Kliknij ten link, aby zobaczyć inne rodzaje publikacji na ten temat: Telomere DNA.
Artykuły w czasopismach na temat „Telomere DNA”
Utwórz poprawne odniesienie w stylach APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard i wielu innych
Sprawdź 50 najlepszych artykułów w czasopismach naukowych na temat „Telomere DNA”.
Przycisk „Dodaj do bibliografii” jest dostępny obok każdej pracy w bibliografii. Użyj go – a my automatycznie utworzymy odniesienie bibliograficzne do wybranej pracy w stylu cytowania, którego potrzebujesz: APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago, Vancouver itp.
Możesz również pobrać pełny tekst publikacji naukowej w formacie „.pdf” i przeczytać adnotację do pracy online, jeśli odpowiednie parametry są dostępne w metadanych.
Przeglądaj artykuły w czasopismach z różnych dziedzin i twórz odpowiednie bibliografie.
1
Lin, Chi-Ying, Hsih-Hsuan Chang, Kou-Juey Wu, Shun-Fu Tseng, Chuan-Chuan Lin, Chao-Po Lin i Shu-Chun Teng. "Extrachromosomal Telomeric Circles Contribute to Rad52-, Rad50-, and Polymerase δ-Mediated Telomere-Telomere Recombination in Saccharomyces cerevisiae". Eukaryotic Cell 4, nr 2 (luty 2005): 327–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.4.2.327-336.2005.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT Telomere maintenance is required for chromosome stability, and telomeres are typically replicated by the telomerase reverse transcriptase. In both tumor and yeast cells that lack telomerase, telomeres are maintained by an alternative recombination mechanism. By using an in vivo inducible Cre-loxP system to generate and trace the fate of marked telomeric DNA-containing rings, the efficiency of telomere-telomere recombination can be determined quantitatively. We show that the telomeric loci are the primary sites at which a marked telomeric ring-containing DNA is observed among wild-type and surviving cells lacking telomerase. Marked telomeric DNAs can be transferred to telomeres and form tandem arrays through Rad52-, Rad50-, and polymerase δ-mediated recombination. Moreover, increases of extrachromosomal telomeric and Y′ rings were observed in telomerase-deficient cells. These results imply that telomeres can use looped-out telomeric rings to promote telomere-telomere recombination in telomerase-deficient Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
2
Chan, Simon R. W. L., i Elizabeth H. Blackburn. "Telomeres and telomerase". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 359, nr 1441 (29.01.2004): 109–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2003.1370.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Telomeres are the protective DNA–protein complexes found at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. Telomeric DNA consists of tandem repeats of a simple, often G–rich, sequence specified by the action of telomerase, and complete replication of telomeric DNA requires telomerase. Telomerase is a specialized cellular ribonucleoprotein reverse transcriptase. By copying a short template sequence within its intrinsic RNA moiety, telomerase synthesizes the telomeric DNA strand running 5' to 3' towards the distal end of the chromosome, thus extending it. Fusion of a telomere, either with another telomere or with a broken DNA end, generally constitutes a catastrophic event for genomic stability. Telomerase acts to prevent such fusions. The molecular consequences of telomere failure, and the molecular contributors to telomere function, with an emphasis on telomerase, are discussed here.
3
Martin, Aegina Adams, Isabelle Dionne, Raymund J. Wellinger i Connie Holm. "The Function of DNA Polymerase α at Telomeric G Tails Is Important for Telomere Homeostasis". Molecular and Cellular Biology 20, nr 3 (1.02.2000): 786–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.20.3.786-796.2000.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT Telomere length control is influenced by several factors, including telomerase, the components of telomeric chromatin structure, and the conventional replication machinery. Although known components of the replication machinery can influence telomere length equilibrium, little is known about why mutations in certain replication proteins cause dramatic telomere lengthening. To investigate the cause of telomere elongation in cdc17/pol1 (DNA polymerase α) mutants, we examined telomeric chromatin, as measured by its ability to repress transcription on telomere-proximal genes, and telomeric DNA end structures in pol1-17 mutants. pol1-17 mutants with elongated telomeres show a dramatic loss of the repression of telomere-proximal genes, or telomeric silencing. In addition,cdc17/pol1 mutants grown under telomere-elongating conditions exhibit significant increases in single-stranded character in telomeric DNA but not at internal sequences. The single strandedness is manifested as a terminal extension of the G-rich strand (G tails) that can occur independently of telomerase, suggesting thatcdc17/pol1 mutants exhibit defects in telomeric lagging-strand synthesis. Interestingly, the loss of telomeric silencing and the increase in the sizes of the G tails at the telomeres temporally coincide and occur before any detectable telomere lengthening is observed. Moreover, the G tails observed incdc17/pol1 mutants incubated at the semipermissive temperature appear only when the cells pass through S phase and are processed by the time cells reach G1. These results suggest that lagging-strand synthesis is coordinated with telomerase-mediated telomere maintenance to ensure proper telomere length control.
4
Natarajan, Shobhana, i Michael J. McEachern. "Recombinational Telomere Elongation Promoted by DNA Circles". Molecular and Cellular Biology 22, nr 13 (1.07.2002): 4512–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.22.13.4512-4521.2002.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT Yeast mutants lacking telomerase are capable of maintaining telomeres by an alternate mechanism that depends on homologous recombination. We show here, by using Kluyveromyces lactis cells containing two types of telomeric repeats, that recombinational telomere elongation generates a repeating pattern common in most or all telomeres in survivors that retain both repeat types. We propose that these patterns arise from small circles of telomeric DNA being used as templates for rolling-circle gene conversion and that the sequence from the lengthened telomere is spread to other telomeres by additional, more typical gene conversion events. Consistent with this, artificially constructed circles of DNA containing telomeric repeats form long tandem arrays at telomeres when transformed into K. lactis cells. Mixing experiments done with two species of telomeric circles indicated that all of the integrated copies of the transforming sequence arise from a single original circular molecule.
5
Evans, S. K., i V. Lundblad. "Positive and negative regulation of telomerase access to the telomere". Journal of Cell Science 113, nr 19 (1.10.2000): 3357–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jcs.113.19.3357.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The protective caps on chromosome ends - known as telomeres - consist of DNA and associated proteins that are essential for chromosome integrity. A fundamental part of ensuring proper telomere function is maintaining adequate length of the telomeric DNA tract. Telomeric repeat sequences are synthesized by the telomerase reverse transcriptase, and, as such, telomerase is a central player in the maintenance of steady-state telomere length. Evidence from both yeast and mammals suggests that telomere-associated proteins positively or negatively control access of telomerase to the chromosome terminus. In yeast, positive regulation of telomerase access appears to be achieved through recruitment of the enzyme by the end-binding protein Cdc13p. In contrast, duplex-DNA-binding proteins assembled along the telomeric tract exert a feedback system that negatively modulates telomere length by limiting the action of telomerase. In mammalian cells, and perhaps also in yeast, binding of these proteins probably promotes a higher-order structure that renders the telomere inaccessible to the telomerase enzyme.
6
Kondratieva, Yu A., i L. P. Mendeleeva. "Characteristics of telomere length in patients with hematological diseases (literature review)". Oncohematology 16, nr 1 (14.04.2021): 23–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.17650/1818-8346-2021-16-1-23-30.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Telomeres are protein structures that regulate the process of cellular aging and play the role of a protective “cap” on the end sections of chromosomes. The telomeres of nucleated cells undergo permanent shortening during their lifetime as a result of multiple cycles of DNA replication. The enzyme that provides completion of the missing telomeric repeats at the ends of chromosomes is called “telomerase”. However, recovery of critically short telomeres by telomerase or recombination in somatic cells is limited due to the presence of a large accumulation of unclosed telomeres, which triggers apoptosis. The death of stem cells due to telomere depletion ensures the selection of abnormal cells in which the genome instability contributes to malignant progression. During carcinogenesis, cells acquire mechanisms for maintaining telomeres in order to avoid programmed death. In addition, tumor cells are able to support the telomere's DNA, counteracting its shortening and premature death. Activation of telomere length maintenance mechanisms is a hallmark of most types of cancers. In the modern world, there is an increasing interest in studying the biological characteristics of telomeres. The development of new methods for measuring telomere length has provided numerous studies to understand the relationship between telomere length of human nucleated cells and cancer. Perhaps maintaining telomere length will be an important step, determining the course and prognosis of the disease. The purpose of this review is to provide an analysis of published data of the role and significance of telomere length in patients with hematological malignancies.
