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Tang, Katrina Elizabeth. "The phonology and phonetics of consonant-tone interaction". Diss., Restricted to subscribing institutions, 2008. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1666396531&sid=13&Fmt=2&clientId=1564&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
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Mwita, Leonard Chacha. "Verbal tone in Kuria". Diss., Restricted to subscribing institutions, 2008. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1666904901&sid=1&Fmt=2&clientId=1564&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
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Cham, Hoi-yee Rebecca. "A cross-linguistic study of the development of the perception of lexical tones and phones". Click to view the E-thesis via HKU Scholars Hub, 2003. http://lookup.lib.hku.hk/lookup/bib/B38823299.
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Thesis (B.Sc.)--University of Hong Kong, 2003."A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Science (Speech and Hearing Sciences), The University of Hong Kong, April 30, 2003." Includes bibliographical references (p. 25-28) Also available in print.
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Ma, Ka-yin Joan. "The interaction between intonation and tone in Cantonese". Click to view the E-thesis via HKUTO, 2007. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B38942227.
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Ma, Ka-yin Joan, i 馬嘉賢. "The interaction between intonation and tone in Cantonese". Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2007. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B38942227.
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Brenner, Daniel Scott. "The Phonetics of Mandarin Tones in Conversation". Diss., The University of Arizona, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/578721.
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Mandarin tone categories are universally thought to center on pitch information, but previous work (Berry, 2009; Brenner, 2013) has shown that pitch cues reduce in the conversational context, as do the other concurrent cues such as duration or intensity that secondarily signal tone categories. This dissertation presents two experiments (an isolated word perception experiment, and a dictation experiment) aimed at discovering how Mandarin listeners deal with these reduced cues under everyday conversational conditions. It is found that detailed spectral information is far more useful in the perception of Mandarin tones—both in isolated words and in the perception of full conversational utterances—than pitch contours, and that the removal of pitch from the recordings does not greatly influence perception of the tone categories.
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Purnell, Thomas Clark. "Principles and parameters of phonological rules evidence from tone languages /". access full-text online access from Digital Dissertation Consortium, 1997. http://libweb.cityu.edu.hk/cgi-bin/er/db/ddcdiss.pl?9831516.
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Wong, Patrick Chun Man. "Hemispheric specialization of the processing of linguistic pitch contrasts". Access restricted to users with UT Austin EID, 2001. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/utexas/fullcit?p3037024.
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Gooden, Shelome A. "The phonology and phonetics of Jamaican Creole reduplication". Connect to this title online, 2003. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=osu1070485686.
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Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2003.Title from first page of PDF file. Document formatted into pages; contains xxiv, 297 p. ; also includes graphics. Includes bibliographical references (p. 289-297).
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Li, Zhiqiang 1969. "The phonetics and phonology of tone mapping in a constraint-based approach". Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2003. http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/17651.
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Thesis (Ph. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Linguistics and Philosophy, 2003.Includes bibliographical references (p. 283-295).
This dissertation concerns both phonetic and phonological aspects of tone mapping in various Chinese languages. The central issue addressed is the role of contrast and positional prominence and neutralization in the realization of tone. The inventory of tonal contrasts constrains the outputs of contextual neutralization as well as the location of pitch targets in phonetic implementation. Two prominent phonological positions in the tone sandhi domain are distinguished: peripheral (initial and final) positions and metrically strong positions. Input tones occupying different prominent positions in the input are preserved in the output; their realization in the output can be determined by the location of stress. A typology of diverse patterns of tone preservation and realization emerge from the interaction of positional faithfulness and positional markedness constraints. The research findings reported here have implications for both phonetics and phonoloy.
by Zhiqiang Li.
Ph.D.
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Satravaha, Nuttavudh. "Tone classification of syllable-segmented Thai speech based on multilayer perceptron". Morgantown, W. Va. : [West Virginia University Libraries], 2002. http://etd.wvu.edu/templates/showETD.cfm?recnum=2280.
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Thesis (Ph. D.)--West Virginia University, 2002.Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains v, 130 p. : ill. (some col.). Vita. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 107-118).
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Kung, Wan-sum Anita. "Frequency discrimination of speech and nonspeech sounds by children". Click to view the E-thesis via HKU Scholors Hub, 2005. http://lookup.lib.hku.hk/lookup/bib/B38279216.
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Thesis (B.Sc)--University of Hong Kong, 2005."A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Science (Speech and Hearing Sciences), The University of Hong Kong, June 30, 2005." Also available in print.
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Tsay, Suhchuan Jane, i Suhchuan Jane Tsay. "Phonological pitch". Diss., The University of Arizona, 1994. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/186900.
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The theory proposed in this thesis, Phonological Pitch, concerns the representation and behavior of the tone feature. It is a formally simple phonological theory constrained by a set of explicit extragrammatical principles. Phonological Pitch contains two major grammatical mechanisms. First, tone is represented with a single multivalued feature (Pitch) whose value can range from 1 to n, where n is a language-specific number with no universal upper limit. Second, the Contiguity Hypothesis states that tone groups in rules must always form contiguous sets, though these groups can vary from rule to rule. Phonological Pitch can be so simple because the power of the grammatical theory is constrained with independently necessary extragrammatical factors. Specifically, limits on the number of tone levels arise from learnability and perceptual constraints, which can be precisely formalized, that also play a role in nonlinguistic domains. Similarly, the Contiguity Hypothesis is derived from psychoacoustic constraints on discriminating between acoustically similar pitches. Other perceptual and physiological constraints explain patterns in the typology of contour tones and in the interactions of tone with other features. The empirical support for Phonological Pitch includes the following. First, languages are attested with as many as five distinct tone levels, and the number of languages with n tone levels gradually decreases as n increases, rather than dropping off abruptly at some point. An analysis using learnability and perceptual constraints can explain this gradual drop better than a universal grammatical upper limit. Second, tone rules can transpose sets of tones up or down by a fixed interval, a fact which is easier to formalize with a single multivalued feature than with a set of binary features. Third, tone groups do not form universal natural classes nor groups with noncontiguous tones, as other tone theories predict. Fourth, tone interacts not only with laryngeal features like voicing, but also with nonlaryngeal features like vowel height, and both the existence and relative rarity of tone-vowel height interactions imply that understanding tone interactions requires reference to extragrammatical physiological factors.
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Peng, Long. "A unified theory of tone-voice". Diss., The University of Arizona, 1992. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/185871.
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This thesis studies the interactions of vowel tone with consonantal voice. Briefly, tone-voice interactions refer to: (i) voiced--not voiceless--onsets block high tone spreading; (ii) voiceless--not voiced--onsets block low tone spreading; (iii) sonorant onsets are transparent to both tonal processes. There are many variations to these archetypical patterns of tone-voice interactions. I argue that these variations as well as the archetypical patterns can receive a revealing account from the phonological theory. Specifically, this thesis explores the Prosodic Hypothesis of Tone-Voice, which claims: (i) tone must be represented prosodically (namely, tone is associated to mora); and (ii) tone-voice relations must be expressed by conditions (namely, path conditions, proposed in Archangeli and Pulleyblank (in prep)). By exploiting tonal representations and conditions on tone-voice, the Prosodic Hypothesis provides a principled account of tone-voice in Ngizim, Ewe, and Nupe. The result is a principled theory that unifies the known phonetic and phonological facts about tone-voice and that makes testable predictions about the nature and type of expected tone-voice interactions. In addition to tone-voice, this thesis investigates a range of theoretical issues from tonal representations, to onset representations, to the privative voicing theory to Grounded Phonology (Archangeli and Pulleyblank in prep.). I demonstrate that detailed formal analyses of tone-voice can not only uncover facts about tone-voice, but can also make important contributions to phonological theory.
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Lo, Lap-yan. "Tonal perception and its implication for linguistic relativity". Click to view the E-thesis via HKUTO, 2008. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B39848978.
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Zou, Yun. "Integrated vs independent processing of lexical tone and rime in mandarin sentence comprehension : an event-related potential study". HKBU Institutional Repository, 2019. https://repository.hkbu.edu.hk/etd_oa/715.
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Although tone plays an important role in Chinese speech perception, many issues regarding tone processing remained debatable. Among these issues, whether tone and segment are integrally or independently processed is the one that motivated this study. To investigate the integration vs. independence view of tone and segment (i.e., rime in this study) processing during Mandarin sentence comprehension, the present experiment adopted the violation paradigm and event- related potential (ERP) recording. Participants heard a series of sentences and judged whether each sentence made sense or not after its offset. The sentences included congruous sentences that embodied the original word (e.g., "观众"/guan1-zhong4/; "audience") and incongruous sentences that were created by mismatching tone (e.g., "观肿"/guan1-zhong3/), rime (e.g., " 观赚"/guan1-zhuan4/) or tone-plus-rime (e.g., "观转"/guan1-zhuan3/) of the second syllable of the original words in the congruous sentences. Larger N400 (250-400 ms) and P600 (500-700 ms) were evoked by the incongruous sentences than congruous sentences. Among the incongruous sentences, the N400 elicited by double violation (i.e., tone-plus-rime violation) was larger than rime violation, which was in turn larger than tone violation. The P600 evoked by tone violation was larger than rime violation in 500-600 ms, but they were comparable in 600-700 ms. In addition, the P600 evoked by tone and rime violation were both larger than double violation. The different ERP effects among the three violation conditions supported the independence view of tone and rime processing. Based on the results, a dynamic model of spoken word processing was proposed, in which the functional dissociation of tone and segment across different stages was taken into consideration.
