in die toekoms weer sal kan dwing om toegewings te maak, en iv) wie die meeste baat vind by die TDCA. Die studie het tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat die EU deur die manipulasie van die Wyn- en Spiritus Ooreenkoms aan Suid-Afrika geen keuse gegee het nie as om die gebruik van die betwiste handelsmerke op te se - iets wat reeds die Suid-Afrikaanse wynbedryf geknou het - in 'n poging om die TDCA te behou. Hierdie optrede skep 'n presedent dat die EU voortaan in onderhandelings met ander ontwikkelende state weer kan dreig om die hele ooreenkoms te verongeluk indien daar nie aan sy eise voldoen word nie. In die laaste instansie is daar tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat, alhoewel die TDCA daarop gemik was om Suid-Afrika te help met sy herintegrasie tot die wereldmark, dit uiteindelik die EU is wat die meeste daarby gaan baat.
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Oliveira, Alyne Viana de. "Grupos de interesse na formulação da política externa norte-americana : o lobby da indústria farmacêutica /". Marília, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/152978.
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Orientador: Carlos Gustavo Poggio TeixeiraResumo: A presente pesquisa tem como objetivo analisar a participação de grupos de interesse na definição da política externa norte-americana ao defenderem seus interesses econômicos. Com base no modelo do jogo de dois níveis proposto por Robert Putnam, considera-se o impacto dos atores domésticos no processo de tomada de decisão na política externa comercial dos Estados Unidos. Sob tal perspectiva, analisaremos como lobby da indústria farmacêutica norte-americana se organizou e quais estratégias foram adotadas por eles para fazer valer os seus interesses e influenciar a formulação da política externa do país, utilizando seus recursos financeiros e influência política junto a instituições governamentais responsáveis pela definição da política comercial para pressionar o governo norte-americano em suas negociações internacionais por regulamentações que beneficiassem o setor. Assim, o estudo de caso das negociações do acordo TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) no âmbito do GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) demonstra como a estratégia do lobby farmacêutico se revelou eficiente.
Abstract: The present work aims to analyze the participation of interest groups in the definition of the American foreign policy when defending their interests. Based on the two-level model proposed by Robert Putnam, it considers the impact of domestic actors in the decision-making process of the US foreign trade policy. From this perspective, we analyze how the pharmaceutical industry lobby is organized and its strategies to assert their interests and influence the formulation of the country's foreign policy, by using its financial resources and channels of influence with governamental institutions responsible for the definition of trade policy to pressure the US government in its international negotiations for regulations that would benefit the sector. Thus, the case study of the TRIPS Agreement (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) negotiations under GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) demonstrates how the pharmaceutical lobby strategy proved to be efficient.
Mestre
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Mason, Nicholas Craig. "Forging a New Global Commons Introducing common property into the global genetic resource debate". Thesis, University of Canterbury. School of Political Science and Communication, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/10092/904.
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This thesis provides an analysis of recent attempts to regulate the governance of genetic resources through the initiation of new global commons regimes. These attempts have arisen out of a combination of the growing recognition of genetic resources' value and global nature; a new resurgence in support for the common property paradigm; and, during a period in which the world is becoming increasingly globalised, with many governance competencies moving to the supranational level. They can be viewed as part of a broader effort to proffer the common property approach as a legitimate alternative in the property regime debate: a debate that has increasingly become trapped in the public-private dichotomy at the dawn of the twenty-first century. The aim of this thesis is to investigate the success of these attempts, and offer suggestions about how future attempts might be more successful. While there are a multitude of books, articles, opinion pieces and media reports produced that concern themselves with property theory, intellectual property theory, the efficacy or morality of applying property regimes to living materials, and the threats and promises of globalisation, all of which influence the notion of a potential global genetic commons, relatively little has been written directly on the idea of applying global common property regimes to genetic resource governance issues. The first part of this thesis constructs a theory of a global genetic commons, drawing inspiration from a variety of sources, while the second part tests this theory in order to analyse the outcomes of the recent attempts, and suggest directions for future research. The thesis finds that the conception of a global genetic commons is indeed a valid one, and that while not all attempts so far have been successful, the common property paradigm does offer valuable insights for the future governance of genetic resources at the global level.
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Oliveira, Alyne Viana de [UNESP]. "Grupos de interesse na formulação da política externa norte-americana: o lobby da indústria farmacêutica". Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/152978.
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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)
A presente pesquisa tem como objetivo analisar a participação de grupos de interesse na definição da política externa norte-americana ao defenderem seus interesses econômicos. Com base no modelo do jogo de dois níveis proposto por Robert Putnam, considera-se o impacto dos atores domésticos no processo de tomada de decisão na política externa comercial dos Estados Unidos. Sob tal perspectiva, analisaremos como lobby da indústria farmacêutica norte-americana se organizou e quais estratégias foram adotadas por eles para fazer valer os seus interesses e influenciar a formulação da política externa do país, utilizando seus recursos financeiros e influência política junto a instituições governamentais responsáveis pela definição da política comercial para pressionar o governo norte-americano em suas negociações internacionais por regulamentações que beneficiassem o setor. Assim, o estudo de caso das negociações do acordo TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) no âmbito do GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) demonstra como a estratégia do lobby farmacêutico se revelou eficiente.
The present work aims to analyze the participation of interest groups in the definition of the American foreign policy when defending their interests. Based on the two-level model proposed by Robert Putnam, it considers the impact of domestic actors in the decision-making process of the US foreign trade policy. From this perspective, we analyze how the pharmaceutical industry lobby is organized and its strategies to assert their interests and influence the formulation of the country's foreign policy, by using its financial resources and channels of influence with governamental institutions responsible for the definition of trade policy to pressure the US government in its international negotiations for regulations that would benefit the sector. Thus, the case study of the TRIPS Agreement (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) negotiations under GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) demonstrates how the pharmaceutical lobby strategy proved to be efficient.
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Bagal, Monique. "La protection des indications géographiques dans un contexte global : essai sur un droit fondamental". Thesis, Lyon, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016LYSE3077.