7
Natarajan, Shobhana, Cindy Groff-Vindman i Michael J. McEachern. "Factors Influencing the Recombinational Expansion and Spread of Telomeric Tandem Arrays in Kluyveromyces lactis". Eukaryotic Cell 2, nr 5 (październik 2003): 1115–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.2.5.1115-1127.2003.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT We have previously shown that DNA circles containing telomeric repeats and a marker gene can promote the recombinational elongation of telomeres in Kluyveromyces lactis by a mechanism proposed to involve rolling-circle DNA synthesis. Wild-type cells acquire a long tandem array at a single telomere, while telomerase deletion (ter1-Δ) cells, acquire an array and also spread it to multiple telomeres. In this study, we further examine the factors that affect the formation and spread of telomeric tandem arrays. We show that a telomerase+ strain with short telomeres and high levels of subtelomeric gene conversion can efficiently form and spread arrays, while a telomere fusion mutant is not efficient at either process. This indicates that an elevated level of gene conversion near telomeres is required for spreading but that growth senescence and a tendency to elongate telomeres in the absence of exogenously added circles are not. Surprisingly, telomeric repeats are frequently deleted from a transforming URA3-telomere circle at or prior to the time of array formation by a mechanism dependent upon the presence of subtelomeric DNA in the circle. We further show that in a ter1-Δ strain, long tandem arrays can arise from telomeres initially containing a single-copy insert of the URA3-telomere sequence. However, the reduced rate of array formation in such strains suggests that single-copy inserts are not typical intermediates in arrays formed from URA3-telomere circles. Using heteroduplex circles, we have demonstrated that either strand of a URA3-telomere circle can be utilized to form telomeric tandem arrays. Consistent with this, we demonstrate that 100-nucleotide single-stranded telomeric circles of either strand can promote recombinational telomere elongation.
8
Ji, Hong, Christopher J. Adkins, Bethany R. Cartwright i Katherine L. Friedman. "Yeast Est2p Affects Telomere Length by Influencing Association of Rap1p with Telomeric Chromatin". Molecular and Cellular Biology 28, nr 7 (22.01.2008): 2380–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.01648-07.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the sequence-specific binding of the negative regulator Rap1p provides a mechanism to measure telomere length: as the telomere length increases, the binding of additional Rap1p inhibits telomerase activity in cis. We provide evidence that the association of Rap1p with telomeric DNA in vivo occurs in part by sequence-independent mechanisms. Specific mutations in EST2 (est2-LT) reduce the association of Rap1p with telomeric DNA in vivo. As a result, telomeres are abnormally long yet bind an amount of Rap1p equivalent to that observed at wild-type telomeres. This behavior contrasts with that of a second mutation in EST2 (est2-up34) that increases bound Rap1p as expected for a strain with long telomeres. Telomere sequences are subtly altered in est2-LT strains, but similar changes in est2-up34 telomeres suggest that sequence abnormalities are a consequence, not a cause, of overelongation. Indeed, est2-LT telomeres bind Rap1p indistinguishably from the wild type in vitro. Taken together, these results suggest that Est2p can directly or indirectly influence the binding of Rap1p to telomeric DNA, implicating telomerase in roles both upstream and downstream of Rap1p in telomere length homeostasis.
9
Kelleher, Colleen, Isabel Kurth i Joachim Lingner. "Human Protection of Telomeres 1 (POT1) Is a Negative Regulator of Telomerase Activity In Vitro". Molecular and Cellular Biology 25, nr 2 (15.01.2005): 808–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.25.2.808-818.2005.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT The telomeric single-strand DNA binding protein protection of telomeres 1 (POT1) protects telomeres from rapid degradation in Schizosaccharomyces pombe and has been implicated in positive and negative telomere length regulation in humans. Human POT1 appears to interact with telomeres both through direct binding to the 3′ overhanging G-strand DNA and through interaction with the TRF1 duplex telomere DNA binding complex. The influence of POT1 on telomerase activity has not been studied at the molecular level. We show here that POT1 negatively effects telomerase activity in vitro. We find that the DNA binding activity of POT1 is required for telomerase inhibition. Furthermore, POT1 is incapable of inhibiting telomeric repeat addition to substrate primers that are defective for POT1 binding, suggesting that in vivo, POT1 likely affects substrate access to telomerase.
10
Smith, Christopher D., i Elizabeth H. Blackburn. "Uncapping and Deregulation of Telomeres Lead to Detrimental Cellular Consequences in Yeast". Journal of Cell Biology 145, nr 2 (19.04.1999): 203–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.145.2.203.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Telomeres are the protein–nucleic acid structures at the ends of eukaryote chromosomes. Tandem repeats of telomeric DNA are templated by the RNA component (TER1) of the ribonucleoprotein telomerase. These repeats are bound by telomere binding proteins, which are thought to interact with other factors to create a higher-order cap complex that stabilizes the chromosome end. In the budding yeast Kluyveromyces lactis, the incorporation of certain mutant DNA sequences into telomeres leads to uncapping of telomeres, manifested by dramatic telomere elongation and increased length heterogeneity (telomere deregulation). Here we show that telomere deregulation leads to enlarged, misshapen “monster” cells with increased DNA content and apparent defects in cell division. However, such deregulated telomeres became stabilized at their elongated lengths upon addition of only a few functionally wild-type telomeric repeats to their ends, after which the frequency of monster cells decreased to wild-type levels. These results provide evidence for the importance of the most terminal repeats at the telomere in maintaining the cap complex essential for normal telomere function. Analysis of uncapped and capped telomeres also show that it is the deregulation resulting from telomere uncapping, rather than excessive telomere length per se, that is associated with DNA aberrations and morphological defects.
11
Armbruster, Blaine N., Corinne M. Linardic, Tim Veldman, Niharika P. Bansal, Diane L. Downie i Christopher M. Counter. "Rescue of an hTERT Mutant Defective in Telomere Elongation by Fusion with hPot1". Molecular and Cellular Biology 24, nr 8 (15.04.2004): 3552–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.24.8.3552-3561.2004.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT The protein hPot1 shares homology with telomere-binding proteins in lower eukaryotes and associates with single-stranded telomeric DNA in vitro as well as colocalizing with telomere-binding proteins in vivo. We now show that hPot1 is coimmunoprecipitated with telomeric DNA and that stable expression of this protein in telomerase-positive cells results in telomere elongation, supporting the idea that hPot1 is a bona fide mammalian telomere-binding protein. We previously found that mutations in the N-terminal DAT domain of the hTERT catalytic subunit of telomerase rendered the enzyme catalytically active but unable to elongate telomeres in vivo. This phenotype could be partially rescued by fusion with the double-stranded telomeric protein hTRF2. Given that hPot1 binds to single-stranded DNA in vitro (at the same site that hTERT binds to in vivo), we addressed whether fusion of hPot1 can rescue the DAT mutations more efficiently than that of hTRF2. We now report that a DAT mutant of hTERT is indeed efficiently rescued upon fusion to hPot1. However, this rescue depended on the ability of hPot1 to localize to telomeres rather than binding to DNA per se. These data support a model whereby the DAT domain of hTERT is implicated in telomere-telomerase associations.
