Gotowa bibliografia na temat „Teoria general a relativității”

Orientador : Profª. Márcia Carla Pereira Ribeiro<br>Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor de Ciências Jurídicas, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Direito. Defesa: Curitiba, 04/03/2016<br>Inclui referências : f. 229-257<br>Área de concentração<br>Resumo: A dinâmica com que se desenvolve o comércio na atualidade obriga a revisar teorias gerais que permitam estudar e aplicar o direito comercial no contexto econômico e social em que deve atuar. Fenômenos como a internacionalização do comércio ou a constitucionalização do direito, muito presentes em nossa sociedade, exigem realizar uma análise das chamadas fontes formais do direito comercial. Tanto os usos e práticas comerciais, quanto o conjunto de normas comerciais, inicialmente, devem ser analisados desde uma perspectiva histórico-descritiva, isto nos permite além de conhecer estas regras, verificar sua eficiência e efetividade no contexto de onde e quando foram criadas. Considerando que atualmente as instituições - formais e informais - que fazem parte do direito comercial devem elaborar-se para satisfazer os objetivos do comércio e do comerciante, assim como para integrar-se na estrutura constitucionalizada do Estado, no presente trabalho realiza-se uma crítica à teoria geral da interpretação das normas jurídicas dominante no Direito contemporâneo, questionando sua ineficiência quando é utilizada para regular relações comerciais. Nesse ínterim, propõe-se a Análise Econômica do Direito como teoria para interpretar as regras e normas jurídicas comerciais. PALABRAS-CHAVE. Direito comercial. Codificação. Lex Mercatoria. Estado Constitucional. Realismo Jurídico. Análise Econômica do Direito.<br>Abstract: The dynamics with which commerce is developed today obliges us to review general theories that allow us to study and apply commercial law in the economic and social context where it must act. Phenomena such as the internationalization of trade or the constitutionalization of law, very present in our society, require an analysis of the so-called formal sources of commercial law. Both commercial uses and customs, as the set of commercial rules, at first, must be analyzed from a historical-descriptive perspective, this also allows to know these rules, to verify their efficiency and effectiveness in the context where and when they were created. Considering that presently the formal and informal institutions forming part of commercial law must be developed to meet the objectives of the trade and the merchant as well as to be integrated into the constitutionalised structure of the state; In the present work a criticism is made to the general theory for the interpretation of the legal norms dominant in the contemporary Law, questioning its inefficiency when it is used to regulate commercial relations. In the meantime, the Economic Analysis of Law is proposed as a theory for interpreting commercial legal norms. KEYWORDS: Commercial law. Legal realism. Constitutional state. Lex mercatoria. Law and economics.<br>Resumen: La dinámica con la que se desarrolla el comercio en la actualidad, obliga a revisar teorías generales que permitan estudiar y aplicar el derecho comercial en el contexto económico y social donde debe actuar. Fenómenos como la internacionalización del comercio o la constitucionalización del derecho, muy presentes en nuestra sociedad, exigen realizar un análisis de las llamadas fuentes formales del derecho comercial. Tanto los usos y prácticas comerciales, cuanto el conjunto de normas comerciales, en un inicio, deben ser analizadas desde una perspectiva histórica-descriptiva, esto permite además de conocer estas reglas, verificar su eficiencia y efectividad en el contexto donde y cuando fueron creadas. Considerando que actualmente las instituciones - formales e informales - que hacen parte del derecho comercial deben elaborarse para satisfacer los objetivos del comercio y del comerciante, así como para integrarse en la estructura constitucionalizada del estado; en el presente trabajo se realiza una crítica a la teoría general para la interpretación de las normas jurídicas dominante en el Derecho contemporáneo, cuestionando su ineficiencia cuando es utilizada para regular relaciones comerciales. En ese ínterin, se propone al Análisis Económico del Derecho como teoría para interpretar las reglas y normas jurídicas comerciales. PALABRAS CLAVE. Derecho comercial. Codificación. Lex Mercatoria. Estado Constitucional. Realismo Jurídico. Análisis Económico del Derecho.

Esta teoría asintótica posee cierta semejanza con el Teorema del Límite Central (TLC), pues mientras este último se ocupa del comportamiento límite de sumas parciales normalizadas, la TVE se enfoca en el comportamiento límite de una muestra extremos (máximos y/o mínimos) propiamente normalizados. Sabemos que el hablar de la TVE implica elaborar un documento muy completo y riguroso, no obstante y dada la naturaleza de este trabajo, los objetivos se centraran en lo siguiente: † Establecer los conceptos de probabilidad suficientes para facilitar la comprensión de textos más complicados que hablan sobre TVE. † Proporcionar al lector una visión general y un poco comprensible sobre la TVE. † Dar el las condiciones suficientes para la convergencia de las tres distribuciones valores extremos.