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Les négociations internationales concernant la protection des indications géographiques connaissent, depuis près de deux décennies, un blocage au sein de l’Organisation Mondiale du Commerce opposant des pays défenseurs des indications géographiques, à des pays plus sceptiques. Résultant d’un compromis entre l’approche des pays de l’Union Européenne et celle des Etats-Unis, les standards minimum de protection des indications géographiques de l’ADPIC ont mis en lumière la diversité des approches juridiques en la matière et fait émerger un débat quasi-passionnel sur les moyens appropriés que l’Etat doit mettre en œuvre pour protéger les noms géographiques. L’histoire renseigne sur le fait que le plaidoyer pour ou le réquisitoire contre l’un ou l’autre camp ont toujours tourné autour des philosophies de la protection des indications géographiques : d’une part, les pays défenseurs des indications géographiques prônent à travers leur mise en œuvre, la protection d’industries plus vulnérables à la concurrence ; d’autre part, les pays sceptiques privilégient le plus possible, la liberté du commerce et de l’industrie et par ricochet, la libre exploitation des signes. Pour ces derniers, seule la reconnaissance par le consommateur d’une association qualité-origine du produit justifie une réservation du nom. Le régime multilatéral des IG issu de l’Accord sur les aspects de la propriété intellectuelle qui touchent au commerce résulte donc d’un compromis entre ces deux philosophies de la protection. D’aucuns ont souligné le caractère insatisfaisant d’un tel compromis qui ne rend pas nécessairement compte de la nature réelle de ces signes géographiques. Ce travail tente de le transcender. Il est fondé sur le pari que, dans une perspective juridique, tout n’a peut-être pas été essayé. Dans un effort pour trouver un dénominateur commun et pour proposer une solution à l’impasse actuelle, cette recherche repose sur le rapprochement du régime de protection des indications géographiques, au régime de protection des droits de l’Homme. Non pas dans une perspective moralisatrice mais bien dans un effort pour déduire des solutions concrètes quant à la portée de la protection internationale des IG et du rôle des Etats dans la mise en œuvre de ces outils de propriété intellectuelle. L’article 15.1 c) du Pacte sur les droits économiques, sociaux et culturels prévoit : « Chacun a droit à la protection de ses intérêts moraux et matériels découlant de toute production scientifique, littéraire ou artistique dont il est l’auteur ». L’activation de cet article pourrait permettre de voir en les détenteurs d’IG non pas seulement les sujets bénéficiaires de la protection mais les sujets destinataires de politiques publiques. Il y aurait un donc un « droit de » bénéficier d’une certaine protection des IG et un « droit à » certaines prestations publiques. Au-delà de ce cadre en apparence rigide, le recours au droit international des droits de l’Homme rend la recherche d’un équilibre entre les droits de détenteurs IG et les droits du public plus intégratrice d’enjeux multiples et indispensable à la légitimité du régime multilatéral de protection des IGSince two decades, the international protection of geographical indications is characterized by a “blockage” in the negotiations at the World Trade Organization opposing the countries favorable to the protection of geographical indications to countries more skeptical in this regard. Deriving from a compromise between the European conception of the protection of GIs and the American one, the minimum standards of TRIPS have revealed the different legal options in this field and have resulted in a passionate debate over the appropriate role of the State. History shows that the advocacy for, or indictment against one or the other way of protecting GIs focuses essentially on the philosophy of protection in one or the other territories. As a reminder, the European Union “culture” is to protect industries far too exposed to competition while the American “culture” is to preserve economic freedom of operators and to grant monopoly on a geographical name only where such name has been tested on the market and is recognized by the “public” as having a geographical anchorage. Equally compelling, neither of these philosophies has allowed reaching the most acceptable balance for GI regime. This work seeks to transcend them. It bets that everything has not been tried yet, at least from a legal perspective. In order to find a common solution and a way forward to multilateral protection of geographical indications, the paper relies on the culture of “human rights”, not really with a view to “moralize” the field of study but more to deduct practical answers deriving from the international human rights law. As a matter of fact, article 15.1 c) of the Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights provides that “The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone […] to benefit from the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author”. The activation of this article could allow approaching geographical indications operators, not only as beneficiaries of certain rights but also as beneficiaries of public policies. By virtue of article 15.1 c), there shall be a right to benefit from the GI protection (“right-liberty”) but also, a right to claim certain public policies (“right-debt”) in this regard. Beyond this seemingly strict framework for GIs, the reference to international human rights law proves to beneficial to the necessary balance between the rights of GI operators and the rights of the public. Incidentally, this balance is inclusive of multiple issues which is essential to the legitimacy of the multilateral regime of protection of GIs
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CERQUEIRA, Wanilza Marques de Almeida. "Patentes farmacêuticas no período pós-trips: uma análise do Tratado Transpacífico no contexto da mudança na governança em relação ao comércio internacional e da implementação da Agenda 2030 para o desenvolvimento sustentável". Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, 2017. https://repositorio.ufpe.br/handle/123456789/25397.
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A tese tem como objetivo estudar os efeitos dos mega-acordos comerciais, especificamente do Tratado Transpacífico (TPP) em relação às patentes farmacêuticas e, consequentemente, no acesso a medicamentos. O estudo foi realizado através de pesquisa bibliográfica e legislativa e culmina com a comparação entre TPP e TRIPS. O estudo será focado no período pós-TRIPS, no qual a governança do comércio internacional passa por grandes transformações e a regulamentação da propriedade intelectual fora do âmbito da OMC cresce, cada vez mais, com a formulação de regras consideradas TRIPS-plus e TRIPS-extra. Esta realidade do período pós-TRIPS pode afetar a função social da propriedade intelectual e torná-la um óbice para o desenvolvimento econômico. A implementação da agenda 2030 para o desenvolvimento sustentável exige solidariedade global através da cooperação internacional, envolve o debate multilateral do comércio internacional centrado na OMC e a facilitação da transferência de tecnologia. O debate multilateral e mais democrático sobre temas atinentes ao comércio internacional, propiciado pela OMC, está ameaçado.
The thesis aims to study the effects of trade mega-agreements, specifically the Transpacific Treaty (TPP) on pharmaceutical patents and, consequently, on access to medicines. The study was carried out through bibliographical and legislative research and culminates in the comparison between TPP and TRIPS. The study will focus on the post-TRIPS period in which international trade governance undergoes major transformations and the regulation of intellectual property outside the WTO is increasingly being developed by the formulation of TRIPS-plus and TRIPS- extra. This reality of the post-TRIPS period can affect the social function of intellectual property and make it an obstacle to economic development. Implementing the 2030 agenda for sustainable development requires global solidarity through international cooperation, involves the multilateral debate on international trade centered on the WTO and facilitating technology transfer. The multilateral and more democratic debate on issues related to international trade, provided by the WTO, is threatened.
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季播. "論TRIPS協定中的地理標志保護制度 : 兼述對我國的影響及應有的對策 = On Geographical Indications Protection System in TRIPS Agreement : with concurrent discussion its impact on China and our proper countermeasures". Thesis, University of Macau, 2009. http://umaclib3.umac.mo/record=b2119989.
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Volz, Eckehard. "The trade, development and cooperation agreement between the Republic of South Africa and the European Union : an analysis with special regard to the negotiating process, the contents of the agreement, the applicability of WTO law and the Port and Sherry Agreement". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/52582.
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Thesis (LLM)--University of Stellenbosch, 1999.ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis deals with the Trade, Development and Cooperation Agreement (TDCA) between the European Union and the Republic of South Africa, which was concluded in October 1999. In particular, the agreement is analysed in the light of the negotiating process between the parties, the contents of the agreement, the applicability of WTO law and the compatibility of the agreement with it and the Port and Sherry Agreement. Since the EU emphasised its aim to commence economic and development cooperation with other African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries on a reciprocal basis during the negotiations for a successor of the Lomé Convention, the TDCA between the EU and South Africa had to be seen as a "pilot project" for future cooperation agreements between countries at different levels of development. The TDCA between the EU and South Africa is therefore not only very important for the two concerned parties, but could serve as an example for further negotiations between the EU and other ACP countries. Thus the purpose of this thesis is to examine the TDCA between the EU and South Africa from a wider global perspective. The thesis is divided into six Chapters: The first Chapter provides an introduction to the circumstances under which the negotiations between the EU and South Africa commenced. It deals briefly with the economic situation in South Africa during the apartheid era and presents reasons why the parties wanted to enter into bilateral negotiations. The introductory part furthermore presents an overview of the contents of the thesis. The second chapter contains a detailed description of the negotiating process that took place between the parties and shows why it took 43 months and 21 rounds of negotiations to reach a deal. South Africa's partial accession to the Lomé Convention and the conclusion of separate agreements such as the Wine and Spirits Agreement, are also analysed. Chapter three presents the various components of the TOCA and illustrates what the negotiators achieved. This chapter on the TOCA concludes with an evaluation of the Agreement and shows the potential benefits to South Africa and the EU. Since the Agreement had to satisfy international rules, the provisions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and TradelWorld Trade Organisation (GATTIWTO) were of major importance. The EC Treaty, however, does not contain any provision that indicates whether, or how, an international agreement like the GATTIWTO penetrates the Community legal order. In Chapter four, accordingly, questions are raised regarding the extent to which the bilateral agreement between South Africa and the EU was influenced by the GATTIWTO provisions and how these rules were incorporated into the agreement. Furthermore, since the parties agreed on the establishment of a free trade area, this chapter deals with the question of in how far the TOCA is in line with Article XXIV GATT. In addition to the GATT provisions, the TOCA is also affected by the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs). Therefore Chapter five deals with TRIPs in connection with the TOCA. The use of the terms "Port" and "Sherry" as the major stumbling block to the conclusion of the TOCA is analysed more closely. The final part, namely Chapter six, provides a summary of the results of the investigation. Furthermore, a conclusion is provided with regard to the question of whether the TOeA can be seen as an example for further trade relations between the EU and other ACP countries.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis is gerig op die Handels-, Ontwikkelings- en Samewerkingsooreenkoms (TDGA) tussen die Europese Unie (EU) en die Republiek van Suid Afrika wat in Oktober 1999 gesluit is. Die ooreenkoms word veral in die lig van die onderhandelingsproses tussen die partye, die inhoud van die ooreenkoms, die toepaslikheid van Wêreldhandelsorganisasiereg en die versoenbaarheid daarvan met die ooreenkoms en die Port en Sjerrie-ooreenkoms ontleed. Aangesien die EU sy oogmerk van wederkerige ekonomiese en ontwikkelings-gerigte samewerking met ander lande in Afrika en die Karibiese en Stille Oseaan-Eilande gedurende die onderhandelings vir 'n opvolger van die Lomé Konvensie beklemtoon het, moes die ooreenkoms tussen die EU en Suid-Afrika as 'n "loodsprojek" vir toekomstige samewerkingsooreenkomste tussen lande wat op verskillende vlakke van onwikkeling is, gesien word. Die Handels-, Ontwikkelings- en Samewerkingsooreenkoms tussen die EU en Suid-Afrika is dus nie net baie belangrik vir die betrokke partye nie, maar dit kan ook as 'n voorbeeld vir verdere onderhandelings tussen die EU en lande van Afrika en die Karibiese- en Stille Oseaan-Eilande dien. Die doel van dié tesis is om die Handels-, Ontwikkelings- en Samewekingsooreenkoms tussen die EU en Suid-Afrika vanuit 'n meer globale perspektief te beskou. Die tesis is in ses Hoofstukke ingedeel: Die eerste hoofstuk bied 'n inleiding tot die omstandighede waaronder die onderhandelings tussen die EU en Suid-Afrika begin het. Dit behandel die Suid- Afrikaanse ekonomiese situasie onder apartheid kortliks en toon hoekom die partye tweesydige onderhandelings wou aanknoop. Verder bied die inleidende deel 'n oorsig oor die inhoud van die tesis. Die tweede hoofstuk bevat 'n gedetailleerde beskrywing van die onderhandelingsproses wat tussen die partye plaasgevind het en toon aan waarom dit drie-en-veertig maande geduur het en een-en-twintig onderhandelingsrondtes gekos het om die saak te beklink. Suid-Afrika se gedeeltelike toetrede tot die Lomé Konvensie en die sluit van aparte ooreenkomste soos die Port- en Sjerrieooreenkoms word ook ontleed. Die daaropvolgende hoofstuk bespreek die verskillende komponente van die Handels-, Ontwikkelings- en Samewerkingsooreenkoms en toon wat die onderhandelaars bereik het. Hierdie hoofstuk oor die Ooreenkoms sluit af met 'n evaluering daarvan en dui die potensiële voordele van die Ooreenkoms vir Suid- Afrika en die EU aan. Aangesien die Ooreenkoms internasionale reëls moes tevrede stel, was die voorskrifte van die Algemene Ooreenkoms oor Tariewe en Handel (GATT) van uiterste belang. Die EG-verdrag bevat egter geen voorskrif wat aandui óf, of hoé, 'n internasionale ooreenkoms soos GATTNVTO die regsorde van die Europese Gemeenskap binnedring nie. Die vraag oor in hoeverre die tweesydige ooreenkoms tussen Suid-Afrika en die EU deur die GATTIWTO voorskrifte beïnvloed is, en oor hoe hierdie reëls in die ooreenkoms opgeneem is, word dus in Hoofstuk vier aangeraak. Aangesien die partye ooreengekom het om 'n vrye handeisarea tot stand te bring, behandel hierdie hoofstuk ook die vraag oor in hoeverre die TOGA met Artikel XXIV GATT strook. Tesame met die GATT-voorskrifte word die TOGA ook deur die Ooreenkoms ten opsigte van Handelsverwante Aspekte van Intellektuele Eiendomsreg (TRIPs) geraak. Hoofstuk vyf behandel daarom hierdie aspek ten opsigte van die TOGA. Die gebruik van die terme "Port" en "Sjerrie" as die vernaamste struikelblok tot die sluiting van die TOG-ooreenkoms word ook deegliker ontleed. Die laaste gedeelte, naamlik Hoofstuk ses, bied 'n opsomming van die resultate van die ondersoek. Verder word 'n gevolgtrekking voorsien ten opsigte van vraag of die TOGA as 'n voorbeeld vir verdere handelsverwantskappe tussen die EU en ander lande in Afrika en die Karibiese en Stille Oseaan-eilande beskou kan word.
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Naim, Nadia. "An examination of the intellectual property regimes in the Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC) states and a series of recommendations to develop an integrated approach to intellectual property rights". Thesis, University of Bradford, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10454/17386.
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This thesis aims to examine the intellectual property regimes in the Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC) states and assess the relationships between legislation, enforcement mechanisms and sharia law. The GCC states, currently Bahrain, Oman, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, UAE and Qatar, all have varied mechanisms in place for both the implementation and enforcement of intellectual property rights. The thesis pays close attention to the evolution of intellectual property laws and regulations in the GCC states with particular interest directed towards the development of national intellectual property laws within the GCC states from the 1970’s onwards1.
Intellectual property protection in the GCC states is considered from two perspectives. The first perspective addresses the international demand for higher standards of intellectual property protection in the GCC states. The second perspective defines intellectual property within the laws of Islam and explores the relationship between Islam and intellectual property. The latter part analyses religious influence, societal and cultural norms, economic reality and the developmental stage of each GCC state. It is an important area of study as developing Muslim countries are struggling with meeting international standards and a successful integrated framework will impact not only on GCC states but other Islamic states and as a result could potentially lead to more informed negotiation in trade agreements with developed states. The research argues there are systematic flaws in the GCC states adopting intellectual property laws which are in essence a procrustean modification of foreign laws which have developed from colonial occupation or laws taken from donor countries. The GCC legal systems of the states have evolved utilising different sets of legal principles and therefore it could be argued the foreign laws that have been adopted are somewhat unsuitable for the GCC states.
The research has focused on the implications of the national and international legislative regimes on the protection of intellectual property rights on the GCC states. Consideration is given to compliance, mainly how compliant the GCC is to its World Trade Organisation (WTO) membership and Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIP’s) Agreement and to what extent the European Union (EU) and the United States (US) influence the intellectual property protection regimes in the GCC. The research has examined the development of the GCC in three distinct stages; pre-TRIPS, TRIPS compliance stage and TRIPS plus.
Furthermore, the thesis argues that the somewhat simplistic formula of the GCC states passing a large number of intellectual property laws to appease the EU and US does not have the significant economic impact on the GCC economy as the international agreements would suggest. Not all trade is intellectual property related and not all foreign direct investment is contingent upon intellectual property protection. However, as the GCC states are largely oil dependent, they do need to diversify their trade and as such an intellectual property protection model that accounts for international intellectual property law and the bespoke cultural and religious views amongst GCC citizens can produce tangible results for both the GCC and its trading partners. What sets the research apart from previous research is two-fold. Firstly, the research is qualitative and has scratched beneath the surface of intellectual property law in the GCC and examined in detail the Islamic law principles that have been used to justify sharia compliance, the western perspective on international intellectual property and the impact of multilateral trade agreements. Secondly, the analysis of Islamic finance and the application of successful sharia compliant models in Islamic finance to intellectual property is innovative as it acts as a springboard to creating a modified sharia compliant intellectual property protection model. Finally, the thesis will conclude by making a series of recommendations to develop an integrated approach to intellectual property rights which takes into account; the structure of the GCC states, international agreements and pressures, the international institutions, Islamic finance and both societal and religious views.
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Ruzek, Vincent. "Communautarisation et mondialisation du droit de la propriété intellectuelle". Thesis, Rennes 1, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014REN1G009.