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Da, Jun. "The effects of focus on tone sandhi in Chinese dialects /". Digital version accessible at:, 2000. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/utexas/main.
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Ao, Benjamin Xiaoping. "Phonetics and phonology of Nantong Chinese". Connect to this title online, 1993. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=osu1105384417.
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Pearce, Mary Dorothy. "The interaction of tone with voicing and foot structure : evidence from Kera phonetics and phonology". Thesis, University College London (University of London), 2007. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1445070/.
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This thesis uses acoustic measurements as a basis for the phonological analysis of the interaction of tone with voicing and foot structure in Kera (a Chadic language). In both tone spreading and vowel harmony, the iambic foot acts as a domain for spreading. Further evidence for the foot comes from measurements of duration, intensity and vowel quality. Kera is unusual in combining a tone system with a partially independent metrical system based on iambs. In words containing more than one foot, the foot is the tone bearing unit (TBU), but in shorter words, the TBU is the syllable. In perception and production experiments, results show that Kera speakers, unlike English and French, use the fundamental frequency as the principle cue to 'Voicing" contrast. Voice onset time (VOT) has only a minor role. Historically, tones probably developed from voicing through a process of tonogenesis, but synchronically, the feature voice is no longer contrastive and VOT is used in an enhancing role. Some linguists have claimed that Kera is a key example for their controversial theory of long-distance voicing spread. But as voice is not part of Kera phonology, this thesis gives counter-evidence to the voice spreading claim. An important finding from the experiments is that the phonological grammars are different between village women, men moving to town and town men. These differences are attributed to French contact. The interaction between Kera tone and voicing and contact with French have produced changes from a 2-way voicing contrast, through a 3-way tonal contrast, to a 2-way voicing contrast plus another contrast with short VOT. These diachronic and synchronic tone/voicing facts are analysed using laryngeal features and Optimality Theory. This thesis provides a body of new data, detailed acoustic measurements, and an analysis incorporating current theoretical issues in phonology, which make it of interest to Africanists and theoreticians alike.
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陳達宗 i Tat-chung Chan. "Automatic labelling of mandarin". Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 1996. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B31213959.
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Lo, Lap-yan, i 盧立仁. "Tonal perception and its implication for linguistic relativity". Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2008. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B39848978.
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Chan, Tat-chung. "Automatic labelling of mandarin /". Hong Kong : University of Hong Kong, 1996. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record.jsp?B18037306.
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Kwok, Chui-ling Irene. "Electropalatographic investigation of normal Cantonese speech : a qualitative and quantitative analysis /". Click to view the E-thesis via HKUTO, 1992. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/HKUTO/record/B38626135.
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Coto, Solano Rolando Alberto, i Solano Rolando Alberto Coto. "Tonal Reduction and Literacy in Me'phaa Vátháá". Diss., The University of Arizona, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/623099.
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This study examines the relationship between tonal phonetics, tonal reduction and orthographic patterns produced by Me'phaa Vátháá speaking teachers. It discusses these patterns in the context of Indigenous education in Mexico and of the language ideologies held by the teachers, which have parallels to those held by speakers of Spanish and practitioners of language revitalization. Its main finding is that tones undergo phonetic changes which reduce their relative psychoacoustic distances, and this combines with the writing practices of the teachers (in which they repeat the words to themselves at varying speeds) to produce hesitation when writing the tonal markers. This is framed in an ideological process of privileging writing as the ideal form of language revitalization, and of rejection of variants and spelling 'mistakes', which results in further linguistic insecurity by the teachers. This has repercussions for the revitalization of the language, in that teachers sometimes choose not to write in Me'phaa Vátháá, particularly in contexts involving technology such as social media, out of fear of making 'mistakes'. In studying these phenomena, this study also describes the processes of tonal reduction in Me'phaa Vátháá and describes its similarities and differences with the reduction described for other tonal languages such as Mandarin, Thai and Triqui. Tonal reduction processes in Me'phaa Vátháá are not an exact match to any of these languages, which suggests that, while reduction is universal, it has language-specific expressions, which suggest that reduction typologies should be further studied. In addition to this, the study offers a report on the process of tonal spelling learning by adults who didn't receive this training as children. This is relevant to both educational and language planners, as well as to practitioners of language revitalization.
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Kortum, Richard D. "Varieties of Tone: Frege, Dummett and the Shades of Meaning". Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2013. https://amzn.com/1349442593.
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In clear and lively prose that avoids jargon, the author carefully and systematically examines the many kinds of subtly nuanced words or word-pairs of everyday discourse such as 'and'-'but', 'before'-'ere', 'Chinese'-'Chink', and 'sweat'-'perspiration', that have proven resistant to truth-conditional explanations of meaning.https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu_books/1108/thumbnail.jpg
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Schwanhäu[beta]er, Barbara. "Lexical tone perception and production the role of language and musical background /". View thesis, 2007. http://handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/31791.
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Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Western Sydney, 2007."A thesis submitted to the University of Western Sydney, College of Arts, MARCS Auditory Laboratories in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy." Includes bibliography.
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Pullin, Graham. "17 ways to say yes : exploring tone of voice in augmentative communication and designing new interactions with speech synthesis". Thesis, University of Dundee, 2013. https://discovery.dundee.ac.uk/en/studentTheses/110efeb6-e4d4-43d7-a4ac-d1e33746d1e2.
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For people without speech, voice output communication aids are an assistive technology––but can also be restrictive: whilst Text-To-Speech synthesis can say anything, it affords little choice of how this is spoken. An absence of nuanced tone of voice can inhibit social interaction. This research explores this profound but relatively overlooked issue in augmentative and alternative communication through the lens––with the sensibilities and skills––of interaction design. Tone of voice is such an elusive and intangible quality: difficult for even phoneticians to define, let alone AAC users and carers to discuss in the context of their everyday lives. Therefore the activities of design exploration and design practice have been employed to visualise tone of voice, in order to catalyse new conversations, through two original research projects: Six Speaking Chairs, curated with Andrew Cook, is a collection of interactive artefacts that illustrate alternative models of tone of voice developed by academics and practitioners as diverse as sociolinguists and playwrights;Speech Hedge, created with the assistance of Ryan McLeod, is a visualisation of how someone might interact with nuanced tone of voice using a conventional communication aid in combination with an interface on a smart phone. Audience responses to each project have illuminated the perspectives from which laypeople conceive of tone of voice, challenging the conventional emotional model that dominates speech technology in favour of something more complex and heterogeneous. In order to reconcile such complexity with simplicity of use, design principles have been distilled that could inspire future user interfaces but also inform further research. This research has been published and presented within different academic fields, including design research, interaction design and augmentative and alternative communication.
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Lee, Ok Joo. "The prosody of questions in Beijing Mandarin". Connect to this title online, 2005. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=osu1122332580.
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Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2005.Title from first page of PDF file. Document formatted into pages; contains xvii, 190 p.; also includes graphics. Includes bibliographical references (p. 181-190). Available online via OhioLINK's ETD Center
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Peng, Shu-hui. "Phonetic Implementation and Perception of Place Coarticulation and Tone Sandhi". The Ohio State University, 1996. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1384525774.
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Kwok, Chui-ling Irene, i 郭翠玲. "Electropalatographic investigation of normal Cantonese speech: a qualitative and quantitative analysis". Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 1992. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B38626135.
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Jian, Francine Hua-Li. "Suprasegmental properties of Taiwanese speech and their role in human perception and recognition by machine". Thesis, University of Reading, 1999. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.298416.
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Xu, Nan. "Tones and vowels in Cantonese infant directed speech : hyperarticulation during the first 12 months of infancy". Thesis, View thesis, 2008. http://handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/37423.