12
Tsai, Yun-Luen, Shun-Fu Tseng, Shih-Husan Chang, Chuan-Chuan Lin i Shu-Chun Teng. "Involvement of Replicative Polymerases, Tel1p, Mec1p, Cdc13p, and the Ku Complex in Telomere-Telomere Recombination". Molecular and Cellular Biology 22, nr 16 (15.08.2002): 5679–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.22.16.5679-5687.2002.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT Telomere maintenance is required for chromosome stability, and telomeres are typically replicated by the action of the reverse transcriptase telomerase. In both tumor and yeast cells that lack telomerase, telomeres are maintained by an alternative recombination mechanism. Genetic studies have led to the identification of DNA polymerases, cell cycle checkpoint proteins, and telomere binding proteins involved in the telomerase pathway. However, how these proteins affect telomere-telomere recombination has not been identified to date. Using an assay to trace the in vivo recombinational products throughout the course of survivor development, we show here that three major replicative polymerases, α, δ, and ε, play roles in telomere-telomere recombination and that each causes different effects and phenotypes when they as well as the telomerase are defective. Polymerase δ appears to be the main activity for telomere extension, since neither type I nor type II survivors arising via telomere-telomere recombination were seen in its absence. The frequency of type I versus type II is altered in the polymerase α and ε mutants relative to the wild type. Each prefers to develop a particular type of survivor. Moreover, type II recombination is mediated by the cell cycle checkpoint proteins Tel1 and Mec1, and telomere-telomere recombination is regulated by telomere binding protein Cdc13 and the Ku complex. Together, our results suggest that coordination between DNA replication machinery, DNA damage signaling, DNA recombination machinery, and the telomere protein-DNA complex allows telomere recombination to repair telomeric ends in the absence of telomerase.
13
Cook, Brandoch D., Jasmin N. Dynek, William Chang, Grigoriy Shostak i Susan Smith. "Role for the Related Poly(ADP-Ribose) Polymerases Tankyrase 1 and 2 at Human Telomeres". Molecular and Cellular Biology 22, nr 1 (1.01.2002): 332–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.22.1.332-342.2002.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT Telomere maintenance is essential for the continuous growth of tumor cells. In most human tumors telomeres are maintained by telomerase, a specialized reverse transcriptase. Tankyrase 1, a human telomeric poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), positively regulates telomere length through its interaction with TRF1, a telomeric DNA-binding protein. Tankyrase 1 ADP-ribosylates TRF1, inhibiting its binding to telomeric DNA. Overexpression of tankyrase 1 in the nucleus promotes telomere elongation, suggesting that tankyrase 1 regulates access of telomerase to the telomeric complex. The recent identification of a closely related homolog of tankyrase 1, tankyrase 2, opens the possibility for a second PARP at telomeres. We therefore sought to establish the role of tankyrase 1 at telomeres and to determine if tankyrase 2 might have a telomeric function. We show that endogenous tankyrase 1 is a component of the human telomeric complex. We demonstrate that telomere elongation by tankyrase 1 requires the catalytic activity of the PARP domain and does not occur in telomerase-negative primary human cells. To investigate a potential role for tankyrase 2 at telomeres, recombinant tankyrase 2 was subjected to an in vitro PARP assay. Tankyrase 2 poly(ADP-ribosyl)ated itself and TRF1. Overexpression of tankyrase 2 in the nucleus released endogenous TRF1 from telomeres. These findings establish tankyrase 2 as a bona fide PARP, with itself and TRF1 as acceptors of ADP-ribosylation, and suggest the possibility of a role for tankyrase 2 at telomeres.
14
Donate, Luis E., i Maria A. Blasco. "Telomeres in cancer and ageing". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 366, nr 1561 (12.01.2011): 76–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0291.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Telomeres protect the chromosome ends from unscheduled DNA repair and degradation. Telomeres are heterochromatic domains composed of repetitive DNA (TTAGGG repeats) bound to an array of specialized proteins. The length of telomere repeats and the integrity of telomere-binding proteins are both important for telomere protection. Furthermore, telomere length and integrity are regulated by a number of epigenetic modifications, thus pointing to higher order control of telomere function. In this regard, we have recently discovered that telomeres are transcribed generating long, non-coding RNAs, which remain associated with the telomeric chromatin and are likely to have important roles in telomere regulation. In the past, we showed that telomere length and the catalytic component of telomerase, Tert, are critical determinants for the mobilization of stem cells. These effects of telomerase and telomere length on stem cell behaviour anticipate the premature ageing and cancer phenotypes of telomerase mutant mice. Recently, we have demonstrated the anti-ageing activity of telomerase by forcing telomerase expression in mice with augmented cancer resistance. Shelterin is the major protein complex bound to mammalian telomeres; however, its potential relevance for cancer and ageing remained unaddressed to date. To this end, we have generated mice conditionally deleted for the shelterin proteins TRF1, TPP1 and Rap1. The study of these mice demonstrates that telomere dysfunction, even if telomeres are of a normal length, is sufficient to produce premature tissue degeneration, acquisition of chromosomal aberrations and initiation of neoplastic lesions. These new mouse models, together with the telomerase-deficient mouse model, are valuable tools for understanding human pathologies produced by telomere dysfunction.
15
Perera, Omesha N., Alexander P. Sobinoff, Erdahl T. Teber, Ashley Harman, Michelle F. Maritz, Sile F. Yang, Hilda A. Pickett i in. "Telomerase promotes formation of a telomere protective complex in cancer cells". Science Advances 5, nr 10 (październik 2019): eaav4409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav4409.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein complex that catalyzes addition of telomeric DNA repeats to maintain telomeres in replicating cells. Here, we demonstrate that the telomerase protein hTERT performs an additional role at telomeres that is independent of telomerase catalytic activity yet essential for telomere integrity and cell proliferation. Short-term depletion of endogenous hTERT reduced the levels of heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70-1) and the telomere protective protein Apollo at telomeres, and induced telomere deprotection and cell cycle arrest, in the absence of telomere shortening. Short-term expression of hTERT promoted colocalization of Hsp70-1 with telomeres and Apollo and reduced numbers of deprotected telomeres, in a manner independent of telomerase catalytic activity. These data reveal a previously unidentified noncanonical function of hTERT that promotes formation of a telomere protective complex containing Hsp70-1 and Apollo and is essential for sustained proliferation of telomerase-positive cancer cells, likely contributing to the known cancer-promoting effects of both hTERT and Hsp70-1.
16
Prescott, John C., i Elizabeth H. Blackburn. "Telomerase RNA Template Mutations Reveal Sequence-Specific Requirements for the Activation and Repression of Telomerase Action at Telomeres". Molecular and Cellular Biology 20, nr 8 (15.04.2000): 2941–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.20.8.2941-2948.2000.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT Telomeric DNA is maintained within a length range characteristic of an organism or cell type. Significant deviations outside this range are associated with altered telomere function. The yeast telomere-binding protein Rap1p negatively regulates telomere length. Telomere elongation is responsive to both the number of Rap1p molecules bound to a telomere and the Rap1p-centered DNA-protein complex at the extreme telomeric end. Previously, we showed that a specific trinucleotide substitution in the Saccharomyces cerevisiae telomerase gene (TLC1) RNA template abolished the enzymatic activity of telomerase, causing the same cell senescence and telomere shortening phenotypes as a complete tlc1 deletion. Here we analyze effects of six single- and double-base changes within these same three positions. All six mutant telomerases had in vitro enzymatic activity levels similar to the wild-type levels. The base changes predicted from the mutations all disrupted Rap1p binding in vitro to the corresponding duplex DNAs. However, they caused two classes of effects on telomere homeostasis: (i) rapid, RAD52-independent telomere lengthening and poor length regulation, whose severity correlated with the decrease in in vitro Rap1p binding affinity (this is consistent with loss of negative regulation of telomerase action at these telomeres; and (ii) telomere shortening that, depending on the template mutation, either established a new short telomere set length with normal cell growth or was progressive and led to cellular senescence. Hence, disrupting Rap1p binding at the telomeric terminus is not sufficient to deregulate telomere elongation. This provides further evidence that both positive and negativecis-acting regulators of telomerase act at telomeres.