En aquesta tesi s'estudien diferents problemes en el camp de la combinatòria i la teoria de grafs, utilitzant el mètode probabilístic. Aquesta tècnica, introduïda per Erdős , ha esdevingut una eina molt potent per tal de donar proves existencials per certs problemes en diferents camps de les matemàtiques on altres mètodes no ho han aconseguit. Un dels seus principals objectius és l'estudi del comportament de les variables aleatòries. El cas en que aquestes variables compten el nombre d'esdeveniments dolents que tenen lloc en una estructura combinatòria és de particular interès. La idea del Paradigma de Poisson és estimar la probabilitat que tots aquests esdeveniments dolents no succeeixin a la vegada, quan les dependències entre ells són febles o escasses. En tal cas, aquesta probabilitat s'hauria de comportar de forma similar al cas on tots els esdeveniments són independents. El Lema Local de Lovász o la Desigualtat de Suen són exemples d'aquesta idea. L'objectiu de la tesi és estudiar aquestes tècniques ja sigui proveint-ne noves versions, refinant-ne les existents per casos particulars o donant-ne noves aplicacions. A continuació s'enumeren les principals contribucions de la tesi. La primera part d'aquesta tesi estén un resultat d' Erdős i Spencer sobre transversals llatins. Els autors proven que qualsevol matriu d'enters on cap nombre apareix massa vegades, admet un transversal on tots els nombres són diferents. Això equival a estudiar els aparellaments multicolors en aresta-coloracions de grafs complets bipartits. Sota les mateixes hipòtesis que, es donen resultats sobre el nombre d'aquests aparellaments. Les tècniques que s'utilitzen estan basades en l'estratègia desenvolupada per Lu i Székely. En la segona part d'aquesta tesi s'estudien els codis identificadors. Un codi identificador és un conjunt de vèrtexs tal que tots els vèrtexs del graf tenen un veïnatge diferent en el codi. Aquí s'estableixen cotes en la mida d'un codi identificador mínim en funció dels graus i es resol parcialment una conjectura de Foucaud et al.. En un altre capítol, es mostra que qualsevol graf suficientment dens conté un subgraf que admet un codi identificador òptim. En alguns casos, provar l'existència d'un cert objecte és trivial. Tot i així, es poden utilitzar les mateixes tècniques per obtenir resultats d'enumeració. L'estudi de patrons en permutacions n'és un bon exemple. A la tercera part de la tesi es desenvolupa una nova tècnica per tal d'estimar el nombre de permutacions d'una certa llargada que eviten còpies consecutives d'un patró donat. En particular, es donen cotes inferiors i superiors per a aquest nombre. Una de les conseqüències és la prova de la conjectura CMP enunciada per Elizalde i Noy així com nous resultats en el comportament de la majoria dels patrons. En l'última part de la tesi s'estudia la Conjectura Lonely Runner, enunciada independentment per Wills i Cusick i que té múltiples aplicacions en diferents camps de les matemàtiques. Aquesta coneguda conjectura diu que per qualsevol conjunt de corredors que corren al llarg d'un cercle unitari, hi ha un moment on tots els corredors estan suficientment lluny de l'origen. Aquí, es millora un resultat de Chen ampliant la distància de tots els corredors a l'origen. També s'estén el teorema del corredor invisible de Czerwiński i Grytczuk .<br>In this thesis we study different problems in combinatorics and in graph theory by means of the probabilistic method. This method, introduced by Erdös, has become an extremely powerful tool to provide existential proofs for certain problems in different mathematical branches where other methods had failed utterly. One of its main concerns is to study the behavior of random variables. In particular, one common situation arises when these random variables count the number of bad events that occur in a combinatorial structure. The idea of the Poisson Paradigm is to estimate the probability of these bad events not happening at the same time when the dependencies among them are weak or rare. If this is the case, this probability should behave similarly as in the case where all the events are mutually independent. This idea gets reflected in several well-known tools, such as the Lovász Local Lemma or Suen inequality. The goal of this thesis is to study these techniques by setting new versions or refining the existing ones for particular cases, as well as providing new applications of them for different problems in combinatorics and graph theory. Next, we enumerate the main contributions of this thesis. The first part of this thesis extends a result of Erdös and Spencer on latin transversals [1]. They showed that an integer matrix such that no number appears many times, admits a latin transversal. This is equivalent to study rainbow matchings of edge-colored complete bipartite graphs. Under the same hypothesis of, we provide enumerating results on such rainbow matchings. The second part of the thesis deals with identifying codes, a set of vertices such that all vertices in the graph have distinct neighborhood within the code. We provide bounds on the size of a minimal identifying code in terms of the degree parameters and partially answer a question of Foucaud et al. On a different chapter of the thesis, we show that any dense enough graph has a very large spanning subgraph that admits a small identifying code. In some cases, proving the existence of a certain object is trivial. However, the same techniques allow us to obtain enumerative results. The study of permutation patterns is a good example of that. In the third part of the thesis we devise a new approach in order to estimate how many permutations of given length avoid a consecutive copy of a given pattern. In particular, we provide upper and lower bounds for them. One of the consequences derived from our approach is a proof of the CMP conjecture, stated by Elizalde and Noy as well as some new results on the behavior of most of the patterns. In the last part of this thesis, we focus on the Lonely Runner Conjecture, posed independently by Wills and Cusick and that has multiple applications in different mathematical fields. This well-known conjecture states that for any set of runners running along the unit circle with constant different speeds and starting at the same point, there is a moment where all of them are far enough from the origin. We improve the result of Chen on the gap of loneliness by studying the time when two runners are close to the origin. We also show an invisible runner type result, extending a result of Czerwinski and Grytczuk.