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In speech, vowels and consonants are two the basic sounds that combined result in lexically meaningful items in all languages. In tone languages, changes in pitch, tone differences also make meaningful lexical distinctions in spoken words. Young infants appear to have no trouble perceiving speech sounds and their production of sounds peculiar to their particular language environment proceeds relatively smoothly and rapidly compared with adults’ acquisition of foreign languages. One way of looking at how infants come to acquire speech sounds of their first language is by examining the speech input they receive. The term infant-directed speech (IDS) has been coined to describe the special way adults and even older children speak to infants. IDS is different to adult-directed speech in various acoustic/phonetic modifications, such as exaggerated prosody, increased pitch and vowel hyperarticulation (Burnham, Kitamura, and Vollmer-Conna, 2002; Kuhl et al., 1997). The exaggerated prosody and increased pitch appear to be related to the expression of affect and gaining infants’ attention (Burnham, Kitamura, and Vollmer-Conna, 2002), whereas vowel hyperarticulation appears to be related to infants’ speech development for a number of reasons. Firstly, investigating how adults speak to foreigners, Uther, Knoll, and Burnham (2007) found that vowels are also hyperarticulated in foreigner-directed speech as in IDS, while other acoustic modifications such as exaggerated prosody and increased pitch, related to affective and attentional factors, are not present in foreigner directed speech. Secondly, Liu, Kuhl, and Tsao (2003) found a positive correlation between vowel hyperarticulation and infants’ native speech perception; mothers who hyperarticulated their vowels more had infants who were better able to discriminate native consonant contrasts.\ While vowel hyperarticulation in IDS to 6-month-olds has been investigated in both tone languages such as Mandarin (Liu et al., 2003), and non-tone languages such as Russian, Swedish, American English (Kuhl et al., 1997) and Australian English (Burnham et al, 2002), no parallel studies have been conducted on the possibility of tone hyperarticulation in tone language IDS. If vowel hyperarticulation is related to infants’ language development then tones in tone hyperarticulated. The possibility of tone as well as vowel hyperarticulation in IDS of the tone language Cantonese, and the development of hyperarticulation across the first
12 months of infancy were investigated here using a longitudinal sequential cohort design. Two groups of native Cantonese mothers were recorded speaking to their infants, the first group at 3, 6, and 9 months, and the second at 6, 9, and 12 months. The study had four main aims (1) to investigate whether tone hyperarticulation occurs in IDS in a tone language Cantonese (2) to investigate whether vowel hyperarticulation occurs in IDS in Cantonese (IDS in this languages had not yet been investigated) and if 1 and 2 are the cases (3) to compare tone and vowel hyperarticulation, and (4) to chart the development of tone and vowel hyperarticulation across the infant’s first 12 months. Contrary to previous findings of vowel hyperarticulation in English Russian, Swedish, and Mandarin IDS to 6-month-olds (Burnham et al., 2002; Kuhl et al., 1997); vowel hyperarticulation was not found for Cantonese IDS. More detailed acoustic analysis examining different dimensions of the vowel space suggest that after the infant is 3 months old, mothers’ vowels begin to be hypoarticulated in IDS compared to ADS on dimensions of back versus front, and high versus low. This pattern of results is consistent with vowel perception studies which suggest that infants have already tuned into the native vowel categories by 4 to 6 months (Polka and Werker, 1994). Tone hyperarticulation, on the other hand, was indeed present at 3 months and increased to peak at 6 to 9 months before declining at 12 months. This pattern of tone hyperarticulation across the first year of infancy is consistent with infant language development – in which attenuation of perception of non-native tones had been found between 6 to 9 months (Mattock and Burnham, 2006). Moreover, detailed phonetic analysis revealed that while the level tones are more hyperarticulated than the contour tones, tones with similar onsets and offsets (i.e., the two rising tones) are actually hypoarticulated in IDS at 9 and 12 months, a time when infants have already tuned into native tones. Finally, results from a preliminary native speech discrimination study using the same infants provide some initial indication that mothers who hyperarticulate tones more also had infants who are better able to discriminate native Cantonese consonants. Together these results suggest that in Cantonese IDS vowels are underspecified whereas tones are consistently over-specified particularly at 6 months when infants are tuning into native tones. Moreover, during this initial period of tone acquisition, only level tones are over specified while tones with similar onsets and offsets are underspecified. It seems likely that for Cantonese language environment infants, during the early stages of language acquisition, pitch information specified by level tones is sufficient for initial acquisition of information about the Cantonese tone space and that information about vowels is not so essential at this time. These studies show that there is indeed tone hyperarticulation in IDS in tone languages, and that in order to make sense of the vowel hyperarticulation data in tone languages, it is important to investigate both vowels and tones in tone languages with complex tone systems such as Cantonese, instead of simply applying Anglocentric notions of vowel hypoarticulation.
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Cabrera, Laurianne. "Développement de la perception de la parole et du traitement auditif des modulations spectro-temporelles : études comportementales chez le nourrisson". Thesis, Paris 5, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013PA05H112/document.
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Cette thèse vise à caractériser le traitement auditif des informations spectro-temporelles impliquées dans la perception de la parole au cours du développement précoce. Dans ce but, les capacités de discrimination de contrastes phonétiques sont évaluées à l’aide de deux méthodes comportementales chez des enfants âgés de 6 et 10 mois. Les sons de parole sont dégradés par des « vocodeurs » conçus pour réduire sélectivement les modulations spectrales et/ou temporelles des stimuli phonétiquement contrastés.Les trois premières études de cette thèse montrent que les informations spectro-temporelles fines de la parole (les indices de modulation de fréquence et détails spectraux) ne sont pas nécessaires aux enfants français de 6 mois pour percevoir le trait phonétique de voisement et de lieu d’articulation. Comme pour les adultes français, les informations de modulation d’amplitude les plus lentes semblent suffire pour percevoir ces traits phonétiques. Les deux dernières études montrent cependant que les informations spectro-temporelles fines sont requises pour la discrimination de tons lexicaux (variations de hauteur liée au sens de mots monosyllabiques) chez les enfants français et taiwanais de 6 mois. De plus, ces études montrent l’influence de l’expérience linguistique sur le poids perceptif de ces informations de modulations dans la discrimination de la parole chez les jeunes adultes et les enfants français et taiwanais de 10 mois.Ces études montrent que les mécanismes auditifs spectro-temporels sous-tendant la perception de la parole sont efficaces dès l’âge de 6 mois, mais que ceux-ci vont être influencés par l’exposition à l’environnement linguistique dans les mois suivants. Enfin, cette thèse discute les implications de ces résultats vis-à-vis de l’implantation précoce des enfants sourds profonds qui reçoivent des informations de modulations dégradéesThe goal of this doctoral research was to characterize the auditory processing of the spectro-temporal cues involved in speech perception during development. The ability to discriminate phonetic contrasts was evaluated in 6- and 10-month-old infants using two behavioral methods. The speech sounds were processed by “vocoders” designed to reduce selectively the spectro-temporal modulation content of the phonetically contrasting stimuli. The first three studies showed that fine spectro-temporal modulation cues (the frequency-modulation cues and spectral details) are not required for the discrimination of voicing and place of articulation in French-learning 6-month-old infants. As for French adults, 6-month-old infants can discriminate those phonetic features on the sole basis of the slowest amplitude-modulation cues. The last two studies revealed that the fine modulation cues are required for lexical-tone (pitch variations related to the meaning of one-syllable word) discrimination in French- and Mandarin-learning 6-month-old infants. Furthermore, the results showed the influence of linguistic experience on the perceptual weight of these modulation cues in both young adults and 10-month-old infants learning either French or Mandarin.This doctoral research showed that the spectro-temporal auditory mechanisms involved in speech perception are efficient at 6 months of age, but will be influenced by the linguistic environment during the following months. Finally, the present research discusses the implications of these findings for cochlear implantation in profoundly deaf infants who have only access to impoverished speech modulation cues
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Silveira, Alfredo Christofoletti. "Ditongos no Português de São Tomé e Príncipe". Universidade de São Paulo, 2013. http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/8/8142/tde-30072013-105553/.