17
Li, Bibo, i Titia de Lange. "Rap1 Affects the Length and Heterogeneity of Human Telomeres". Molecular Biology of the Cell 14, nr 12 (grudzień 2003): 5060–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1091/mbc.e03-06-0403.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Telomere length is controlled in part by cis-acting negative regulators that limit telomere extension by telomerase. In budding yeast, the major telomere length regulator scRap1 binds to telomeric DNA and acts to inhibit telomere elongation in cis. Because the human Rap1 ortholog hRap1 does not bind to telomeric DNA directly but is recruited to telomeres by TRF2, we examined its role in telomere length control. The data are consistent with hRap1 being a negative regulator of telomere length, indicating functional conservation. Deletion mapping confirmed that hRap1 is tethered to telomeres through interaction of its C terminus with TRF2. The telomere length phenotypes of hRap1 deletion mutants implicated both the BRCT and Myb domain as protein interaction domains involved in telomere length regulation. By contrast, scRap1 binds to telomeres with its Myb domains and uses its C terminus to recruit the telomere length regulators Rif1 and Rif2. Together, our data show that although the role of Rap1 at telomeres has been largely conserved, the domains of Rap1 have undergone extensive functional changes during eukaryotic evolution. Surprisingly, hRap1 alleles lacking the BRCT domain diminished the heterogeneity of human telomeres, indicating that hRap1 also plays a role in the regulation of telomere length distribution.
18
Schaetzlein, S., i K. L. Rudolph. "Telomere length regulation during cloning, embryogenesis and ageing". Reproduction, Fertility and Development 17, nr 2 (2005): 85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rd04112.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Telomeres are nucleoprotein complexes at the end of eukaryotic chromosomes with an essential role in chromosome capping. Owing to the end-replication problem of DNA polymerase, telomeres shorten during each cell division. When telomeres become critically short, they loose their capping function, which in turn induces a DNA damage-like response. This mechanism inhibits cell proliferation at the senescence stage and there is evidence that it limits the regenerative capacity of tissues and organs during chronic diseases and ageing. The holoenzyme telomerase synthesises telomeric DNA de novo, but, in humans, it is active only during embryogenesis, in immature germ cells and in a subset of stem/progenitor cells during postnatal life. Telomere length can be maintained or increased by telomerase, a process that appears to be regulated by a variety of telomere-binding proteins that control telomerase recruitment and activity at the telomeres. During embryogenesis, telomerase is strongly activated at the morula/blastocyst transition. At this transition, telomeres are significantly elongated in murine and bovine embryos. Early embryonic telomere elongation is telomerase dependent and leads to a rejuvenation of telomeres in cloned bovine embryos. Understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying this early embryonic telomere elongation programme is of great interest for medical research in the fields of regeneration, cell therapies and therapeutic cloning.
19
Smogorzewska, Agata, Bas van Steensel, Alessandro Bianchi, Stefan Oelmann, Matthias R. Schaefer, Gisela Schnapp i Titia de Lange. "Control of Human Telomere Length by TRF1 and TRF2". Molecular and Cellular Biology 20, nr 5 (1.03.2000): 1659–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.20.5.1659-1668.2000.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT Telomere length in human cells is controlled by a homeostasis mechanism that involves telomerase and the negative regulator of telomere length, TRF1 (TTAGGG repeat binding factor 1). Here we report that TRF2, a TRF1-related protein previously implicated in protection of chromosome ends, is a second negative regulator of telomere length. Overexpression of TRF2 results in the progressive shortening of telomere length, similar to the phenotype observed with TRF1. However, while induction of TRF1 could be maintained over more than 300 population doublings and resulted in stable, short telomeres, the expression of exogenous TRF2 was extinguished and the telomeres eventually regained their original length. Consistent with their role in measuring telomere length, indirect immunofluorescence indicated that both TRF1 and TRF2 bind to duplex telomeric DNA in vivo and are more abundant on telomeres with long TTAGGG repeat tracts. Neither TRF1 nor TRF2 affected the expression level of telomerase. Furthermore, the presence of TRF1 or TRF2 on a short linear telomerase substrate did not inhibit the enzymatic activity of telomerase in vitro. These findings are consistent with the recently proposed t loop model of telomere length homeostasis in which telomerase-dependent telomere elongation is blocked by sequestration of the 3′ telomere terminus in TRF1- and TRF2-induced telomeric loops.
20
Kibe, Tatsuya, Yuuki Ono, Koichiro Sato i Masaru Ueno. "Fission Yeast Taz1 and RPA Are Synergistically Required to Prevent Rapid Telomere Loss". Molecular Biology of the Cell 18, nr 6 (czerwiec 2007): 2378–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1091/mbc.e06-12-1084.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The telomere complex must allow nucleases and helicases to process chromosome ends to make them substrates for telomerase, while preventing these same activities from disrupting chromosome end-protection. Replication protein A (RPA) binds to single-stranded DNA and is required for DNA replication, recombination, repair, and telomere maintenance. In fission yeast, the telomere binding protein Taz1 protects telomeres and negatively regulates telomerase. Here, we show that taz1-d rad11-D223Y double mutants lose their telomeric DNA, indicating that RPA (Rad11) and Taz1 are synergistically required to prevent telomere loss. Telomere loss in the taz1-d rad11-D223Y double mutants was suppressed by additional mutation of the helicase domain in a RecQ helicase (Rqh1), or by overexpression of Pot1, a single-strand telomere binding protein that is essential for protection of chromosome ends. From our results, we propose that in the absence of Taz1 and functional RPA, Pot1 cannot function properly and the helicase activity of Rqh1 promotes telomere loss. Our results suggest that controlling the activity of Rqh1 at telomeres is critical for the prevention of genomic instability.
21
Liu, Jun, Lihui Wang, Zhiguo Wang i Jun-Ping Liu. "Roles of Telomere Biology in Cell Senescence, Replicative and Chronological Ageing". Cells 8, nr 1 (15.01.2019): 54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cells8010054.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Telomeres with G-rich repetitive DNA and particular proteins as special heterochromatin structures at the termini of eukaryotic chromosomes are tightly maintained to safeguard genetic integrity and functionality. Telomerase as a specialized reverse transcriptase uses its intrinsic RNA template to lengthen telomeric G-rich strand in yeast and human cells. Cells sense telomere length shortening and respond with cell cycle arrest at a certain size of telomeres referring to the “Hayflick limit.” In addition to regulating the cell replicative senescence, telomere biology plays a fundamental role in regulating the chronological post-mitotic cell ageing. In this review, we summarize the current understandings of telomere regulation of cell replicative and chronological ageing in the pioneer model system Saccharomyces cerevisiae and provide an overview on telomere regulation of animal lifespans. We focus on the mechanisms of survivals by telomere elongation, DNA damage response and environmental factors in the absence of telomerase maintenance of telomeres in the yeast and mammals.