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L’internationalisation du droit de la propriété intellectuelle, initiée à la fin du XIXe siècle, a pris depuis la fin du XXe siècle une toute nouvelle tournure avec son inclusion dans le champ des disciplines commerciales multilatérales. La signature de l’accord ADPIC marque en effet l’émergence d’une véritable gouvernance mondiale de la propriété intellectuelle : l’ambition affichée par l’OMC est d’encadrer, substantiellement parlant, la marge de manœuvre des membres dans la mise en place de leurs politiques de protection. Bien qu’initié plus tardivement, la communautarisation du droit de la propriété intellectuelle revêt désormais une portée considérable : outre une conciliation effective des régimes nationaux de protection avec les principes cardinaux du traité, d’importantes directives d’harmonisation ont été édictées, et des titres européens de protection ont même été créés dans certains secteurs. Notre étude a pour vocation de montrer comment la communautarisation, au-delà de son rôle traditionnel de source du droit, officie comme un indispensable vecteur de structuration de la position européenne vis-à-vis de la mondialisation du droit de la propriété intellectuelle. Dans son versant ascendant tout d’abord – du local au global –, le vecteur communautarisation joue un rôle de mutualisation des objectifs à promouvoir sur la scène internationale. L’enjeu n’est autre que celui de façonner une gouvernance mondiale de la propriété intellectuelle qui corresponde au système d’intérêts et de valeurs de l’Union, conformément aux objectifs ambitieux assignés par le Traité. Ce processus de mutualisation n’a toutefois rien d’automatique : d’importantes contraintes institutionnelles – malgré plusieurs révisions du Traité et la progression graduelle de l’harmonisation en interne – contrarient l’émergence d’une véritable politique européenne extérieure intégrée. Mais c’est précisément à l’aune de ces contraintes qu’il convient d’apprécier la portée des accomplissements de l’UE, qui a su s’imposer comme un acteur central de la gouvernance mondiale du droit de la propriété intellectuelle. Dans son versant descendant ensuite – du global au local –, le vecteur communautarisation s’accompagne d’une montée en puissance du juge de Luxembourg dans l’arbitrage des situations d’interactions normatives fréquentes et complexes entre le droit de l’Union et le droit international de la propriété intellectuelle. L’étude systématique de la résolution par la Cour de ces interactions normatives montre combien celle-ci s’attache à préserver l’autonomie de l’ordre juridique de l’Union, en ménageant une marge d’appréciation significative dans la mise en œuvre des obligations découlant de la mondialisation du droit de la propriété intellectuelle. Cette marge d’appréciation est mise à profit pour assurer la défense d’un modèle européen original en construction, tirant parti des flexibilités du cadre normatif mondialThe internationalization of IP Law, initiated at the end of the 19th century, has taken since the end of the 20th century a brand new twist with its inclusion in the field of multilateral trade disciplines. The signing of the TRIPS agreement marks the emergence of a global IP governance. Indeed, the ambition displayed by the WTO is to supervise the margin of maneuver of its Members in implementing their policies. Although Communitization of IP law started much later, it now has a considerable scope: national protection regimes have been conciliated with the cardinal principles of the Treaty, some important harmonization directives have been enacted, and various European titles of protection have even been created. Our study is designed to show how Communitization, beyond its traditional role of source of law, officiates as a necessary and efficient vector for structuring the European position towards the Globalization of IP Law. In its ascendant side first -- from Local to Global, the Communitization vector plays a role of merging the objectives to be promoted on the international scene. The issue at stake is to shape an IP global framework that corresponds to the system of interests and values of the EU, in accordance with the far-reaching objectives assigned by the Treaty. This merging process is, however, not automatic. In spite of several amendments to the Treaty and of the progress of internal harmonization, various institutional constraints thwart the emergence of a fully integrated external European policy in the field of IP. But it is precisely in light of these constraints that the scope of the achievements of the EU, which in now recognized as a central actor in the global IP governance, must be appreciated. In its down side then -- from Global to Local, the Communitization vector is accompanied by a rise of the European Court of Justice in arbitrating complex normative interactions between national, EU and International IP Laws. A systematic analysis of the resolution by the ECJ of these normative interactions reveals its determination to safeguard the autonomy of the EU legal order, by arranging for significant discretion in implementing international commitments. This margin of appreciation is used to defend an original European model under construction, taking advantage of the flexibilities of the global normative framework
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Nasir, Saeed. "The evolution of global intellectual property instruments into trade related intellectual property rights (TRIPS) and its ineffectiev enforcement in the developed world a case study : a thesis submitted to Auckland University of Technology in fulfilment [sic] of the requirements of the degree of Master of Philosophy (MPhil), 2008". Click here to access this resource online, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/10292/673.
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Williams, Rachael M. "Do geographical indications promote sustainable rural development? : two UK case studies and implications for New Zealand rural development policy". Lincoln University, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/10182/585.
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Geographical indications (GIs) are one form of protective labelling used to indicate the origin of food and alcohol products. The role of protected geographical indicators as a promising sustainable rural development tool is the basis for this research. The protection of geographical indications is a rather controversial subject and much research is still required for both sides of the debate. The research method employed for this study is qualitative critical social science. Two Case studies are used to investigate the benefits brought to rural areas through the protection of GIs. The case studies include the GIs Jersey Royal and Welsh Lamb both from the United Kingdom a member of the European Union (the EU is in favour of extended protection of GIs for all agro-food products under the 1994 WTO/TRIPS agreement on geographical indications). Twenty-five indepth interviews were conducted for this study the duration of the interviews was approximately one hour. The study identifies predominantly indirect links between GIs and sustainable rural development, through economic and social benefits bought to rural areas by the GIs investigated - less of a connection was found to ecological elements. No considerable cost for GI protection was discovered. This finding suggests that GIs are worthwhile for implementation in New Zealand as a rural development tool.
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Kieu, Thanh Thi. "Implementating the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights in Vietnam". Thesis, 2009. https://vuir.vu.edu.au/25916/.
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This is a mapping of WTO members‟ obligations under TRIPs against the national laws of Vietnam implementing those obligations. Vietnam has produced comprehensive substantive laws harmonizing its intellectual property laws with the intellectual property laws of the international community. These substantive laws are complemented by procedural laws also required by TRIPs for the enforcement of intellectual property rights. The analysis focuses on how flexibilities within the obligations under TRIPs have been exercised by Vietnam to adapt those obligations to meet its own circumstances as a developing country. It seeks to frame the flexibilities within the wider context of the problems of law, sometimes overlooked in transplant of law analysis, including the ambiguity of language, conflicting rules of interpretation, lack of comprehensiveness, unpredictable technological and social change, and the limitations on law and policy makers including lack of knowledge and experience and conflicts between them over policies which are not resolved in the legal text. These are exacerbated where law is transposed from other national legal systems, through international law, into ones with differences in traditions and culture such as Vietnam. Its agricultural, Confucian, Buddhist and socialist heritage neither valued nor saw the products of human creativity as individually owned property. Vietnam has not always chosen to use the flexibilities within TRIPs to make laws appropriate to its economic and social situation. The generality of its national law creates ambiguities and gaps making it difficult for administrators and judges to apply in the absence of further administrative regulation or guidance on its implementation. The failure to fill these gaps reflects the reality that although the law is comprehensive Vietnamese law and policy makers are not sufficiently familiar with policies relating such laws to levels of development or with their practical application.
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Antonio, L. Kho Jr, i 高友添. "China and Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights: An Inquiry on Regime Compliance". Thesis, 2008. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/9jw7b5.
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博士國立中山大學
大陸研究所
96
This is a study on the compliance of China to the World Trade Organization’s (WTO) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) before and after China’s accession to WTO. The study on pre-accession period focuses on the enactment of China’s patent, copyright and trademark laws in the light of the provisions of the TRIPS Agreement. It also focuses China’s adoption, revisions and amendments of the constitution, administrative, criminal, civil, judicial, and legal professional laws and procedures to make enforcements of the intellectual property rights law effective. It likewise shows how the enactment of these laws consistent with the TRIPS Agreement is contributing to the development of the institutions of private property and the rule of law. The result shows that while the pre-accession to WTO would indicate China’s substantial compliance to the TRIPS Agreement, it also focuses on some weaknesses in the laws on the determination of what violation would constitute a criminal act. This problem would manifest later after accession. The post-accession period sharply focuses on the performance of China in the enforcement of their obligations under the TRIPS regime after 2001. The assessment of China’s performance in enforcement focuses on the infringement cases, the complaints filed against China before the dispute settlement mechanisms of WTO, and the multilateral and bilateral reviews on China’s laws and enforcement effort after its accession to WTO. The result shows the over-reliance of China on the administrative rather than the judicial remedies in its internal enforcement effort which resulted in the weak performance of infringement deterrence. The result also notes the shift from the reliance on internal to external measures in the enforcement of intellectual property rights by the trading partners headed by US. The result of the study which shows continuing reforms in the intellectual, civil, criminal and administrative laws after WTO accession to precisely address the issues raised against China in its enforcement effort is an indication of China’s willingness to play by the international rules. While the reforms have not been met with optimism, the WTO’s TRIPS regime provides a sufficient mechanism to deal with China’s TRIPS violations, and more importantly China is positively responding to it.
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Yu, Chung-Dar, i 余仲達. "Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights and Access to Pharmaceuticals in Latin America". Thesis, 2007. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/01432395711340698280.