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O objeto deste trabalho é investigar a realização dos ditongos orais no português vernacular de São Tomé e Príncipe (pvs). Esta variedade de português está em contato com outras línguas faladas no país e difere do sistema linguístico da variedade considerada padrão, o português europeu (pe) (FIGUEIREDO, 2010; GONÇALVES, 2010; CHRISTOFOLETTI, 2011; SANTOS & CHRISTOFOLETTI, 2011). A hipótese para as peculiaridades do comportamento do sistema fonético-fonológico do pvs é o aprendizado do português como L2 (por gerações passadas recentes) (HAGEMEIJER, 2009; GONÇALVES, 2010), e a influência do contato com as línguas crioulas faladas no país, como o santome (FERRAZ, 1979), o principense (MAURER, 2009), o angolar (MAURER, 1995) e o kabuverdianu, visto que as comunidades são, em geral, bilíngues ou convivem em espaços multilíngues. As mudanças linguísticas intergeracionais e o contato também justificariam o comportamento na realização dos ditongos que possuem variações em sua realização no pvs. O corpus deste trabalho é formado por gravações de fala espontânea de 18 informantes, coletados na capital de stp por meio da sociolinguística variacionista (LABOV, 1991 [1972]). A justificativa para o estudo das realizações dos ditongos, constatada a singularidade de suas realizações, é observar o comportamento de uma variante de português em um ambiente multilíngue; aumentar o nosso conhecimento sobre essa variante; confrontar um sistema em diglossia; possibilitar outros estudos sobre o pvs e comparações com outras variantes de português nos Países Africanos de Língua Oficial Portuguesa. Em relação às variáveis sociais, há uma relação da aplicação do processo de monotongação com a quantidade de anos de escolaridade, sendo que as pessoas mais escolarizadas tendem evitar mais a monotongação do que as pessoas menos escolarizadas. Ademais, foi constatada a singularidade do sistema fonético-fonológico dessa variedade africana de português, pois, diferente da norma europeia (MATEUS & DANDRADE, 2000; MATEUS, 2002), considerada de prestígio no país, o pvs realiza a monotongação dos ditongos [eI ], como em dinheiro [di\"ñeKU], primeiro [pri\"meKU] e feijoada [feZu\"ad5], sugerindo uma aproximação ao comportamento do português brasileiro (pb) (cf. BISOL 1991, 1994; ARAÚJO 1999; LOPES 2002 e outros), todavia, a monotongação ocorre ainda em contextos nos quais tanto nas variantes do pb, como nas do pe, ela é bloqueada. Assim, ocorre a monotongação mesmo quando a consoante seguinte é uma oclusiva alveolar surda [t], como em feitiço [fe\"tisU], leitão [le\"tãU ] e direito [di\"KetU], fato não documentado no pb ou no pe. Com relação ao ditongo [oU ] no pvs, a monotongação é categórica, assim como nos estudos apresentados sobre variação nos ditongos de outras variedades de português. No que diz respeito ao ditongo [oI ], observamos que a variação na aplicação da monotongação ocorre apenas quando seguido pela consoante [S], responsável pelo espraiamento do nó vocálico criando o glide [I ] via processo fonético. O ditongo [aI ], por sua vez, sofreu variação no processo de monotongação fundamentalmente diante de consoante palatal, nos demais contextos sua ocorrência foi pouco produtiva. Do mesmo modo, o ditongo [eU ] teve baixo índice de ocorrência de monotongação, sendo mantido em quase todos os contextos. Os demais ditongos, [EI ], [EU ], [uI ] e [iU ], tiveram raras ocorrências, e foi impossível observar variações em suas realizações.The purpose of this work is to investigate the realization of oral diphthongs in vernacular portuguese of Sao Tome and Principe (pvs). This variety of portuguese is in contact with other languages spoken in the country and differs from the linguistic system of the considered standard variety, the european portuguese (pe) (FIGUEIREDO, 2010; GONÇALVES, 2010; CHRISTOFOLETTI, 2011; SANTOS & CHRISTOFOLETTI, 2011). The hypothesis for the behavior of the phonetic-phonological system of pvs is the learning of portuguese as L2 (from recent past generations) (HAGEMEIJER, 2009; GONÇALVES, 2010), and the influence of contact with the creole languages spoken in the country, as the santome (FERRAZ, 1979), the principense (MAURER, 2009), angolar (MAURER, 1995) and kabuverdianu, since the communities are usually bilingual or living in multilingual environment. The intergenerational linguistic changes and the linguistic contact also justify the behavior in the realization of diphthongs that have variations in their realization in pvs. The corpus of this study consists of recordings of spontaneous speech of 18 informants, collected in the capital of stp through the assumptions of sociolinguistic theory and method (LABOV, 1991 [1972]). The reason to study the achievements of diphthongs, noted the uniqueness of its accomplishments, is to observe the behavior of a variant from portuguese in a multilingual environment; increase our knowledge of this variant; confront a system in diglossia; enable further studies on the pvs and compare it with other variants in the African countries witch have portuguese as official language. Regarding social variables, there is a link to the application of the process of monophthongization with the number of years of schooling, once that people with more time of school education tend to avoid monophthongization than people with less time of school education. Moreover, it was found the uniqueness of the phonetic-phonological system of pvs, because, unlike the pe (MATEUS & DANDRADE, 2000; MATEUS, 2002), considered prestigious in the country, pvs performs the monophthongization of diphthongs [eI ], as seeing in dinheiro [di\"ñeKU], primeiro [pri\"meKU] and feijoada [feZu\"ad5], it suggests an approach to behavior of Brazilian portuguese (pb) (cf. BISOL 1991, 1994; ARAÚJO 1999; LOPES 2002 e outros), however, monophthongization still occurs in contexts in both the variants whrer it is blocked as pb, as in the pe. So monophthongization occurs even when the following consonant is an voiceless alveolar occlusive [t], as in feitiço [fe\"tisU], leitão [le\"tãU ] e direito [di\"KetU], nons-documented fact in pb or pe. Regarding the diphthong [oU ] in pvs the monophthongization is categorical, as shown in studies on diphthongs variation in other varieties of portuguese. With respect to the diphthong [oI ] we observed that the variation in the application of monophthongization occurs only when it followed by the consonant [S], responsible for spreading the vocalic feature creating the glide [I ] through phonetic process. The diphthong [aI ] suffered variation in the monophthongization process, mainly before palatal consonant, in other contexts its occurrence was not very productive. Similarly, the diphthong [eU ] had a low rate of occurrence of monophthongization, and was kept in almost all contexts. The other diphthongs, [EI ], [EU ], [uI ] and [iU ], had rare occurrences, and it was impossible to observe variations in their realizations.
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Liu, Tong [Verfasser], Bernd [Akademischer Betreuer] Pompino-Marschall i Hans Georg [Akademischer Betreuer] Piroth. "„Ich verstehe nur Chinesisch!“ : Kontrastierung der chinesischen und deutschen Phonetik/Phonologie als Basis für die Entwicklung von Lehr- und Lernmaterialien für Deutschlernende chinesischer Muttersprache / Tong Liu. Gutachter: Bernd Pompino-Marschall ; Hans Georg Piroth". Berlin : Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Philosophische Fakultät II, 2015. http://d-nb.info/1075245036/34.
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Lee, Seunghun Julio. "Consonant-tone interaction in optimality theory". 2008. http://hdl.rutgers.edu/1782.2/rucore10001600001.ETD.17514.
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"Exploitation of effective temporal cues for lexical tone recognition of Chinese". Thesis, 2009. http://library.cuhk.edu.hk/record=b6074752.
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Lexical tone plays an important role in tonal languages. Acoustically, pitch is determined by the periodicity of speech, which is measured as the fundamental frequency (F0) of acoustic signals. In each tonal language, there are a certain number of lexical tones that are described by distinctive pitch contours. Cantonese and Mandarin have four and six tones, respectively.People with sensorineural hearing loss have difficulty in utilizing spectral information for speech recognition and rely heavily on temporal information. The temporal information of speech is divided into three parts, based on the rate of amplitude fluctuation: temporal envelope (below 50 Hz), periodicity (50-500 Hz), and fine structure (above 500 Hz).
Previous studies show that hearing-impaired people have difficulties in perceiving tones, even though they are aided with cochlear implants (CIs). In this thesis, two approaches are investigated to improve Chinese tone recognition. In the first approach, TEPCs go through a process of non-linear expansion in order to increase the modulation depth of periodicity-related amplitude fluctuation. Results of listening tests show that TEPC expansion leads to a noticeable improvement on tone identification accuracy. In the second approach, the effectiveness of enhancing temporal periodicity cues in noise is investigated. Temporal periodicity cues are simplified into a sinusoidal wave with frequency equivalent to the F0 of speech. This leads to a consistent and significant improvement on tone identification performance at different noise levels. This part of research is expected to be helpful in designing CI processing strategy for effective speech perception of tonal languages.
The goals of this thesis are to investigate what are the effective temporal cues for lexical tone perception of Chinese and how to manipulate or enhance these cues for better performance of tone perception. We adopt the research method of acoustic simulation with normal-hearing subjects. A four-channel noise-excited vocoder is used to generate test stimuli for tone identification.
We compare the contributions of temporal envelope and periodicity components (TEPCs) from different frequency regions to tone recognition in Cantonese and Mandarin. It is observed that TEPCs from high-frequency region (1-4 kHz) are more important than those from low-frequency region (< 1 kHz). In noise condition, tone recognition performance with temporal cues degrades and more spectral information is needed.
Yuan, Meng.
Adviser: Tan Lee.
Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 71-01, Section: B, page: 0565.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2009.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 131-146).
Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, MI : ProQuest Information and Learning Company, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Abstracts in English and Chinese.
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"ERP studies of tone lateralization". Thesis, 2009. http://library.cuhk.edu.hk/record=b6074971.
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In my Event-Related Potential studies, these two factors are analyzed collectively. Two dichotic listening experiments, one word phonological priming experiment, and one sentence semantic violation experiment are conducted. The results indicate that the linguistic role (e.g. semantics) causes the tone processing toward the left side, whereas the physical property causes the tone processing toward the right side.In this dissertation, I discuss the effects of the linguistic role and the physical property on the hemispheric specialization (lateralization) of the lexical tones. In the previous studies of lateralization, there are two contradictory hypotheses. One emphasizes the linguistic role and predicts a left lateralization of tone perception, while the other emphasizes the physical property and predicts a right lateralization of tone perception. Both hypotheses have their supporting evidence.