22
Cohn, Marita, Ahu Karademir Andersson, Raquel Quintilla Mateo i Mirja Carlsson Möller. "Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres in the Budding Yeast Naumovozyma castellii". G3: Genes|Genomes|Genetics 9, nr 10 (19.08.2019): 3345–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/g3.119.400428.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The enzyme telomerase ensures the integrity of linear chromosomes by maintaining telomere length. As a hallmark of cancer, cell immortalization and unlimited proliferation is gained by reactivation of telomerase. However, a significant fraction of cancer cells instead uses alternative telomere lengthening mechanisms to ensure telomere function, collectively known as Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres (ALT). Although the budding yeast Naumovozyma castellii (Saccharomyces castellii) has a proficient telomerase activity, we demonstrate here that telomeres in N. castellii are efficiently maintained by a novel ALT mechanism after telomerase knockout. Remarkably, telomerase-negative cells proliferate indefinitely without any major growth crisis and display wild-type colony morphology. Moreover, ALT cells maintain linear chromosomes and preserve a wild-type DNA organization at the chromosome termini, including a short stretch of terminal telomeric sequence. Notably, ALT telomeres are elongated by the addition of ∼275 bp repeats containing a short telomeric sequence and the subtelomeric DNA located just internally (TelKO element). Although telomeres may be elongated by several TelKO repeats, no dramatic genome-wide amplification occurs, thus indicating that the repeat addition may be regulated. Intriguingly, a short interstitial telomeric sequence (ITS) functions as the initiation point for the addition of the TelKO element. This implies that N. castellii telomeres are structurally predisposed to efficiently switch to the ALT mechanism as a response to telomerase dysfunction.
23
Zhao, Shuang, Feng Wang i Lin Liu. "Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres (ALT) in Tumors and Pluripotent Stem Cells". Genes 10, nr 12 (10.12.2019): 1030. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes10121030.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
A telomere consists of repeated DNA sequences (TTAGGG)n as part of a nucleoprotein structure at the end of the linear chromosome, and their progressive shortening induces DNA damage response (DDR) that triggers cellular senescence. The telomere can be maintained by telomerase activity (TA) in the majority of cancer cells (particularly cancer stem cells) and pluripotent stem cells (PSCs), which exhibit unlimited self-proliferation. However, some cells, such as telomerase-deficient cancer cells, can add telomeric repeats by an alternative lengthening of the telomeres (ALT) pathway, showing telomere length heterogeneity. In this review, we focus on the mechanisms of the ALT pathway and potential clinical implications. We also discuss the characteristics of telomeres in PSCs, thereby shedding light on the therapeutic significance of telomere length regulation in age-related diseases and regenerative medicine.
24
Fernandes, Stina George, Rebecca Dsouza, Gouri Pandya, Anuradha Kirtonia, Vinay Tergaonkar, Sook Y. Lee, Manoj Garg i Ekta Khattar. "Role of Telomeres and Telomeric Proteins in Human Malignancies and Their Therapeutic Potential". Cancers 12, nr 7 (14.07.2020): 1901. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cancers12071901.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Telomeres are the ends of linear chromosomes comprised of repetitive nucleotide sequences in humans. Telomeres preserve chromosomal stability and genomic integrity. Telomere length shortens with every cell division in somatic cells, eventually resulting in replicative senescence once telomere length becomes critically short. Telomere shortening can be overcome by telomerase enzyme activity that is undetectable in somatic cells, while being active in germline cells, stem cells, and immune cells. Telomeres are bound by a shelterin complex that regulates telomere lengthening as well as protects them from being identified as DNA damage sites. Telomeres are transcribed by RNA polymerase II, and generate a long noncoding RNA called telomeric repeat-containing RNA (TERRA), which plays a key role in regulating subtelomeric gene expression. Replicative immortality and genome instability are hallmarks of cancer and to attain them cancer cells exploit telomere maintenance and telomere protection mechanisms. Thus, understanding the role of telomeres and their associated proteins in cancer initiation, progression and treatment is very important. The present review highlights the critical role of various telomeric components with recently established functions in cancer. Further, current strategies to target various telomeric components including human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) as a therapeutic approach in human malignancies are discussed.
25
Smolikov, Sarit, i Anat Krauskopf. "The Rap1p-Telomere Complex Does Not Determine the Replicative Capacity of Telomerase-Deficient Yeast". Molecular and Cellular Biology 23, nr 23 (1.12.2003): 8729–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.23.23.8729-8739.2003.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT Telomeres are nucleoprotein structures that cap the ends of chromosomes and thereby protect their stability and integrity. In the presence of telomerase, the enzyme that synthesizes telomeric repeats, telomere length is controlled primarily by Rap1p, the budding yeast telomeric DNA binding protein which, through its C-terminal domain, nucleates a protein complex that limits telomere lengthening. In the absence of telomerase, telomeres shorten with every cell division, and eventually, cells enter replicative senescence. We have set out to identify the telomeric property that determines the replicative capacity of telomerase-deficient budding yeast. We show that in cells deficient for both telomerase and homologous recombination, replicative capacity is dependent on telomere length but not on the binding of Rap1p to the telomeric repeats. Strikingly, inhibition of Rap1p binding or truncation of the C-terminal tail of Rap1p in Kluyveromyces lactis and deletion of the Rap1p-recruited complex in Saccharomyces cerevisiae lead to a dramatic increase in replicative capacity. The study of the role of telomere binding proteins and telomere length on replicative capacity in yeast may have significant implications for our understanding of cellular senescence in higher organisms.
26
Lin, Chih-Yi Gabriela, Anna Christina Näger, Thomas Lunardi, Aleksandra Vančevska, Gérald Lossaint i Joachim Lingner. "The human telomeric proteome during telomere replication". Nucleic Acids Research 49, nr 21 (8.11.2021): 12119–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkab1015.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Abstract Telomere shortening can cause detrimental diseases and contribute to aging. It occurs due to the end replication problem in cells lacking telomerase. Furthermore, recent studies revealed that telomere shortening can be attributed to difficulties of the semi-conservative DNA replication machinery to replicate the bulk of telomeric DNA repeats. To investigate telomere replication in a comprehensive manner, we develop QTIP-iPOND - Quantitative Telomeric chromatin Isolation Protocol followed by isolation of Proteins On Nascent DNA - which enables purification of proteins that associate with telomeres specifically during replication. In addition to the core replisome, we identify a large number of proteins that specifically associate with telomere replication forks. Depletion of several of these proteins induces telomere fragility validating their importance for telomere replication. We also find that at telomere replication forks the single strand telomere binding protein POT1 is depleted, whereas histone H1 is enriched. Our work reveals the dynamic changes of the telomeric proteome during replication, providing a valuable resource of telomere replication proteins. To our knowledge, this is the first study that examines the replisome at a specific region of the genome.
27
Nakamura, Mirai, Akira Nabetani, Takeshi Mizuno, Fumio Hanaoka i Fuyuki Ishikawa. "Alterations of DNA and Chromatin Structures at Telomeres and Genetic Instability in Mouse Cells Defective in DNA Polymerase α". Molecular and Cellular Biology 25, nr 24 (15.12.2005): 11073–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.25.24.11073-11088.2005.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT Telomere length is controlled by a homeostatic mechanism that involves telomerase, telomere-associated proteins, and conventional replication machinery. Specifically, the coordinated actions of the lagging strand synthesis and telomerase have been argued. Although DNA polymerase α, an enzyme important for the lagging strand synthesis, has been indicated to function in telomere metabolism in yeasts and ciliates, it has not been characterized in higher eukaryotes. Here, we investigated the impact of compromised polymerase α activity on telomeres, using tsFT20 mouse mutant cells harboring a temperature-sensitive polymerase α mutant allele. When polymerase α was temperature-inducibly inactivated, we observed sequential events that included an initial extension of the G-tail followed by a marked increase in the overall telomere length occurring in telomerase-independent and -dependent manners, respectively. These alterations of telomeric DNA were accompanied by alterations of telomeric chromatin structures as revealed by quantitative chromatin immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence analyses of TRF1 and POT1. Unexpectedly, polymerase α inhibition resulted in a significantly high incidence of Robertsonian chromosome fusions without noticeable increases in other types of chromosomal aberrations. These results indicate that although DNA polymerase α is essential for genome-wide DNA replication, hypomorphic activity leads to a rather specific spectrum of chromosomal abnormality.