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碩士淡江大學
拉丁美洲研究所碩士班
95
The technological transformation of the 20th Century had the effect of advancing the frontiers of science in many technological fields. In the medical and pharmaceutical field, in particular, major technological breakthroughs have been witnessed including the mapping of the human genome, antiretroviral (ARV) therapy for the treatment of HIV/AIDS and the second line treatments for tuberculosis and malaria. These dramatic developments have provided increasing hope for the realization of the right to health in the developing world. For the people in these regions, however, the reality on the ground is the opposite; treatable and preventable diseases continue to kill millions a year. Today, despite significant scientific and technological developments, there continue to exist unacceptable inequalities in the health status of people between developed and developing countries as well as within developing countries. In this context, Latin America and the Caribbean, being a part of the developing world is also facing great challenges. Access to essential medicines is critical in this part of the world, it is important to understand what is being done to resist intellectual property rights abuse in the pharmaceutical sector. The objective of this study is to explain the obstacles Latin America and the Caribbean are facing in using the flexibilities inherent in TRIPS to seek access of medicines for their citizens, and also suggest some recommendations on how to overcome these obstacles through a south to south regional framework.
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Oguamanam, Chidi Vitus. "Biological diversity and intellectual property rights : the challenge of traditional knowledge". Thesis, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/10735.
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The abundance of wealth and technology in the North, and biological diversity and
poverty in the South provokes an inquiry into an appropriate modality for the equitable
harnessing and allocation of biodiversity dividends. Over the years, the traditional
knowledge relating to biological diversity has been regarded as part of the "global
intellectual commons", open to exploitation by all, and subject to validation by formal
methods. That knowledge has remained the source of both increasing knowledge and
critical discoveries of the therapeutic values of most components of biological diversity.
There is a consensus between the North and the South that an effective biodiversity
conservation strategy should be one capable of providing incentives to the traditional
custodians of wild habitat. Intellectual property is generally recognised as an appropriate
framework to implement this objective. However, as a perennial subject of North-South
disagreement, there is no consensus on the relevant details or mechanisms for deploying
intellectual property rights to effectuate the objective.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) signifies a
global regime embodying the ideals of incentivising the traditional custodians of the wild
habitat as well as equitable sharing of the benefits of biodiversity. Arguably, it marks an
end to the idea of regarding traditional knowledge as part of the global intellectual
commons. This thesis contends that the CBD regime carries with it the burden of
unresolved North-South perspectives on intellectual property rights. It argues that the
heart of the conflict is the reluctance of the North to accord intellectual property status to
traditional knowledge. This is partly because of the latter's informal nature but most
importantly it derives from an inherent geo-political ideological conflict on the subject of
intellectual property rights.
Presently, the recognition of rights over traditional knowledge is approached on a sui
generis basis. This thesis takes the position that the approach with its several limitations
is not persuasive. It contends that on the merits, traditional knowledge is, and ought to be
recognised as a subject matter of intellectual property rights. The recent elevation of
intellectual property (a traditional subject matter of national law) to the international level
under the WTO/TRIPs Agreement further undermines traditional knowledge. This has
posed a setback not only to the global biodiversity conservation initiative, but also to the
quest for equitable allocation of its dividends. It is my thesis that a national approach
offers a better option for accommodating the intellectual property status of traditional
knowledge and consequentially for advancing the quest for biodiversity conservation as
well as equitable allocation of the dividends arising therefrom.
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Ching-Wei, Chang, i 張敬崴. "Compulsory Licensing of Pharmaceuticals in Taiwan Based on the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights". Thesis, 2015. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/n6n2br.
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碩士開南大學
人文社會學院公共管理碩士在職專班
103
Pharmaceuticals are essential to ameliorating national health problems and promoting public health. Patenting is a crucial policy strategy for encouraging drug research and development. To prevent other companies from imitating drugs they develop, pharmaceutical companies must obtain patents, which protect their intellectual property and market interests and assist them recover the cost of their investment. However, for certain drugs, a patent can enable the holder to establish a monopoly, which can increase prices and reduce drug accessibility. Consequently, public health crises can be difficult to manage in least-developed or developing countries where the prevalence of communicable diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS is high. The Agreement on Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) of the World Trade Organization states a minimum standard on intellectual property protection policies for all member states. Ambiguity regarding the TRIPS flexibilities on pharmaceutical products has resulted in controversial situations between developed and developing countries in cases where developing countries have resorted to the TRIPS flexibilities to resolve the problem of high drug prices. Developed countries have raised concerns on various occasions, such as the dispute between Brazil and the United States regarding accessibility to HIV/AIDS drugs. Public health problems have become critical trade problems under the WTO framework and must be addressed urgently. Subsequently, WTO reviewed the TRIPS agreement and passed the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, bringing into effect the WTO’s decision on Paragraph 6 of the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health as well as amendments to Article 31 of the TRIPS agreement. These measures facilitate the export of drugs granted with compulsory license to member states with low production capacity, preventing patent holders from receiving double compensation while resolving related public health crises in developing countries. As a WTO member, Taiwan is obligated to ensure that its domestic regulations on intellectual property satisfy the minimum standards of the TRIPS agreement. In 2005, amidst concerns of a possible H5N1avian flu pandemic and on the grounds of national emergency, Taiwan granted the world’s first compulsory license for influenza drugs under the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health. Taiwan implemented the amended Patent Act in 2013. Although the clauses on drug compulsory licensing of pharmaceuticals were thoroughly revised, unaddressed loopholes require investigation and clarification. The findings of this study may serve as a reference for future research and policy development.
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Mun, Seung-Hwan 1972. "Culture-related aspects of intellectuals property rights: a cross-cultural analysis of copyright". 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/17888.
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This study presented a critical investigation of the mainstream neo-liberal approach to global intellectual property rights protection. There is a widespread but incorrect perception in the contemporary intellectual property policy regime that ineffective copyright protection in developing countries is primarily an institutional problem deriving from the lack of economic capacity and jurisprudential systems. Arguing that the conventional policy regime offers only a limited account for global copyright protection, this study aimed to show that inadequate copyright protection is not only an institutional but also historically contingent cultural problem. For the purpose, the present study conducted two phases of investigation: (1) a cross- national data analysis of software piracy and (2) comparative historical analysis of authorship in England and China. The first study empirically examined the key determinants of software piracy in the contemporary international market. From multivariate statistical analyses of international data, the study attempted to identify significant factors facilitating software piracy. Special attention was paid to identifying the influence of national culture in software piracy when other institutional factors were controlled. The results showed that a combined outcome of multiple factors including national income, institutional capacity for property protection, in-group collectivist cultural practices, and attitudes toward international intellectual property protection explains the software piracy problem. The second study aimed to provide a more in-depth understanding of the historical linkage between copyright and culture. It traced the historical formation of authorship in English and Chinese print culture to examine whether and why there emerged contrasting conceptions of authorship between them. The findings showed that there was a distinctive historical divergence of material, ideological, and institutional contexts of print culture, which led to different authorship conceptions between England and China. This implies that authorship as the fundamental cultural basis of modern copyright law was not a natural and universal phenomenon inevitably arising from the printing press but rather historically and culturally contingent.text
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Weitsman, Faina. "The trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights (TRIPS) agreement and access to patented medicines in developing countries - Canada's Bill C-9". Thesis, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/1993/294.
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TRIPS strengthened international patent protection, particularly in relation to pharmaceutical patents. A compulsory license mechanism is one of the exceptions from patent protection available under TRIPS. This mechanism applies mainly to domestic market supply. Underdeveloped countries with insufficient pharmaceutical manufacturing capacities are unable to use this exception to import medicines in public health emergencies. To resolve this problem, the WTO General Council’s decision allows the export of generic versions of patented drugs under certain conditions. Canada’s Bill C-9 was the first statute to implement the decision.
Bill C-9 bears both humanitarian and TRIPS-like provisions. The role of the Government is unjustifiably limited to participation in administrative and legislative processes, while the main operators in the scheme are the generic manufacturer and partly, the patent holder. This thesis proposes several different models to transform the Bill into a workable system for the export of drugs to underdeveloped countries afflicted with pandemics.October 2006
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Cohen, Jillian Clare. "Pharmaceutical Napsters? a comparative study of state response to the pharmaceutical imperatives of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights /". 2001. http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/53965246.html.