No previous tone lateralization studies have analyzed the underlying factors. Following the philosophy that language is built upon multiple cognitive functions, I further examine the effects of semantic memory and pitch processing on the lateralization of tones in various language tasks. My findings help bridge the previous theoretical discrepancies and unify the conflicting experimental results regarding tone lateralization.
Shuai, Lan
Adviser: William S-Y. Wang.
Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 73-01, Section: B, page: .
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2009.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 144-153).
Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Electronic reproduction. [Ann Arbor, MI] : ProQuest Information and Learning, [201-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Abstract also in Chinese.
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Steed, William James. "Lishui Wu tone and tone sandhi : an acoustically-based description". Phd thesis, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/1885/150520.
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This thesis describes tone and tone sandhi in the Lishui {u4E3D}{u6C34} variety of Wu Chinese from the Chuqu {u5904}{u8862} subgroup in southern Zhejiang, using data from three speakers. The description is both auditory and (normalised-) acoustic, and includes also a derivational account of the tonology, and a description of Lishui segmental phonology and common lexicon. Descriptions are given for citation tones and disyllabic lexical tone sandhi. The results show that, according to Chao's (1928) synchronic typology of Wu, Lishui does not have a typically Wu phonology. Segmentally, Lishui lacks the diagnostic three-way distinction between syllable-initial stops and affricates, distinguishing only +/-aspirated obstruents (with the -aspirated obstruents showing free variation in voicing). Like the Northern Min dialects to its south, its tone sandhi is right-focussed: word-final tones are realised mostly the same as in isolation (although there are some changes), but non-word-final tones have different realisations determined by their input tone and the following tone. Lishui has seven citation tones: mid dipping [324], high and low falling-level [433], [211], high falling [52], low convex [342], and high [5] and low [23] stopped tones. The normalised tonal acoustics show that citation realisations are consistent between speakers. Although the realisation of tones on non-word-final syllables is also shown by normalisation to be mostly consistent between speakers, considerable between-speaker variation is demonstrated in the incidence of these realisations. One of the interesting findings is that the number of realisations on non-word-final syllables, although representing neutralisation of citation contrasts, is often greater than found in citation tones. Moreover, there are very few instances of phonetically motivated sandhi changes, and the changes are usually better expressed in terms of abstract categories which relate to Middle Chinese tonal categories. It is shown that, as a result, a derivational account of the non-word-final tonal realisations is messy. The between-speaker variation in tone sandhi suggests that Lishui tone sandhi is changing quickly.
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"Perceptual normalization of inter- and intra-talker variations in tone categorization: 声调感知中话者间及话者内差异的归一化". 2014. http://library.cuhk.edu.hk/record=b6116151.
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人类如何在颜色、视觉对象和听觉对象存在很大差异的情况下实现感知恒定，这是认知神经科学的一个根本问题。大脑处理差异的一个重要办法是依靠背景环境，为感知颜色、视觉对象和听觉对象提供参照。在语音感知中，在言语信号中存在话者间以及话者内差异的情况下实现语音恒定也是很关键的。根据语境归一化机制，听者可以通过语境（即目标语音周围的其他语音）适应话者的语音空间。在本论文中，我以声调为例考察了语音恒定的问题。第一，在一个跨语言研究中，我发现不同语音系统的结构会影响听者听辨多个话者所发的声调。普通话听者可以不靠语境准确地听辨多个话者所发的声调，而广东话听者则被多个话者间的音高差异误导。这一不同可以归根于广东话声调系统中存在多个调型相同的平调。这一发现有助理解不同语音系统的结构对于话者差异的影响的抵抗力。
第二，我发现而广东话听者需要语境以估计某一话者的单调范围来帮助判断平调。带有相同基频信息的言语语境和非言语语境的作用不同。非言语语境的作用很小，而言语语境，无论是否有语义，都有作用，不过有语义的言语语境作用更大。
关于语境归一化的神经基础，我最早在N400 时间窗（250-500 毫秒）发现了归一化效应。这说明言语语境提供话者的音高参照以准确地分析词的语音特征，帮助词义提取。当归一化以一种自上而下的方式实施时，归一化的发生不晚于音素加工阶段（PMN，220-350 毫秒）。这些探索性的EEG 研究是最早考察语境归一化的神经基础的研究。
第三，我提出了一个关于语音在大脑中表征的混合模型，以整合两种对立的观点。这个模型中，低层表征是实际听到的不同话者所说的语音的例子，高层表征则是反映不同话者间语音相似性的更为抽象的表征。我找到了一些初步的支持证据，比如语音辨认的准确性与话者的音高在群体分布中的典型性有显著相关。这说明高层的表征形式是由一个语言社区中话者音高的总体分布所决定的。这一模型需要被进一步检验，比如通过语言习得研究，考察习得新语音范畴时低层和高层表征的动态发展。
总之，本论文对于理解语音系统的结构有帮助，并且阐明了语境归一化的机制和神经基础以及语音的多层表征形式。但是还有很多未解决的问题有待进一步考察。
How humans achieve constancy in the perception of color, visual object and auditory object despite the tremendous variation is a fundamental question in cognitive neuroscience. An important way that the brain tackles variation is through reliance on the context, which provides a reference for the perception of an object. In speech perception, it is critical to achieve phonetic constancy above the inter- and intra-talker variation in speech signals. According to the context-dependent normalization mechanism, listeners adapt to a talker’s phonetic space via the context (i.e., neighboring sounds of a speech sound to be recognized). This contextually built phonetic space serves as a reference for compensating for talker variation. In this thesis, I have examined the question of phonetic constancy using lexical tones as a case study.
Firstly, in a cross-linguistic study, I found that the structure of phonological inventories influences categorization of multi-talker tone stimuli. Mandarin listeners correctly categorized multi-talker stimuli without contexts, whereas Cantonese listeners were misguided by acoustic variation between talkers, a difference attributable to the existence of multiple level tones with a similar F0 contour in Cantonese. This finding has implications for understanding the structure of phonological inventories in terms of resistance to talker variability.
Secondly, I found that Cantonese listeners could resolve the ambiguity of level tones by adapting to talker-specific pitch references via a context. Speech and nonspeech contexts contribute unequally to talker adaptation. Nonspeech contexts have a minimal effect, whereas speech contexts, no matter meaningful or not, facilitate adaptation, but congruent semantic content further enlarges the facilitatory effect.
As for the neural locus of context-dependent normalization, I found normalization effects in the N400 time-window (250-500 ms). It indicates that speech contexts facilitate retrieval of semantic memory, by providing talker-specific references to accurately assess the phonetic property of a word. When implemented in a top-down manner, context-dependent normalization occurs no later than the phonemic level of processing (Phonological Mapping Negativity, 220-350 ms). These EEG studies, though exploratory, are among the first to examine the neural processes of context-dependent normalization.
Thirdly, I proposed a hybrid model of mental representations to reconcile two opposite views. In this model, at a lower level are encountered exemplars of speech sounds from different talkers, and at a higher level are abstract representations that reflect the general similarity of speech sounds across talkers. I found initial evidence for this model, such as a significant correlation between the identification accuracy and the typicality of a talker’s pitch range in the population distribution, which suggests that higher-level representations are shaped by the global distribution of talkers’ vocal characteristics in a community. This model needs to be further tested in studies on language learning to examine dynamic development of talker-specific and abstract representations for new phonological categories.
In conclusion, this thesis has implications for understanding the structure of phonological inventories in the world’s languages; it also sheds light on mechanisms and neural processes of context-dependent normalization and the hybrid nature of mental representations. Many unresolved questions remain to be examined in future studies.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Zhang, Caicai.
Thesis (Ph.D.) Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2014.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 173-194).
Abstracts also in Chinese.
Zhang, Caicai.
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Mattock, Karen, University of Western Sydney i of Arts Education and Social Sciences College. "Perceptual reorganisation for tone : linguistic tone and non-linguistic pitch perception by English language and Chinese language infants". 2004. http://handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/27010.
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Young infants can discriminate a great variety of speech sounds both native and nonnative in their language environment. The focus of the perceptual reorganisation research to date has been on infants’ discrimination of nonnative segments, in particular, consonants and vowels. In tone languages (eg. Cantonese, Mandarin, and Thai) phonemic distinctions are signalled not only by consonants and vowels, but also by lexical tone – consisting of variations in fundamental frequency (pitch) and related features. Although such languages are spoken by over half the world’s population, the development of lexical tone perception has been relatively neglected. This thesis addresses whether perceptual reorganisation occurs for tone in infancy. Overall, the results of experiments conducted support the hypotheses and the existence of perceptual reorganisation for tone in infancy, similar to that for consonants and vowels. Implications of the results for speech perception development theories, “tone space”, tone acquisition, and early word learning are discussed, and future studies relating to these issues suggested.Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
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"Intonation-lexical tone transfer in the second language acquisition of Mandarin". 2008. http://library.cuhk.edu.hk/record=b5896826.
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Harrison, Alissa May.Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2008.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 184-194).