28
Choe, Wonchae, Martin Budd, Osamu Imamura, Laura Hoopes i Judith L. Campbell. "Dynamic Localization of an Okazaki Fragment Processing Protein Suggests a Novel Role in Telomere Replication". Molecular and Cellular Biology 22, nr 12 (15.06.2002): 4202–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.22.12.4202-4217.2002.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT We have found that the Dna2 helicase-nuclease, thought to be involved in maturation of Okazaki fragments, is a component of telomeric chromatin. We demonstrate a dynamic localization of Dna2p to telomeres that suggests a dual role for Dna2p, one in telomere replication and another, unknown function, perhaps in telomere capping. Both chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and immunofluorescence show that Dna2p associates with telomeres but not bulk chromosomal DNA in G1 phase, when there is no telomere replication and the telomere is transcriptionally silenced. In S phase, there is a dramatic redistribution of Dna2p from telomeres to sites throughout the replicating chromosomes. Dna2p is again localized to telomeres in late S, where it remains through G2 and until the next S phase. Telomeric localization of Dna2p required Sir3p, since the amount of Dna2p found at telomeres by two different assays, one-hybrid and ChIP, is severely reduced in strains lacking Sir3p. The Dna2p is also distributed throughout the nucleus in cells growing in the presence of double-strand-break-inducing agents such as bleomycin. Finally, we show that Dna2p is functionally required for telomerase-dependent de novo telomere synthesis and also participates in telomere lengthening in mutants lacking telomerase.
29
Gu, Wei, Zihan Lin, Shengchao Zhao, Guanzhen Wang, Ziyi Shen, Wei Liu, Yi Cai, Kaibo Wang, Chunpeng Craig Wan i Tingdong Yan. "Research Progress on G-Quadruplexes in Human Telomeres and Human Telomerase Reverse Transcriptase (hTERT) Promoter". Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2022 (6.06.2022): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/2905663.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The upregulation telomerase activity is observed in over 85-90% of human cancers and provides an attractive target for cancer therapies. The high guanine content in the telomere DNA sequences and the hTERT promoter can form G-quadruplexes (G4s). Small molecules targeting G4s in telomeres and hTERT promoter could stabilize the G4s and inhibit hTERT expression and telomere extension. Several G4 ligands have shown inhibitory effects in cancer cells and xenograft mouse models, indicating these ligands have a potential for cancer therapies. The current review article describes the concept of the telomere, telomerase, and G4s. Moreover, the regulation of telomerase and G4s in telomeres and hTERT promoter is discussed as well. The summary of the small molecules targeting G4s in telomeric DNA sequences and the hTERT promoter will also be shown.
30
Niida, Hiroyuki, Yoichi Shinkai, M. Prakash Hande, Takehisa Matsumoto, Shoko Takehara, Makoto Tachibana, Mitsuo Oshimura, Peter M. Lansdorp i Yasuhiro Furuichi. "Telomere Maintenance in Telomerase-Deficient Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells: Characterization of an Amplified Telomeric DNA". Molecular and Cellular Biology 20, nr 11 (1.06.2000): 4115–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.20.11.4115-4127.2000.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT Telomere dynamics, chromosomal instability, and cellular viability were studied in serial passages of mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells in which the telomerase RNA (mTER) gene was deleted. These cells lack detectable telomerase activity, and their growth rate was reduced after more than 300 divisions and almost zero after 450 cell divisions. After this growth crisis, survivor cells with a rapid growth rate did emerge. Such survivors were found to maintain functional telomeres in a telomerase-independent fashion. Although telomerase-independent telomere maintenance has been reported for some immortalized mammalian cells, its molecular mechanism has not been elucidated. Characterization of the telomeric structures in one of the survivor mTER −/− cell lines showed amplification of the same tandem arrays of telomeric and nontelomeric sequences at most of the chromosome ends. This evidence implicatescis/trans amplification as one mechanism for the telomerase-independent maintenance of telomeres in mammalian cells.
31
Amato, Roberta, Martina Valenzuela, Francesco Berardinelli, Erica Salvati, Carmen Maresca, Stefano Leone, Antonio Antoccia i Antonella Sgura. "G-quadruplex Stabilization Fuels the ALT Pathway in ALT-positive Osteosarcoma Cells". Genes 11, nr 3 (13.03.2020): 304. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes11030304.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Most human tumors maintain telomere lengths by telomerase, whereas a portion of them (10–15%) uses a mechanism named alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT). The telomeric G-quadruplex (G4) ligand RHPS4 is known for its potent antiproliferative effect, as shown in telomerase-positive cancer models. Moreover, RHPS4 is also able to reduce cell proliferation in ALT cells, although the influence of G4 stabilization on the ALT mechanism has so far been poorly investigated. Here we show that sensitivity to RHPS4 is comparable in ALT-positive (U2OS; SAOS-2) and telomerase-positive (HOS) osteosarcoma cell lines, unlinking the telomere maintenance mechanism and RHPS4 responsiveness. To investigate the impact of G4 stabilization on ALT, the cardinal ALT hallmarks were analyzed. A significant induction of telomeric doublets, telomeric clusterized DNA damage, ALT-associated Promyelocytic Leukaemia-bodies (APBs), telomere sister chromatid exchanges (T-SCE) and c-circles was found exclusively in RHPS4-treated ALT cells. We surmise that RHPS4 affects ALT mechanisms through the induction of replicative stress that in turn is converted in DNA damage at telomeres, fueling recombination. In conclusion, our work indicates that RHPS4-induced telomeric DNA damage promotes overactivation of telomeric recombination in ALT cells, opening new questions on the therapeutic employment of G4 ligands in the treatment of ALT positive tumors.
32
Cesare, Anthony J., i Jack D. Griffith. "Telomeric DNA in ALT Cells Is Characterized by Free Telomeric Circles and Heterogeneous t-Loops". Molecular and Cellular Biology 24, nr 22 (15.11.2004): 9948–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.24.22.9948-9957.2004.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT A prerequisite for cellular immortalization in human cells is the elongation of telomeres through the upregulation of telomerase or by the alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT) pathway. In this study, telomere structure in multiple ALT cell lines was examined by electron microscopy. Nuclei were isolated from GM847, GM847-Tert, and WI-38 VA13 ALT cells, psoralen photo-cross-linked in situ, and the telomere restriction fragments were purified by gel filtration chromatography. Examination of telomere-enriched fractions revealed frequent extrachromosomal circles, ranging from 0.7 to 56.8 kb. t-loops were also observed, with the loop portion ranging from 0.5 to 70.2 kb. The total length of the loop plus tail of the t-loops corresponded to the telomere restriction fragment length from the ALT cell lines as determined by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. The presence of extrachromosomal circles containing telomeric DNA was confirmed by two-dimensional pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. These results show that extrachromosomal telomeric DNA circles are present in ALT nuclei and suggest a roll-and-spread mechanism of telomere elongation similar to that seen in previous observations of multiple yeast species. Results presented here also indicate that expression of telomerase in GM847 cells does not affect t-loop or extrachromosomal circle formation.