L'objectiu d'aquesta tesi és aprofondir en l'estudi d'una certa família de dígrafs, els dígrafs de prefix-cicle, donant nous detalls sobre la seva estructura, noves maneres d'enfocar el seu estudi, i dissenyant bons esquemes de comunicació. Es completa d'aquesta forma l'estudi iniciat per altres autors i s'en refoça el seu interès com a bon model de xarxa d'interconnexió.

The objective of this thesis is to study cages, constructions and properties of such families of graphs. For this, the study of graphs without short cycles plays a fundamental role in order to develop some knowledge on their structure, so we can later deal with the problems on cages. Cages were introduced by Tutte in 1947. In 1963, Erdös and Sachs proved that (k, g) -cages exist for any given values of k and g. Since then, large amount of research in cages has been devoted to their construction. In this work we study structural properties such as the connectivity, diameter, and degree regularity of graphs without short cycles. In some sense, connectivity is a measure of the reliability of a network. Two graphs with the same edge-connectivity, may be considered to have different reliabilities, as a more refined index than the edge-connectivity, edge-superconnectivity is proposed together with some other parameters called restricted connectivities. By relaxing the conditions that are imposed for the graphs to be cages, we can achieve more refined connectivity properties on these families and also we have an approach to structural properties of the family of graphs with more restrictions (i.e., the cages). Our aim, by studying such structural properties of cages is to get a deeper insight into their structure so we can attack the problem of their construction. By way of example, we studied a condition on the diameter in relation to the girth pair of a graph, and as a corollary we obtained a result guaranteeing restricted connectivity of a special family of graphs arising from geometry, such as polarity graphs. Also, we obtained a result proving the edge superconnectivity of semiregular cages. Based on these studies it was possible to develop the study of cages. Therefore obtaining a relevant result with respect to the connectivity of cages, that is, cages are k/2-connected. And also arising from the previous work on girth pairs we obtained constructions for girth pair cages that proves a bound conjectured by Harary and Kovács, relating the order of girth pair cages with the one for cages. Concerning the degree and the diameter, there is the concept of a Moore graph, it was introduced by Hoffman and Singleton after Edward F. Moore, who posed the question of describing and classifying these graphs. As well as having the maximum possible number of vertices for a given combination of degree and diameter, Moore graphs have the minimum possible number of vertices for a regular graph with given degree and girth. That is, any Moore graph is a cage. The formula for the number of vertices in a Moore graph can be generalized to allow a definition of Moore graphs with even girth (bipartite Moore graphs) as well as odd girth, and again these graphs are cages. Thus, Moore graphs give a lower bound for the order of cages, but they are known to exist only for very specific values of k, therefore it is interesting to study how far a cage is from this bound, this value is called the excess of a cage. We studied the excess of graphs and give a contribution, in the sense of the work of Biggs and Ito, relating the bipartition of girth 6 cages with their orders. Entire families of cages can be obtained from finite geometries, for example, the graphs of incidence of projective planes of order q a prime power, are (q+1, 6)-cages. Also by using other incidence structures such as the generalized quadrangles or generalized hexagons, it can be obtained families of cages of girths 8 and 12. In this thesis, we present a construction of an entire family of girth 7 cages that arises from some combinatorial properties of the incidence graphs of generalized quadrangles of order (q,q).