Abstracts in English and Chinese.
Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1
Chapter 1.1 --- Intonation´ؤlexical tone transfer --- p.3
Chapter 1.2 --- Unresolved issues of intonation-lexical tone transfer --- p.8
Chapter 1.3 --- Objectives of this study --- p.10
Chapter 1.4 --- Hypotheses of intonation-lexical tone transfer in L2 Mandarin --- p.12
Chapter 1.5 --- Methodology and experimental results --- p.13
Chapter 1.6 --- Major findings and conclusions --- p.15
Chapter 1.7 --- Outline of the thesis --- p.16
Chapter 2 --- "Background of Mandarin, English, and Japanese prosody" --- p.18
Chapter 2.1 --- Prosodic phonology --- p.19
Chapter 2.1.1 --- Defining the components of prosody --- p.19
Chapter 2.1.2 --- Theoretical basis for intonation and lexical tone inter- action --- p.23
Chapter 2.2 --- Mandarin prosody --- p.32
Chapter 2.3 --- English prosody --- p.41
Chapter 2.4 --- Japanese prosody --- p.49
Chapter 2.5 --- Summary of prosodic similarities and differences --- p.54
Chapter 3 --- Previous studies of intonation and lexical tone acquisition --- p.61
Chapter 3.1 --- Second language acquisition --- p.62
Chapter 3.1.1 --- Interlanguage --- p.62
Chapter 3.1.2 --- Defining transfer --- p.63
Chapter 3.1.3 --- Theories of L2 phonological acquisition --- p.66
Chapter 3.2 --- Comparison of first and second language acquisition --- p.71
Chapter 3.2.1 --- Lexical tone --- p.71
Chapter 3.2.2 --- Intonation --- p.74
Chapter 3.3 --- L1 intonation transfer in Mandarin L2 lexical tone acquisition --- p.77
Chapter 3.3.1 --- Initial hypotheses of intonation-lexical tone transfer --- p.77
Chapter 3.3.2 --- Experimental studies claiming intonation-lexical tone transfer --- p.85
Chapter 3.3.3 --- Unaddressed issues of previous studies --- p.91
Chapter 4 --- Methodology of production and perception experiments --- p.94
Chapter 4.1 --- Hypotheses --- p.94
Chapter 4.2 --- Design --- p.97
Chapter 4.3 --- Subjects --- p.101
Chapter 4.4 --- Procedures --- p.102
Chapter 4.5 --- Data transcription and statistical analysis --- p.105
Chapter 5 --- Results of production and perception experiments --- p.108
Chapter 5.1 --- Production experiment results --- p.108
Chapter 5.1.1 --- Effect of lexical tone category on pitch production --- p.109
Chapter 5.1.2 --- Effect of sentence type on pitch production --- p.119
Chapter 5.1.3 --- Summary of tone production results --- p.126
Chapter 5.2 --- Perception experiment results --- p.128
Chapter 5.2.1 --- Effect of lexical tone category on lexical tone identifi- cation --- p.128
Chapter 5.2.2 --- Effect of sentence type on lexical tone identification --- p.136
Chapter 5.2.3 --- Summary of tone perception results --- p.143
Chapter 6 --- Discussion of experimental results and intonation-lexical tone transfer hypothesis --- p.146
Chapter 6.1 --- Analysis of experimental results --- p.147
Chapter 6.1.1 --- Lack of postlexical tone transfer --- p.148
Chapter 6.1.2 --- Postlexical tone prior to lexical tone acquisition --- p.156
Chapter 6.1.3 --- Factors in lexical tone errors --- p.166
Chapter 6.2 --- Limitations of methodological design --- p.170
Chapter 6.2.1 --- Size of experimental data sample --- p.170
Chapter 6.2.2 --- Proficiency levels and testing --- p.172
Chapter 6.2.3 --- Method of elicitation --- p.173
Chapter 7 --- Conclusions --- p.177
Chapter 7.1 --- Summary --- p.177
Chapter 7.2 --- Implications --- p.178
Chapter 7.2.1 --- Prosodic phonology --- p.178
Chapter 7.2.2 --- Second language acquisition --- p.180
Chapter 7.3 --- Future Work --- p.181
Chapter A --- Production Experiment Materials --- p.195
Chapter A.l --- Wordlist --- p.195
Chapter A.2 --- Sentences --- p.196
Chapter B --- Perception Experiment Materials --- p.199
Chapter B.l --- Wordlist --- p.199
Chapter B.2 --- Sentences --- p.200
Chapter C --- F0 contours of target word productions --- p.203
43
"Perceptual reorganisation for tone : linguistic tone and non-linguistic pitch perception by English language and Chinese language infants". Thesis, 2004. http://handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/27010.
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Young infants can discriminate a great variety of speech sounds both native and nonnative in their language environment. The focus of the perceptual reorganisation research to date has been on infants’ discrimination of nonnative segments, in particular, consonants and vowels. In tone languages (eg. Cantonese, Mandarin, and Thai) phonemic distinctions are signalled not only by consonants and vowels, but also by lexical tone – consisting of variations in fundamental frequency (pitch) and related features. Although such languages are spoken by over half the world’s population, the development of lexical tone perception has been relatively neglected. This thesis addresses whether perceptual reorganisation occurs for tone in infancy. Overall, the results of experiments conducted support the hypotheses and the existence of perceptual reorganisation for tone in infancy, similar to that for consonants and vowels. Implications of the results for speech perception development theories, “tone space”, tone acquisition, and early word learning are discussed, and future studies relating to these issues suggested.
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"Categorical perception of lexical tones: behavioral and psychophysiological study". Thesis, 2010. http://library.cuhk.edu.hk/record=b6074889.
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All these four factors influence the degree of CP. In the discussion, both general auditory processing and language specific processing are suggested to be responsible for the various types of exhibition of CP, although they have different weights for different factors. Different patterns of CP were also observed in three temporal stages due to different weights of these two types of processing. In summary, a multistage model which includes both general auditory processing and language specific processing is proposed to explain the CP of lexical tones. This model improves previous models by proposing that the weights of these two types of processing in speech perception depend on the types of factors, and the temporal processing stages.Finally, for the first time in the literature, the thesis also reported that even though a tone contrast (i.e., level vs. rising) is present in both tone systems, the same contrast is perceived differently by the two groups of subjects by virtue of their different language experiences.
Four factors were studied. They were (1) intrinsic acoustic properties of pitch contours by comparison between continua of level tones and contour tones; (2) positions of target syllables relative to context (without contextual sentence, at the beginning and at the end of the contextual sentence); (3) language backgrounds by comparison between listeners with different tone experiences; and (4) carrier syllables (real word, non word, and nonspeech). Three temporal stages were studied in the same experimental paradigm. They were (1) the preattentive stage investigated through the mismatch negativity (MMN); (2) the attentive stage investigated through the P300; and (3) the overt response stage investigated through the hit rate data.
Pitch contour or its acoustic correlate, fundamental frequency (F0), distinguishes lexical meanings in tone languages. Two topics on CP of lexical tones were studied in the thesis: (1) the factors influencing CP, and (2) the temporal process of CP. These two topics were investigated through both behavioral and event-related-potential (ERP) methods on Cantonese and Mandarin tones.
Speech sounds vary across different conditions and subjects; nevertheless, listeners perceive the phonemes without difficulties. Categorical perception (CP) occurs when listeners map the varying speech sounds into discrete phonemic categories. In CP, to discriminate a pair of stimuli that cross a category boundary is much easier than those that lie within the same category, even though both pairs are separated by an equal physical difference. CP is one of the important properties essential for speech perception.
Zheng, Hongying.
Adviser: William Shi-Yuan Wang.
Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 72-04, Section: A, page: .
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2010.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 179-194).
Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, MI : ProQuest Information and Learning Company, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Abstract also in Chinese; appendix 2 in Chinese.
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Chang, Seung-Eun 1971. "The phonetics and phonology of South Kynugsang Korean tones". Thesis, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/3553.
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South Kyungsang Korean is spoken in the southeastern part of Korea. The critical problems in analyzing this language are the substantial inconsistency among authors concerning tonal descriptions, and the typologically unusual tone alternation patterns, which have consequently led to vague tonal contrasts and conflicting data. Given that the majority of earlier studies on this language have been based on transcription data, there is limited physical evidence concerning these issues. This research therefore presents the phonetic realization of tonal contrasts, based on F0 production and perception experiments. It was found that there are three distinct tone classes in monosyllabic roots, and they are different in F0 height, syllable duration, and the timing of F0 peak and fall both in unsuffixed words and in suffixed words. It has been suggested, based on this acoustic evidence, that South Kyungsang Korean has three different tone contrasts in monosyllabic roots, e.g., M, H, and R, and that the different tone alternation patterns of these three tone classes in suffixed words might be the reflection of the phonetic implementation of each tone class. This work provides not only new basic facts of South Kyungsang Korean tonology, but also another way of understanding tone targets and tone alternation patterns. While clarifying the complications in a particular language, the findings in this work also contribute to debated topics of modern intonational research, concerning such as phonological and linguistic units in the F0 continuum, the temporal alignment of F0 features with segmental strings, and perception of tonal contrasts.