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Yang, Shu Ling, i 楊淑玲. "The Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement and the World Trade Organization Dispute Settlement Body-- With a Focus on the Protection and Limitation of Patent Rights in Article 30 --". Thesis, 2003. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/82391915049758759327.
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碩士東吳大學
法律學系研究所
91
The Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement and the World Trade Organization Dispute Settlement Body -- With a Focus on the Protection and Limitation of Patent Rights in Article 30 -- Abstract Since the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement went into effect on January 1, 1995, disputes regarding patent rights have comprised the largest category of disputes among WTO member economies submitted to the WTO Dispute Settlement Body (DSB). Through the process of attempting to resolve these disputes, the DSB has amassed a body of legal interpretations of the TRIPS Agreement, and at the same time has integrated the realms of intellectual property rights and international trade, which were traditionally under the jurisdiction of separate international organizations. In the wake of these developments, the compatibility of the various relevant regulations has become the subject of much discussion. This thesis addresses the special and complex structure and substantive norms of the TRIPS Agreement within the context of WTO agreements, and the issue of balancing TRIPS Agreement standards of patent-right protection with such principles as public interest, as well as problems engendered when the WTO Dispute Settlement Body handles related disputes. This thesis is generally divided into discussions of the procedural norms of dispute settlement, and of substantive norms. When processing violation complaints against the TRIPS Agreement, the DSB should, in addressing substantive violations of protection obligations by a member, avoid exercising excessive infringement of the member state’s sovereignty, allowing a certain degree of respect for the member state’s right of determination. In addition, the DSB should adopt systematic-complaint principles for determining when members have violated their obligations to enforcement. Currently, WTO regulations covering non-violation complaints are not actually applied to the TRIPS Agreement. However, because of fundamental discrepancies between the obligations of the TRIPS Agreement and tariff reduction commitments within the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the initially designated functions of the non-violation complaint settlement system have already been replaced, following structural changes to the system of multilateral trade norms. Thus, whether the non-violation complaints settlement system will be applied to the TRIPS Agreement is an issue worthy to be examined anew. The section of this thesis examining substantive norms of dispute settlement firstly analyzes the patent rights standards of the TRIPS Agreement itself and explains some of the regulations of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property which TRIPS Agreement directly incorporated, and secondly analyzes the legal framework of the TRIPS Agreement and predispositions of the WTO Dispute Settlement Body in balancing the private interests of patent holders and public interest, as demonstrated in the Canada-Patent Protection case, as it relates to Article 30 of the TRIPS Agreement. The tendency of the TRIPS Agreement and the DSB to excessively favor the protection of patent holders’ private interests has not only elevated intellectual property rights as an absolute and overruling imperative, but also has the potential to inappropriately sideline other rights and values that participating bodies within the multilateral framework of the WTO ought to enjoy, and also restricts the degree of autonomy WTO member states possess in formulating policies and regulations limiting patent rights based on public and administrative interests.
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Papageorgiadis, Nikolaos, Chengang Wang i Georgios Magkonis. "Factors contributing to the strength of national patent protection and enforcement after TRIPS". 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/10454/16946.
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YesIn this paper we study the determinants of the strength of patent enforcement in 43 member countries of the World Trade Organization (WTO) between 1998 and 2011, a period after the signing of the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement. We do so by building on and expanding the seminal work of Ginarte and Park (1997) on the pre-TRIPS determinants of patent rights in the years 1960-1990. We find that in the years after TRIPS was signed, the strength of patent enforcement of a country is positively determined by two variables that signify the usage of the patent and intellectual property system, and the number of patent and trademark applications. We also find that the level of research and development expenditure, the quality of human capital, and the level of development of a country have positive effects on the strength of the enforcement of patent law in practice. Intellectual property rights enforcement is one of the key investment-related policies included in the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development. Identifying the determinants of strong patent systems will help policymakers at the national and supranational levels to design and implement effective policies that strengthen national patent systems, thereby enhancing economic benefits such as greater levels of commercialization of intangible assets and greater levels of international trade and investment.
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Dountio, Ofimboudem Joelle. "The protection of traditional knowledge: challenges and possibilities arising from the protection of biodiversity in South Africa". Thesis, 2011. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/index.php?module=etd&action=viewtitle&id=gen8Srv25Nme4_9133_1363011819.
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Přibyl, Josef. "Ochrana průmyslového vlastnictví a mezinárodní právo". Master's thesis, 2013. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-327482.
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International Protection of Industrial Rights Abstract The aim of thesis is to analyse international protection of industrial rights. Emphasis is placed on theoretical aspects of international law, specifics of functioning of international system, reasons explaining why the protection of industrial rights is included into international law and consequences of that. On the contrary thesis avoids detailed analysis of relevant international treaties which does not apply to TRIPS Agreement for its underlying significance of current system of international protection of industrial rights. Thesis is composed of nine chapters, including introduction and conclusion. Just after introduction the chapter dedicated to a brief introduction to basic terms of industrial rights is included. The introduction to the international level is represented in chapter three, this chapter tries to map the evolution and reasons of creation the protection of industrial rights on the international level from the half of 19th century to the present. Some current issues are also discussed here. Chapter four consists of two parts. First part focuses on international treaties, the crucial source of law on protection of industrial rights. Not only multilateral agreements but also bilateral agreements are discussed here. Second part deals...
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Κάββουρα, Ευαγγελία. "Παγκόσμιος Οργανισμός Εμπορίου : η συμφωνία TRIPs, οι TRIPs-plus διατάξεις και πρακτικές και οι επιπτώσεις τους στην πρόσβαση στα φάρμακα". Thesis, 2011. http://nemertes.lis.upatras.gr/jspui/handle/10889/4651.
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Η συμφωνία TRIPS, υπό την ομπρέλα του Παγκόσμιου Οργανισμού Εμπορίου και εξυπηρετώντας τα συμφέροντα που την εμπνεύστηκαν και την επέβαλαν, συνέδεσε για πρώτη φορά την πνευματική ιδιοκτησία με το εμπόριο και έθεσε τα ελάχιστα επίπεδα για την προστασία της, συμπεριλαμβανομένου του τομέα των πατεντών στα φαρμακευτικά προϊόντα και τις διαδικασίες παραγωγής τους. Στην παρούσα εργασία, αφού αναλυθούν τα βασικότερα άρθρα που αφορούν στην προστασία των πατεντών και των αποτελεσμάτων δοκιμών, οι «TRIPS flexibilities», οι προσπάθειες περιορισμού του πεδίου εφαρμογής τους, σκιαγραφείται η νέα τάξη πραγμάτων που διαμορφώνεται κάτω από τις πιέσεις των κυρίαρχων συμφερόντων για πιο επεκτατική και αυστηρή προστασία της πνευματικής ιδιοκτησίας. Οι επιπτώσεις της TRIPS και των διμερών και περιφερειακών TRIPS-plus συμφωνιών στην πρόσβαση στα φάρμακα, περιγράφονται υπό το πρίσμα της διαμόρφωσης των τιμών τους και της αδυναμίας να καλυφθεί το χάσμα χρηματοδότησης R&D για ασθένειες που πλήττουν το 90% του παγκόσμιου πληθυσμού (10/90 gap), παρά τις προς του αντιθέτου υποσχέσεις του ανεπτυγμένου κόσμου. Συμπεραίνουμε ότι το μοντέλο “one-size-fits-all” για την προστασία της πνευματικής ιδιοκτησίας, παραβλέπει τις διαφορετικές ανάγκες και δομές κάθε κοινωνίας και ενισχύει τις ανισότητες του πλανήτη. Οι προτάσεις μας συντείνουν στην αναγκαιότητα ανάληψης συντονισμένων δράσεων εκ μέρους των κυβερνήσεων των κρατών, των διεθνών οργανισμών, της επιστημονικής κοινότητας και των πολιτών ώστε το αναπαλλοτρίωτο ανθρώπινο δικαίωμα στη ζωή και την υγεία, να τύχει του σεβασμού που του αξίζει.--
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Sibanda, McLean. "Enabling intellectual property and innovation systems for South Africa's development and competitiveness". Thesis, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10500/24247.