Este trabalho parte do pressuposto de que investigar as linguagens e pensamentos envolvidos nos processos de criação científica, no processo de interpretação do cientista frente aos fenômenos da natureza, pode nos indicar como trabalhar a ciência em sala de aula de maneira que as características epistemológicas deste conhecimento sejam levadas em consideração. Com isto, este trabalho toma uma perspectiva epistemológica. Quando pensamos no ensino básico, em particular, temos a indicação de que uma das dificuldades enfrentadas pelos alunos está relacionada à formalização do conhecimento científico. Isto é ainda mais forte na física, uma vez que este conhecimento tem uma relação muito próxima com a matemática. Mas qual é o papel epistemológico da matemática para a física? O cientista é capaz de interpretar fisicamente a natureza somente usando linguagens e pensamentos formais, especialmente estruturados pela matemática? Nossa hipótese é que a resposta a essa questão é negativa. Encontramos nas ideias do psicólogo Jerome Bruner uma forma de encaminhar nossa discussão. A partir das ideias dele, e do nosso anseio por investigar se pensamentos e linguagens que não são estritamente formais desempenham papel importante na construção da física, levantamos a seguinte questão: Qual o papel das narrativas e da matemática na construção da física? Para delinear uma resposta possível a esta questão, tomamos como contexto da nossa pesquisa alguns \"capítulos\" da construção da Teoria da Relatividade Geral. Nossa investigação mostrou que experimentos mentais importantes no desenvolvimento desta teoria foram construídos a partir dos pensamentos narrativo e matemático. Entendemos que estes dois modos de pensamentos se apresentaram de maneira complementar no contexto estudado.<br>This work assumes that investigate the language and thoughts involved in scientific processes of creating, in the scientist process of interpretation facing the nature phenomena, can reveal how to work the science in the classroom so that the epistemological features of this knowledge are taken into account. Taking this into account, our work takes an epistemological perspective. When we think in high school, in particular, we have the indication that one of the difficulties faced by students is related to the formalization of scientific knowledge. This is even stronger in physics, which mathematics plays important role. But what is the epistemological role of mathematics to physics? The scientist is able to physically interpret nature only using formal languages and thoughts, especially structured by mathematics? Our hypothesis is that the answer to this question is negative. We find the psychologist Jerome Bruner ideas a way to send our discussion. From his ideas, and our longing to investigate whether thoughts and languages that are not strictly formal play an important role in building physics, raised the question: What is the role of narrative and mathematics in physical construction? To outline a possible answer to this question, we take as the context of our research some \"chapters\" of the construction of the General Theory of Relativity. Our investigation has shown that important thought experiments in the development of this theory were built from the narrative and mathematical thoughts. We understand that these two modes of thought presented in a complementary manner in the context studied.

Esta dissertação tem por objetivo comparar a leitura de diversos intérpretes marxistas que trabalham com a categoria dinheiro, em sua noção mais basilar. Ademais, colima também delimitar um espaço teórico para formulação de uma teoria monetária especificamente marxista, assim como mostrar o atual estado das artes da teoria monetária marxista. Para isso, necessário se faz localizar as aproximações conceituais e as divergências existentes. O objetivo prioritário desde estudo não é apresentar um ponto de vista próprio, porém expor as posições mais significativas já existentes sobre a questão do dinheiro. Nesse sentido, o esforço aqui é o de sintetizar as várias compressões marxistas sobre a categoria dinheiro. Para tanto, necessário se fez mostrar o debate por temas, ao invés de construir uma exegese de cada autor/texto de maneira isolada.<br>This dissertation aims to compare the reading of the several Marxist authors works with concept of Money in its most basic sense. Furthermore, it also aims outline a theoretical place to formulate a specifically monetary theory Marxist, namely, expose the current state of the art of the Marxist theory of money. To do this, it is necessary to find similarities and differences conceptual. The major objective of the inquiry is expose the most significant expose the most understanding existing positions on the matter of money, instead of presenting a point of view itself. In this sense, main task is to synthesize the various compressions Marxists on the Money category. For this, it was necessary to expose the debate by subject, rather than building an exegesis of each author/text singly.