46
"An Efficient tone classifier for speech recognition of Cantonese". Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1991. http://library.cuhk.edu.hk/record=b5886946.
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by Cheng Yat Ho.Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1991.
Bibliography: leaves 106-108.
Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1
Chapter Chapter 2 --- Preliminary Considerations --- p.8
Chapter 2.1 --- Tone System of Cantonese --- p.8
Chapter 2.2 --- Tone Classification Systems --- p.14
Chapter 2.3 --- Design of a Speech Corpus --- p.17
Chapter Chapter 3 --- Feature Parameters for Tone Classification --- p.22
Chapter 3.1 --- Methodology --- p.22
Chapter 3.2 --- Endpoint Detection and Time Alignment --- p.23
Chapter 3.3 --- Pitch --- p.27
Chapter 3.3.1 --- Pitch Profile Extraction --- p.28
Chapter 3.3.2 --- Evaluation of Pitch Profile --- p.33
Chapter 3.3.3 --- Feature Parameters Derived from Pitch Profile --- p.40
Chapter 3.4 --- Duration --- p.46
Chapter 3.5 --- Energy --- p.49
Chapter 3.5.1 --- Energy Profile Extraction --- p.49
Chapter 3.5.2 --- Evaluation of Energy Profile --- p.50
Chapter 3.6 --- Summary --- p.54
Chapter Chapter 4 --- Implementation of the Tone Classification System --- p.56
Chapter 4.1 --- Intrinsic Pitch Estimation --- p.59
Chapter 4.2 --- The Classifier --- p.63
Chapter 4.2.1 --- Neural Network --- p.64
Chapter 4.2.2 --- Post-Processing Unit --- p.74
Chapter Chapter 5 --- Performance Evaluation on the Tone Classification System --- p.76
Chapter 5.1 --- Single Speaker Tone Classification --- p.77
Chapter 5.2 --- Multi-Speaker and Speaker Independent Tone Classification --- p.82
Chapter 5.2.1 --- Classification with no Phonetic Information --- p.83
Chapter 5.2.2 --- Classification with Known Final Consonants --- p.88
Chapter 5.3 --- Confidence Improvement of the Recognition Results --- p.95
Chapter 5.4 --- Summary --- p.101
Chapter Chapter 6 --- Conclusions and Discussions --- p.102
References --- p.106
Chapter Appendix A --- Vocabulary of the Speech Corpus --- p.A1-A4
Chapter Appendix B --- Statistics of the Pitch Profiles --- p.Bl-Bl5
Chapter Appendix C --- Statistics of the Energy Profiles --- p.Cl-Cl1
RESULTS
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"Tone sandhi of prosodic word in Suzhou Chinese". 2013. http://library.cuhk.edu.hk/record=b5549329.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
本文主要探讨苏州话的连续变调，研究范围限定为音译词和复合词这两类多音节词。通过对苏州话语料的详细考察，本文总结出苏州话多音节词连读变调存在三层变调行为：（i）首音节尽量保留原调;（ii）第二个音节的变调与首音节的单字调有关;（iii）其余音节负载一个低平调.本文针对舒声调为首音节的多音节词的变调规律，回答了如下问题：（i）苏州话连续变调为何存在三层变调行为，而非两层或者四层？（ii）首音节保持原调的变调行为及它较高的负载声调的能力是由什么决定的？（iii）其余音节所负载的变调是如何决定的？
经过分析，我们将苏州话的变调域确认为韵律词，其内部结构如下：每个韵律词的头两个音节构成一个左重双拍音步，剩余的音节不构成音步因而直接被韵律词所管辖。由此苏州话的三层变调行为可以通过这三类音节在韵律词中的不同地位来解释，即：（i）首音节是左重双拍步中的强音节; （ii）第二个音节是左重双拍步中的弱音节; （iii）其余音节因不属于音步而被韵律词直接管辖。
基于对苏州话韵律结构的分析，本文以优选论为框架从理论上统一解释苏州话的连续变调。首先忠实性制约条件“禁止删除强音节单字调和“禁止强音节单字调变化 解释了首音节尽量保留原调的变调行为。其次，“禁止复杂仄调“，“禁止升调“和“禁止弱音节负载仄调这些简约性制约条件解释了现今苏州话连读变调模式中不允许出现复杂仄调，升调和非首音节仄调的现象。再次，“尾音节连接低调解释了连读变调后韵律词尾音节所负载的低平调。
本文通过对音译词和复合词的分类考察，补充了前人对苏州话连读变调现象的描述。而且在以往理论研究的基础上，本文论证了苏州话的连读变调是由它的韵律结构所决定的，由此补足了苏州话变调现象的理论解释。最后，本文对苏州话的分析也进一步印证了韵律结构的层级关系和韵律单位是人类语言所共有的，但韵律单位的构建在不同语言中则各有不同。
This thesis presents an optimality-theoretic account of Suzhou tone sandhi from a prosodic perspective. By investigating transliterations and compounds, we find a three-way distinction of tone sandhi behavior within a tone sandhi domain: (i) the initial syllable has the ability to retain its citation tone; (ii) the second syllable carries a sandhi level tone related to the citation tone in the initial syllable; and (iii) the remaining syllables carry a low level tone.
Focusing on the tone sandhi patterns with initial long tones, we answer the following research questions: (i) what determines the existence of a three-way distinction of tone sandhi behavior, rather than a two-way or four-way one? (ii) what determines the tone stability and the greater tone-bearing ability of the initial syllable? and (iii) how are the sandhi tones in the non-initial syllables determined?
The tone sandhi domain in Suzhou Chinese is identified as the prosodic word, which contains a single left-headed binary foot and unfooted syllables. The three-way distinction is then captured by the three prosodic states in a prosodic word: (i) the strong syllable in the left-headed binary foot within the prosodic word, (ii) the weak syllable in this foot, and (iii) the syllables which are unfooted and immediately dominated by the prosodic word.
Based on the analysis of Suzhou prosodic structure, our account of Suzhou tone sandhi is formulated within the framework of Optimality Theory. First, ranking the positional faithfulness constraints with reference to strong syllables higher than the context-free faithfulness constraints guarantees the tone stability of the initial syllables. Second, the undominated markedness constraints which require no complex contour tone and no rising tone trigger contour tone reduction and tone redistribution. Another undominated markedness constraint which requires no contour tone in weak syllables ensures no contour tones in a weak syllable, i.e. a non-initial syllable in Suzhou Chinese. Third, the final low level tone in the sandhi patterns is determined by the markedness constraint which requires low tone assignment in the rightmost syllable of a prosodic word.
This thesis complements the descriptive studies on Suzhou tone sandhi, by adding the data of transliterations and investigating compounds according to the morphological relations. It also confirms the idea in previous theoretical studies on Chinese languages that prosodic structure governs tone sandhi, including the tone stability in strong syllables and the greater tone-bearing ability of strong syllables. This thesis further corroborates the idea in Prosodic Phonology that the prosodic hierarchy and its constituent are universal, though the precise shape of the constituent are language-specific.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Shi, Xinyuan.
"November 2012."
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013.
Includes bibliographical references.
Abstracts also in Chinese.