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During the last two decades, there have been a number of policy and legislative changes in respect of South Africa’s intellectual property (IP) and the national system of innovation (NSI). In 2012, a Ministerial Review of the Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) landscape in South Africa made recommendations to improve the STI landscape and effectively the national system of innovation. The study provides a critical review of drafts of the national IP policy published in 2013 as well as the IP Framework released in 2016 for public comment. The review of the IP and the NSI are within the context of the National Development Plan (NDP), which outlines South Africa’s desired developmental goals. South Africa is part of the BRICS group of countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa). The South African economy is characterised by a desire to move away from being dependent on resources and commodities, to becoming a more knowledge based and innovation driven economy. It is hoped that such a move would assist the country to address some of the social and economic development challenges facing South Africa, as captured in the NDP. South Africa has a functioning IP system, but its relationship with South Africa’s development trajectory is not established. More particularly, the extent to which the IP system relates to the innovation system and how these two systems must be aligned to enable South Africa to transition successfully from a country based on the production of primary resources and associated commodity-based industries to a viable knowledge-based economy is unclear. The Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) provides that IP must contribute to innovation and to transfer of technology and knowledge in a manner that is conducive to social and economic welfare. Certain provisions set out the foundations of intellectual property systems within the context of each member state. This study has thus explored the complex, complementary and sometimes contested relationships between IP and innovation, with particular emphasis on the potential of an intellectual property system to stimulate innovation and foster social and economic development. The study has also analysed the interconnectivity of IP and innovation with other WTO legal instruments, taking into account South Africa’s positioning within the globalised economy and in particular the BRICS group of countries. The research involved a critical review of South Africa’s IP and innovation policies, as well as relevant legislation, instruments, infrastructure, IP and innovation landscape, and relationship with international WTO legal instruments, in addition to its performance, given the developmental priorities and the globalised economy. The research documents patenting trends by South Africans using European Patent Office (EPO), Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), United States Patents and Trademarks Office (USPTO) databases over the period 1996-2015. A comparative analysis of patenting trends amongst BRICS group of countries has also been documented. The study also documents new findings, observations and insights regarding South Africa’s IP and innovation systems. Some of these, particularly in relation to higher education and research institutions, are directly attributable to the Intellectual Property Rights from Publicly Financed Research and Development Act. More particularly, the public institutions are becoming relevant players in the NSI and are responsible for growth of certain technology clusters, in particular, biotechnology. At the same time, the study makes findings of a decline of private sector participation in patenting as well as R&D investment over the 20-year period. Recommendations are included regarding specific interventions to ensure coherence between the IP and innovation systems. Such coherence and alignment should strengthen the systems’ ability to stimulate innovation and foster inclusive development and competitiveness, which are relevant for addressing South Africa’s socio-economic development priorities.Mercantile Law
LL. D.
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Malhotra, Prabodh. "Implementing TRIPS in India : implications for access to medicines". Thesis, 2009. https://vuir.vu.edu.au/30083/.
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This thesis investigates the implications of implementing TRIPS in India for access to medicines drawing on three major factors: (i) the TRIPS agreement, (ii) the global pharmaceutical industry and (iii) the development of Indian pharmaceutical industry and the level of access to medicines in India. In doing so, the thesis examines the requirements of the TRIPS agreement and analyses the costs and benefits of its implementation, especially from a developing country view point. The fairness test shows that TRIPS prematurely forces developing countries to adopt protection standards, which a number of developed countries themselves did not adopt until they had achieved a certain level of economic development
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Ndlovu, Lonias. "Access to medicines under the World Trade Organisation TRIPS Agreement: a comparative study of select SADC countries". Thesis, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10500/14185.
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Despite the adoption of the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health in 2001, which unequivocally affirmed WTO members’ rights to use compulsory licences and other TRIPS flexibilities to access medicines, thirteen years on, developing countries and least developed countries are still grappling with access to medicines issues and a high disease burden. Despite some well researched and eloquent arguments to the contrary, it is a trite fact that patents remain an impediment to access to medicines by encouraging monopoly prices. The WTO TRIPS Agreement gives members room to legislate in a manner that is sympathetic to access to affordable medicines by providing for exceptions to patentability and the use of patents without the authorisation of the patent holder (TRIPS flexibilities).
This study focuses on access to medicines under the TRIPS Agreement from a SADC comparative perspective by interrogating the extent of the domestication of TRIPS provisions promoting access to medicines in the SADC region with specific reference to Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe. After establishing that all SADC members, including Seychelles which is yet to be a WTO member have intellectual property (IP) laws in their statute books, this study confirms that while most of the IP provisions may be used to override patents, they are currently not being used by SADC members due to non-IP reasons such as lack of knowledge and political will. The study also engages in comparative discussions of topical occurrences in the context of access to medicines litigation in India, Thailand and Kenya and extracts useful thematic lessons for the SADC region. The study’s overall approach is to extract useful lessons for regional access to medicines from the good experiences of SADC members and other developing country jurisdictions in the context of a south-south bias.
The study draws conclusions and recommendations which if implemented will in all likelihood lead to improved access to medicines for SADC citizens, while at the same time respecting the sanctity of patent rights. The study recommends the adoption of a rights-based approach, which will ultimately elevate patient rights over patent rights and urges the region to consider using its LDCs status to issue compulsory licences in the context of TRIPS Article 31 bis while exploring the possibility of local pharmaceutical manufacturing to produce generics, inspired by the experiences of Zimbabwe and current goings on in Mozambique and the use of pooled procurement for the region. The study embraces the rewards theory of patents which should be used to spur innovation and research into diseases of the poor in the SADC region. Civil society activity in the region is also identified as a potential vehicle to drive the move towards access to affordable medicines for all in the SADC region.Mercantile Law
LL.D.
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Gentile, Susanna. "Le piratage des droits de propriété intellectuelle : une réelle nécessité pour les pays en développement". Thèse, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/1866/7765.
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Nasir, Saeed. "The evolution of global intellectual property instruments into trade related intellectual property rights (TRIPS) and its ineffective enforcement in developing world: a case study". 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/10292/673.
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This thesis aims to critically evaluate global intellectual property instruments with detailed analysis of the Agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Aspects of Property Rights (the TRIPS Agreement) provisions in order to investigate the enforcement issues, confronted by the Developing Countries due to fragile legal infrastructure. These intellectual property laws are evolutionary and designed to protect and honour human intellectual creations since BC 400 which recognized them distinct from divine inspirations. Italian Renaissance witnessed the systematic recognition of human skill, craft, innovation and invention. Venetian Government institutionalized it by awarding patents and copyrights to skilled workers and publishers. Its primary purpose was to protect the trade and secondary was to foster intellectual creativity through reward and recognition. These rewards and recognitions, known as Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs), developed with each new invention and creation. Industrial Revolution accelerated it and developed nations entered into international conventions to protect their nationals and their interests across the borders. In 1995, the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (the TRIPS Agreement) accommodated all the previous (IPRs) instruments and its enforcement linked with global trade. It was a dilemma for developing nations who were desirous to participate in global trading system for their economic development but could not administer (IPRs) regimes on their land due to fragile and static infrastructure. All assistance from developed countries during the transitional period could not address the problems due to alien prescriptions, applied to counter problems in the developed World. Developing Nations need innovative, flexible and indigenous approach to administer the TRIPS Agreement. A case study of Pakistan judicial environment to address the TRIPS enforcement issue has been conducted. The methodological approach of this thesis is the interpretive paradigm of the qualitative research tradition. This interpretive paradigm or framework is applied through the two methodologies of hermeneutics and case study.
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Adesola, Eniola Olufemi. "Compulsory patent licensing and access to essential medicines in developing countries after the Doha Declaration". Thesis, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10500/18795.
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In 2001 the Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health (‘Doha Declaration’), affirmed the right of member states of the World Trade Organisation (‘WTO’) to interpret and implement the TRIPS Agreement as supportive of the protection of public health and, in particular, access to medicines. While initially well-received, consternation soon arose over the interpretation of a specific paragraph in the Doha Declaration dealing with compulsory licensing. After a further two years of deliberation, the WTO Decision on the Interpretation of Paragraph 6 (‘Paragraph-6 Decision’) was announced in August 2003 specifying when countries can import drugs produced elsewhere under compulsory licence.