33
Underwood, Dana H., Coleen Carroll i Michael J. McEachern. "Genetic Dissection of the Kluyveromyces lactis Telomere and Evidence for Telomere Capping Defects in TER1 Mutants with Long Telomeres". Eukaryotic Cell 3, nr 2 (kwiecień 2004): 369–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.3.2.369-384.2004.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT In the yeast Kluyveromyces lactis, the telomeres are composed of perfect 25-bp repeats copied from a 30-nucleotide RNA template defined by 5-nucleotide terminal repeats. A genetic dissection of the K. lactis telomere was performed by using mutant telomerase RNA (TER1) alleles to incorporate mutated telomeric repeats. This analysis has shown that each telomeric repeat contains several functional regions, some of which may physically overlap. Mutations in the terminal repeats of the template RNA typically lead to telomere shortening, as do mutations in the right side of the Rap1p binding site. Mutations in the left half of the Rap1p binding site, however, lead to the immediate formation of long telomeres. When mutated, the region immediately 3′ of the Rap1p binding site on the TG-rich strand of the telomere leads to telomeres that are initially short but eventually undergo extreme telomere elongation. Mutations between this region and the 3′ terminal repeat cause elevated recombination despite the presence of telomeres of nearly wild-type length. Mutants with highly elongated telomeres were further characterized and exhibit signs of telomere capping defects, including elevated levels of subtelomeric recombination and the formation of extrachromosomal and single-stranded telomeric DNA. Lengthening caused by some Rap1 binding site mutations can be suppressed by high-copy-number RAP1. Mutated telomeric repeats from a delayed elongation mutant are shown to be defective at regulating telomere length in cells with wild-type telomerase, indicating that the telomeric repeats are defective at telomere length regulation.
34
Hahn, William C. "Role of Telomeres and Telomerase in the Pathogenesis of Human Cancer". Journal of Clinical Oncology 21, nr 10 (15.05.2003): 2034–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/jco.2003.06.018.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Specialized nucleoprotein structures, termed telomeres, cap the ends of human chromosomes. These terminal structures, composed of repetitive arrays of guanine-rich hexameric DNA together with specific telomere-binding proteins, play essential roles in protecting the chromosome from damage and degradation. In addition, several lines of evidence implicate telomere maintenance as an important regulator of cell life span. Activation of telomerase, a dedicated reverse transcriptase that synthesizes telomeric sequences, is strongly associated with cancer, and recent observations confirm that telomeres and telomerase perform important roles in both suppressing and facilitating malignant transformation. These dual functions of telomere biology are evident in the clinical manifestations of the multisystem syndrome, dyskeratosis congenita, forms of which display defects in telomerase function. Recent advances in our understanding of telomere biology indicate that the manipulation of telomeres and telomerase will lead to clinically significant applications in the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of neoplastic disease.
35
Maser, Richard S., Kwok-Kin Wong, Erguen Sahin, Huili Xia, Maria Naylor, H. Mason Hedberg, Steven E. Artandi i Ronald A. DePinho. "DNA-Dependent Protein Kinase Catalytic Subunit Is Not Required for Dysfunctional Telomere Fusion and Checkpoint Response in the Telomerase-Deficient Mouse". Molecular and Cellular Biology 27, nr 6 (4.12.2006): 2253–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.01354-06.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT Telomeres are key structural elements for the protection and maintenance of linear chromosomes, and they function to prevent recognition of chromosomal ends as DNA double-stranded breaks. Loss of telomere capping function brought about by telomerase deficiency and gradual erosion of telomere ends or by experimental disruption of higher-order telomere structure culminates in the fusion of defective telomeres and/or the activation of DNA damage checkpoints. Previous work has implicated the nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) DNA repair pathway as a critical mediator of these biological processes. Here, employing the telomerase-deficient mouse model, we tested whether the NHEJ component DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit (DNA-PKcs) was required for fusion of eroded/dysfunctional telomere ends and the telomere checkpoint responses. In late-generation mTerc − / − DNA-PKcs − / − cells and tissues, chromosomal end-to-end fusions and anaphase bridges were readily evident. Notably, nullizygosity for DNA Ligase4 (Lig4)—an additional crucial NHEJ component—was also permissive for chromosome fusions in mTerc − / − cells, indicating that, in contrast to results seen with experimental disruption of telomere structure, telomere dysfunction in the context of gradual telomere erosion can engage additional DNA repair pathways. Furthermore, we found that DNA-PKcs deficiency does not reduce apoptosis, tissue atrophy, or p53 activation in late-generation mTerc − / − tissues but rather moderately exacerbates germ cell apoptosis and testicular degeneration. Thus, our studies indicate that the NHEJ components, DNA-PKcs and Lig4, are not required for fusion of critically shortened telomeric ends and that DNA-PKcs is not required for sensing and executing the telomere checkpoint response, findings consistent with the consensus view of the limited role of DNA-PKcs in DNA damage signaling in general.
36
Bryan, Tracy M. "G-Quadruplexes at Telomeres: Friend or Foe?" Molecules 25, nr 16 (13.08.2020): 3686. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25163686.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Telomeres are DNA-protein complexes that cap and protect the ends of linear chromosomes. In almost all species, telomeric DNA has a G/C strand bias, and the short tandem repeats of the G-rich strand have the capacity to form into secondary structures in vitro, such as four-stranded G-quadruplexes. This has long prompted speculation that G-quadruplexes play a positive role in telomere biology, resulting in selection for G-rich tandem telomere repeats during evolution. There is some evidence that G-quadruplexes at telomeres may play a protective capping role, at least in yeast, and that they may positively affect telomere maintenance by either the enzyme telomerase or by recombination-based mechanisms. On the other hand, G-quadruplex formation in telomeric DNA, as elsewhere in the genome, can form an impediment to DNA replication and a source of genome instability. This review summarizes recent evidence for the in vivo existence of G-quadruplexes at telomeres, with a focus on human telomeres, and highlights some of the many unanswered questions regarding the location, form, and functions of these structures.
37
Hsu, Joseph K., Tao Lin i Robert Y. L. Tsai. "Nucleostemin prevents telomere damage by promoting PML-IV recruitment to SUMOylated TRF1". Journal of Cell Biology 197, nr 5 (28.05.2012): 613–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201109038.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Continuously dividing cells must be protected from telomeric and nontelomeric DNA damage in order to maintain their proliferative potential. Here, we report a novel telomere-protecting mechanism regulated by nucleostemin (NS). NS depletion increased the number of telomere damage foci in both telomerase-active (TA+) and alternative lengthening of telomere (ALT) cells and decreased the percentage of damaged telomeres associated with ALT-associated PML bodies (APB) and the number of APB in ALT cells. Mechanistically, NS could promote the recruitment of PML-IV to SUMOylated TRF1 in TA+ and ALT cells. This event was stimulated by DNA damage. Supporting the importance of NS and PML-IV in telomere protection, we demonstrate that loss of NS or PML-IV increased the frequency of telomere damage and aberration, reduced telomeric length, and perturbed the TRF2ΔBΔM-induced telomeric recruitment of RAD51. Conversely, overexpression of either NS or PML-IV protected ALT and TA+ cells from telomere damage. This work reveals a novel mechanism in telomere protection.
38
Blackburn, Elizabeth H., Carol W. Greider, Eric Henderson, Margaret S. Lee, Janis Shampay i Dorothy Shippen-Lentz. "Recognition and elongation of telomeres by telomerase". Genome 31, nr 2 (15.01.1989): 553–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/g89-104.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Telomeres stabilize chromosomal ends and allow their complete replication in vivo. In diverse eukaryotes, the essential telomeric DNA sequence consists of variable numbers of tandem repeats of simple, G + C rich sequences, with a strong strand bias of G residues on the strand oriented 5′ to 3′ toward the chromosomal terminus. This strand forms a protruding 3′ overhang at the chromosomal terminus in three different eukaryotes analyzed. Analysis of yeast and protozoan telomeres showed that telomeres are dynamic structures in vivo, being acted on by shortening and lengthening activities. We previously identified and partially purified an enzymatic activity, telomere terminal transferase, or telomerase, from the ciliate Tetrahymena. Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein enzyme with essential RNA and protein components. This activity adds repeats of the Tetrahymena telomeric sequence, TTGGGG, onto the 3′ end of a single-stranded DNA primer consisting of a few repeats of the G-rich strand of known telomeric, and telomere-like, sequences. The shortest oligonucleotide active as a primer was the decamer G4T2G4. Structural analysis of synthetic DNA oligonucleotides that are active as primers showed that they all formed discrete intramolecular foldback structures at temperatures below 40 °C. Addition of TTGGGG repeats occurs one nucleotide at a time by de novo synthesis, which is not templated by the DNA primer. Up to 8000 nucleotides of G4T2 repeats were added to the primer in vitro. We discuss the implications of this finding for regulation of telomerase in vivo and a model for telomere elongation by telomerase.Key words: chromosome telomeres, telomerase, oligonucleotide repeats.