ABSTRACT --- p.I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS --- p.I
Chapter CHAPTER 1 --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1
Chapter 1.1 --- OVERVIEW --- p.1
Chapter 1.2 --- PRELIMINARY: PHONETIC INVENTORIES OF SUZHOU CHINESE --- p.2
Chapter 1.3 --- THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: OPTIMALITY THEORY --- p.6
Chapter 1.3.1 --- Basic principles --- p.6
Chapter 1.3.2 --- Conflicts between markedness and faithfulness --- p.9
Chapter 1.3.3 --- Alignment constraints --- p.9
Chapter 1.4 --- ORGANIZATION --- p.10
Chapter CHAPTER 2 --- INVESTIGATION OF TONE SANDHI PATTERNS IN SUZHOU CHINESE --- p.11
Chapter 2.1 --- DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES ON TONAL PHONOLOGY OF SUZHOU CHINESE --- p.11
Chapter 2.1.1 --- Citation tones --- p.11
Chapter 2.1.2 --- Tone sandhi --- p.15
Chapter 2.1.3 --- Interim summary --- p.21
Chapter 2.2 --- TONE SANDHI PATTERNS IN SUZHOU CHINESE: THE CURRENT INVESTIGATION . --- p.22
Chapter 2.2.1 --- Tone sandhi patterns in transliterations --- p.22
Chapter 2.2.1.1 --- Tone sandhi patterns beginning with long tones --- p.23
Chapter 2.2.1.2 --- Tone sandhi patterns beginning with short tones --- p.28
Chapter 2.2.2 --- Tone sandhi patterns in compounds --- p.32
Chapter 2.2.2.1 --- Tone sandhi patterns in compounds I: modification --- p.34
Chapter 2.2.2.2 --- Tone sandhi patterns in compounds II: coordination --- p.38
Chapter 2.2.2.3 --- Tone sandhi patterns in compounds III: other morphological relations --- p.40
Chapter 2.2.2.4 --- Intra-variations in disyllabic compounds: [HL.L]~[HL.H] --- p.42
Chapter 2.2.2.5 --- Inter-speaker variations in compounds: [LL.H]~[LH.H] --- p.44
Chapter 2.2.2.6 --- Tone sandhi in a group of frequently used compounds --- p.46
Chapter 2.2.3 --- Tone sandhi in fast tempo --- p.50
Chapter 2.3 --- SUMMARY --- p.53
Chapter CHAPTER 3 --- PREVIOUS STUDIES OF TONE SANDHI IN CHINESE LANGUAGES --- p.57
Chapter 3.1 --- STUDIES OF THE REPRESENTATION OF TONE WITHIN THE SPE FRAMEWORK --- p.57
Chapter 3.1.1 --- Wang’s (1967) ground-breaking proposal of tone features --- p.58
Chapter 3.1.2 --- Woo’s (1969) proposal of decomposing contour tones --- p.59
Chapter 3.1.3 --- Yip’s (1980) proposal of two pitch heights in each register --- p.61
Chapter 3.1.4 --- Interim summary --- p.63
Chapter 3.2 --- STUDIES OF TONE SANDHI IN NORTHERN WU WITHIN THE METRICAL-AUTOSEGMENTAL FRAMEWORK --- p.64
Chapter 3.2.1 --- Duanmu’s (1990) moraic analysis of tone re-association in New Shanghai --- p.65
Chapter 3.2.2 --- Ao’s (1993) identification of tone sandhi domain in Nantong Chinese --- p.66
Chapter 3.2.3 --- Interim summary --- p.69
Chapter 3.3 --- STUDIES OF TONAL DISTRIBUTION WITHIN OT FRAMEWORK --- p.71
Chapter 3.3.1 --- Jiang-King’s (1996) tone-syllable weight correlation in Northern Min --- p.71
Chapter 3.3.2 --- Zhang’s (2001) tone-duration correlation in typological survey --- p.73
Chapter 3.3.3 --- Interim summary --- p.74
Chapter 3.4 --- SUMMARY --- p.76
Chapter CHAPTER 4 --- AN OPTIMALITY THEORETICAL ACCOUNT OF TONE SANDHI IN SUZHOU CHINESE --- p.77
Chapter 4.1 --- IDENTIFYING THE TONE SANDHI DOMAIN --- p.78
Chapter 4.1.1 --- Identifying prosodic word as the tone sandhi domain --- p.78
Chapter 4.1.1.1 --- Brief introduction of the prosodic hierarchy --- p.78
Chapter 4.1.1.2 --- Prosodic categories relevant to Suzhou tone sandhi --- p.80
Chapter 4.1.1.3 --- Construction of prosodic word in Suzhou Chinese --- p.82
Chapter 4.1.2 --- Identifying morpho-syntactic unit as the tone sandhi domain --- p.86
Chapter 4.1.2.1 --- Inadequacy of identifying morphological unit as the tone sandhi domain --- p.89
Chapter 4.1.2.2 --- The relation between tone sandhi domains and morphological units --- p.91
Chapter 4.1.2.3 --- Mismatch between tone sandhi domain and syntactic unit --- p.93
Chapter 4.1.3 --- Interim summary --- p.95
Chapter 4.2 --- CONSTRAINTS ON SUZHOU TONE SANDHI PATTERNS --- p.96
Chapter 4.2.1 --- Constraints on the structure of the prosodic word --- p.96
Chapter 4.2.2 --- Constraints on tone retention --- p.99
Chapter 4.2.3 --- Constraints on contour tone prohibition --- p.101
Chapter 4.2.4 --- Constraint on tonal assignment --- p.102
Chapter 4.3 --- PREDICTING TONE SANDHI PATTERNS BY CONSTRAINT RANKING --- p.104
Chapter 4.3.1 --- Predicting tone sandhi patterns in transliterations --- p.104
Chapter 4.3.2 --- Predicting tone sandhi patterns in compounds --- p.110
Chapter 4.3.2.1 --- Intra-speaker variations in compounds: [HL.L]~[HL.H] --- p.110
Chapter 4.3.2.3 --- Inter-speaker variations in compounds: [LL.H]~[LH.L] --- p.113
Chapter 4.3.2.4 --- Tone sandhi in fast speech tempo --- p.117
Chapter 4.4 --- SUMMARY --- p.119
Chapter CHAPTER 5 --- CONCLUSION --- p.120
LIST OF REFERENCES --- p.125
48
Schwanhäuβer, Barbara, University of Western Sydney, College of Arts i MARCS Auditory Laboratories. "Lexical tone perception and production : the role of language and musical background". 2007. http://handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/31791.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This thesis is concerned with the perception and production of lexical tone. In the first experiment, categorical perception of asymmetric synthetic tone continua was examined in speakers of tonal (Thai, Mandarin, and Vietnamese) and non-tonal (Australian English) languages. It was observed that perceptual strategies for categorisation depend on language background. Specifically, Mandarin and Vietnamese listeners tended to use the central tone to divide the continuum, whereas Thai and Australian English listeners used a flat no-contour tone as a perceptual anchor; a split based not on tonal vs. non-tonal language background, but rather on the specific language. In the second experiment, tonal (Thai) and non-tonal (Australian English) language speaking musicians and non-musicians were tested on categorical perception of two differently shaped synthetic tone continua. Results showed that, independently of language background, musicians learn to identify tones more quickly, show steeper identification functions, and display higher discrimination accuracy than non-musicians. Experiment three concerns the influence of language aptitude, musical aptitude, musical memory, and musical training on Australian English speakers‟ perception and production of non-native (Thai) tones, consonants, and vowels. The results showed that musicians were better than non-musicians at perceiving and producing tones and consonants; a ceiling effect was observed for vowel perception. Musical training per se did not determine acquisition of novel speech sounds, rather, musicians‟ higher accuracy was explained by a combination of inherent abilities - language and musical aptitude for consonants, and musical aptitude and musical memory for tones. It is concluded that tone perception is language dependent and strongly influenced by musical expertise - musical aptitude and musical memory, not musical training as such.Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
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Chin, Jessica L. "Hakka tone training for native speakers of tonal and nontonal languages". Thesis, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/1959.7/uws:51633.
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Language learning becomes increasingly difficult when novel linguistic features are introduced. Studies have shown that learners from various language backgrounds can be trained to perceive lexical tone, which assigns meaning to words using variations in pitch. In this thesis, we investigated whether native speakers of tonal Mandarin Chinese and tonal Vietnamese outperformed native speakers of nontonal English when learning Hakka Chinese tones following five sessions of tone training, and whether the complexity (i.e., density) of a listener’s native tone inventory facilitated nonnative tone learning. All groups improved in tone identification and tone word learning following training, with improvements persisting three weeks following the cessation of training. Although both tonal groups outperformed the English group in most tasks, the Mandarin group showed the most consistent advantages over the English group across tasks. Findings suggest that tone experience bolsters tone learning, but density of the tone inventory does not provide an advantage. Confusion patterns offer detailed insight of the interaction between nonnative tones and native tonal and intonational categories.
50
Schwanhäuβer, Barbara. "Lexical tone perception and production : the role of language and musical background". Thesis, 2007. http://handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/31791.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This thesis is concerned with the perception and production of lexical tone. In the first experiment, categorical perception of asymmetric synthetic tone continua was examined in speakers of tonal (Thai, Mandarin, and Vietnamese) and non-tonal (Australian English) languages. It was observed that perceptual strategies for categorisation depend on language background. Specifically, Mandarin and Vietnamese listeners tended to use the central tone to divide the continuum, whereas Thai and Australian English listeners used a flat no-contour tone as a perceptual anchor; a split based not on tonal vs. non-tonal language background, but rather on the specific language. In the second experiment, tonal (Thai) and non-tonal (Australian English) language speaking musicians and non-musicians were tested on categorical perception of two differently shaped synthetic tone continua. Results showed that, independently of language background, musicians learn to identify tones more quickly, show steeper identification functions, and display higher discrimination accuracy than non-musicians. Experiment three concerns the influence of language aptitude, musical aptitude, musical memory, and musical training on Australian English speakers‟ perception and production of non-native (Thai) tones, consonants, and vowels. The results showed that musicians were better than non-musicians at perceiving and producing tones and consonants; a ceiling effect was observed for vowel perception. Musical training per se did not determine acquisition of novel speech sounds, rather, musicians‟ higher accuracy was explained by a combination of inherent abilities - language and musical aptitude for consonants, and musical aptitude and musical memory for tones. It is concluded that tone perception is language dependent and strongly influenced by musical expertise - musical aptitude and musical memory, not musical training as such.