With one third of the world's population is still denied access to essential medicines - a figure which rises to over 50 per cent in Asia and Africa - the problems facing the public health community are two-fold. The first is the capacity of developing countries (‘DCs’) actually to use the flexibilities afforded under the TRIPS Agreement, the Doha Declaration, and the Paragraph- 6 Decision amid stark inequalities in health resources and the world trading system as a whole. These include provisions for compulsory licensing, parallel importation, and addressing imbalances in research and development (‘R&D’). The pending ratification of the Paragraph-6 Decision, from an interim solution to a permanent amendment, is accompanied by considerable uncertainty: will the protections be accessible under the system currently proposed?
The second problem concerns the undermining of the above hard-won flexibilities by provisions adopted under various bilateral and regional trade agreements. Known as ‘TRIPS-plus’- or ‘WTO-plus’- measures, the level of intellectual property rights (‘IPRs’) rights protection being negotiated and even adopted under other trade agreements are more restrictive as regards public health protection. These two sources of concern have led to an increase in rather than a lessening of tensions between the public health and trade policy communities.
The thesis opens with a brief analysis of the interplay between patents and medicines. This includes an overview of the human rights framework and the right of access to medicines as a manifestation of human rights. The historical development of the TRIPS Agreement, its legitimacy, and the effect of the introduction of patents for pharmaceuticals are critically analysed. The terms of the Doha Declaration as it relates to public health, the Paragraph-6 Decision and its system, the December 2005 Amendment, and the progress made to date on the public health protections available under the TRIPS Agreement are reviewed and discussed in detail. The thesis describes how, despite these important clarifications, concerns as to the capacity of DCs to implement specific measures persist.
This thesis further addresses the development of compulsory licensing in India and South Africa, and the legal framework for compulsory licensing in these countries. The role of competition law and constraints faced by DCs in implementing the flexibilities offered by the TRIPS Agreement and Doha Declaration are considered before turning to the threat posed by TRIPS-plus measures and calls for their critical reassessment. The thesis considers the role of the Intergovernmental Working Group on Public Health, Innovation and Intellectual Property (IGWG), the WHO Commission on IPRs, Innovation and Public Health (CIPIH), Patent Pools, and international and multilateral donors in access to medicines. The thesis concludes by reviewing potential ways forward to ensure that access to medicines by the poor living in DCs is secured in all trade agreements.Mercantile Law
LL.D.
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Flynn, Matthew Brian. "Pharmaceutical governance in Brazil : globalization, institutions and AIDS". Thesis, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/ETD-UT-2010-12-2257.
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The Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) represents one of the biggest challenges facing today's globalized world. Meanwhile, transnational drug companies have strengthened their market positions in developing countries as a result of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (or TRIPS). Patent protection provided by TRIPS has led to higher prices and reduced access to essential medicines. Low- and middle-income countries are under increased pressure to provide expensive life-saving medicines to their citizens. Brazil's AIDS program is deemed successful in reducing morbidity and mortality rates through universal provision of free AIDS medicines. The program's sustainability came under threat as the result of TRIPS, pressures by transnational corporations, and trade threats by the US government. The research question that drove my dissertation centered on the impact of these threats on policy space available to Brazilian government to sustain its universal social program. How has the incorporation of patent protections for drugs affected the ability of local firms to develop pharmaceutical technology and challenged states like Brazil to fulfill social democratic obligations? Under what conditions can a developing country challenge the interests of transnational drug companies? I employed mixed methods for gathering and analyzing data. These included ethnographic field techniques, content analysis, and archival research. My findings are threefold. First, TRIPS has increased the power of foreign firms to secure monopoly positions in Brazil’s drug markets and weakened Brazil's labs to quickly make generic copies of essential medicines. Second, policy space, though curtailed due to external pressures and treaty obligations, expanded through the development of symbolic power, or what I call "reputational dividends," based on a successful social program. Third, by adroitly marketing its banner AIDS program by employing human rights principles, health officials constructed a triple alliance between the state, local private drug manufacturers, and domestic activists tied into transnational advocacy networks. I employ institutional and power analyses to examine the changing sources of power for transnational capital, social movements, and state actors, as well as analyze the impact patent protection has on the ability of Brazilian firms to produce medicines locally. I posit that globalization results in the formation of strong domestic coalitions who are capable of exploiting the "reputational dividends" of a successful social program in order to contest transnational corporate power. This symbolic form of power appears particularly well-disposed for "middle-income" countries that lack the material forms of power held by a global hegemon or transnational corporations.text
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Koutouki, Konstantia. "The placebo effect: international patent law and the protection of traditional plant medicine". Thèse, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/1866/2772.
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Une préoccupation essentielle traverse cette thèse: l'indifférence systémique de la Loi internationale sur la propriété intellectuelle a l'égard des savoirs traditionnels autochtones. De manière générale, un écart semble d'ailleurs croissant entre l'importance des accords internationaux sur les questions d'intérêt commercial et ceux de nature sociale. Les savoirs traditionnels autochtones sur les plantes médicinales sont particulièrement désavantagés dans ce système dichotomique puisqu'ils sont non seulement à l'origine d'énormes profits commerciaux mais se trouvent aussi au cœur de multiples croyances propres à ces sociétés. L'Accord sur les aspects des droits de propriété intellectuelle qui touchent au commerce (ADPIC) de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) a cristallisé le souci de la législation internationale à l'égard d'une protection efficace des intérêts commerciaux. Deux années auparavant, la Convention sur la diversité biologique (CDB) était signée, traduisant une préoccupation à l'égard du développement durable, et elle devenait le premier accord international à tenir compte des savoirs traditionnels autochtones. On considère souvent que ces deux accords permettent l'équilibre du développement commercial et durable, requis par l'économie internationale. Après plus ample examen, on a plutôt l'impression que l'idée d'une CDB défendant, avec succès et efficacité, la nécessité du développement durable et des savoirs traditionnels autochtones contre les pressions opposées de l'ADPIC et de l'OMC est, au mieux, simpliste. La thèse explore également la fonction de la Loi sur les brevets dans la création d’industries, notamment pharmaceutique, et la manière dont ces industries influencent la législation nationale et en particulier internationale. De même, elle traite du rôle que jouent les brevets dans l'affaiblissement et la dépossession des peuples autochtones dotés de savoirs traditionnels sur les plantes médicinales, conduisant à une situation ou ces savoirs sont marginalisés ainsi que leurs détenteurs. La thèse aborde les failles institutionnelles du système juridique international qui permet une telle situation et indique l'urgente nécessité d'examiner attentivement les inégalités économiques et sociales au Nord comme au Sud, et non seulement entre eux. Finalement, la thèse suggère que la législation internationale gagnerait à s'inspirer des diverses traditions juridiques présentes à travers le monde et, dans ce cas particulier, peut être les détenteurs des connaissances traditionnelles concernant les plantes médicinales seront mieux servi par le droit des obligations.The underlying theme of this thesis is the systemic indifference that exists within international intellectual property law towards Indigenous traditional knowledge. In general, there appears to be a widening gap between the importance international law accords to matters of commercial interest and those of a social nature. Indigenous traditional knowledge of medicinal plants is especially disadvantaged in this dichotomous system since it is not only representative of enormous commercial profits but it is also the core of many Indigenous belief and social systems. The crystallization of international law's preoccupation with the effective protection of commercial interests came in the form of the Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement incorporated into the World Trade Organization (WTO). Two years previously, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed, reflecting international law's perceived dedication to sustainable development and became the first international treaty to address Indigenous traditional knowledge. These two pieces of international law are often seen as balancing the commercial and sustainable development needs of the international economy. Upon further examination however, one is left the impression that the idea of the CBD effectively and successfully defending the needs of sustainable development and Indigenous traditional knowledge against pressure to the contrary from TRIPS and the WTO is simplistic at best. The thesis also explore the role patent law plays in the creation of modern industries, such as the pharmaceutical industry, and how these industries are able, through the power gained via patent law, to influence national and especially international legislation. Equally, it deals with the role patents play in disempowering peoples with Indigenous traditional knowledge of medicinal plants leading to a situation where such knowledge is marginalized along with its bearers. The thesis addresses the institutional shortcomings of the international legal system that allows such a situation to exist and suggests an urgent need to closely examine the social and economic inequalities within the North and South and not just between them. Finally the thesis suggests that international law needs to be guided by the many legal traditions available worldwide and in this particular case perhaps contract law is better suited to the needs of Indigenous traditional knowledge holders.