39
Osterhage, Jennifer L., i Katherine L. Friedman. "Chromosome End Maintenance by Telomerase". Journal of Biological Chemistry 284, nr 24 (12.03.2009): 16061–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.r900011200.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Telomeres, protein-DNA complexes at the ends of eukaryotic linear chromosomes, are essential for genome stability. The accumulation of chromosomal abnormalities in the absence of proper telomere function is implicated in human aging and cancer. Repetitive telomeric sequences are maintained by telomerase, a ribonucleoprotein complex containing a reverse transcriptase subunit, a template RNA, and accessory components. Telomere elongation is regulated at multiple levels, including assembly of the telomerase holoenzyme, recruitment of telomerase to the chromosome terminus, and telomere accessibility. This minireview provides an overview of telomerase structure, function, and regulation and the role of telomerase in human disease.
40
Cong, Yu-Sheng, Woodring E. Wright i Jerry W. Shay. "Human Telomerase and Its Regulation". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 66, nr 3 (wrzesień 2002): 407–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mmbr.66.3.407-425.2002.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
SUMMARY The telomere is a special functional complex at the end of linear eukaryotic chromosomes, consisting of tandem repeat DNA sequences and associated proteins. It is essential for maintaining the integrity and stability of linear eukaryotic genomes. Telomere length regulation and maintenance contribute to normal human cellular aging and human diseases. The synthesis of telomeres is mainly achieved by the cellular reverse transcriptase telomerase, an RNA-dependent DNA polymerase that adds telomeric DNA to telomeres. Expression of telomerase is usually required for cell immortalization and long-term tumor growth. In humans, telomerase activity is tightly regulated during development and oncogenesis. The modulation of telomerase activity may therefore have important implications in antiaging and anticancer therapy. This review describes the currently known components of the telomerase complex and attempts to provide an update on the molecular mechanisms of human telomerase regulation.
41
Groff-Vindman, Cindy, Anthony J. Cesare, Shobhana Natarajan, Jack D. Griffith i Michael J. McEachern. "Recombination at Long Mutant Telomeres Produces Tiny Single- and Double-Stranded Telomeric Circles". Molecular and Cellular Biology 25, nr 11 (1.06.2005): 4406–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.25.11.4406-4412.2005.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT Recombinational telomere elongation (RTE) known as alternate lengthening of telomeres is the mechanism of telomere maintenance in up to 5 to 10% of human cancers. The telomeres of yeast mutants lacking telomerase can also be maintained by recombination. Previously, we proposed the roll-and-spread model to explain this elongation in the yeast Kluveromyces lactis. This model suggests that a very small (∼100-bp) circular molecule of telomeric DNA is copied by a rolling circle event to generate a single long telomere. The sequence of this primary elongated telomere is then spread by recombination to all remaining telomeres. Here we show by two-dimensional gel analysis and electron microscopy that small circles of single- and double-stranded telomeric DNA are commonly made by recombination in a K. lactis mutant with long telomeres. These circles were found to be especially abundant between 100 and 400 bp (or nucleotides). Interestingly, the single-stranded circles consist of only the G-rich telomeric strand sequence. To our knowledge this is the first report of single-stranded telomeric circles as a product of telomere dysfunction. We propose that the small telomeric circles form through the resolution of an intratelomeric strand invasion which resembles a t-loop. Our data reported here demonstrate that K. lactis can, in at least some circumstances, make telomeric circles of the very small sizes predicted by the roll-and-spread model. The very small circles seen here are both predicted products of telomere rapid deletion, a process observed in both human and yeast cells, and predicted templates for roll-and-spread RTE.
42
Bunch, Jeremy T., Nancy S. Bae, Jessica Leonardi i Peter Baumann. "Distinct Requirements for Pot1 in Limiting Telomere Length and Maintaining Chromosome Stability". Molecular and Cellular Biology 25, nr 13 (1.07.2005): 5567–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.25.13.5567-5578.2005.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT The fission yeast Pot1 (protection of telomeres) protein binds to the single-stranded extensions at the ends of telomeres, where its presence is critical for the maintenance of linear chromosomes. Homologs of Pot1 have been identified in a wide variety of eukaryotes, including plants, animals, and humans. We now show that Pot1 plays dual roles in telomere length regulation and chromosome end protection. Using a series of Pot1 truncation mutants, we have defined distinct areas of the protein required for chromosome stability and for limiting access to telomere ends by telomerase. We provide evidence that a large portion of Pot1, including the N-terminal DNA binding domain and amino acids close to the C terminus, is essential for its protective function. C-terminal Pot1 fragments were found to exert a dominant-negative effect by displacing endogenous Pot1 from telomeres. Reducing telomere-bound Pot1 in this manner resulted in dramatic lengthening of the telomere tract. Upon further reduction of Pot1 at telomeres, the opposite phenotype was observed: loss of telomeric DNA and chromosome end fusions. Our results demonstrate that cells must carefully regulate the amount of telomere-bound Pot1 to differentiate between allowing access to telomerase and catastrophic loss of telomeres.
43
Kirk, Karen E., Christina Christ, Jennifer M. McGuire, Arun G. Paul, Mithaq Vahedi, Kathleen R. Stuart i Eric S. Cole. "Abnormal Micronuclear Telomeres Lead to an Unusual Cell Cycle Checkpoint and Defects in Tetrahymena Oral Morphogenesis". Eukaryotic Cell 7, nr 10 (9.05.2008): 1712–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.00393-07.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT Telomere mutants have been well studied with respect to telomerase and the role of telomere binding proteins, but they have not been used to explore how a downstream morphogenic event is related to the mutated telomeric DNA. We report that alterations at the telomeres can have profound consequences on organellar morphogenesis. Specifically, a telomerase RNA mutation termed ter1-43AA results in the loss of germ line micronuclear telomeres in the binucleate protozoan Tetrahymena thermophila. These cells also display a micronuclear mitotic arrest, characterized by an extreme delay in anaphase with an elongated, condensed chromatin and a mitotic spindle apparatus. This anaphase defect suggests telomere fusions and consequently a spindle rather than a DNA damage checkpoint. Most surprisingly, these mutants exhibit unique, dramatic defects in the formation of the cell's oral apparatus. We suggest that micronuclear telomere loss leads to a “dynamic pause” in the program of cortical development, which may reveal an unusual cell cycle checkpoint.
44
Douglas, Max E., i John F. X. Diffley. "Budding yeast Rap1, but not telomeric DNA, is inhibitory for multiple stages of DNA replication in vitro". Nucleic Acids Research 49, nr 10 (28.05.2021): 5671–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkab416.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Abstract Telomeres are copied and reassembled each cell division cycle through a multistep process called telomere replication. Most telomeric DNA is duplicated semiconservatively during this process, but replication forks frequently pause or stall at telomeres in yeast, mouse and human cells, potentially causing chronic telomere shortening or loss in a single cell cycle. We have investigated the cause of this effect by examining the replication of telomeric templates in vitro. Using a reconstituted assay for eukaryotic DNA replication in which a complete eukaryotic replisome is assembled and activated with purified proteins, we show that budding yeast telomeric DNA is efficiently duplicated in vitro unless the telomere binding protein Rap1 is present. Rap1 acts as a roadblock that prevents replisome progression and leading strand synthesis, but also potently inhibits lagging strand telomere replication behind the fork. Both defects can be mitigated by the Pif1 helicase. Our results suggest that GC-rich sequences do not inhibit DNA replication per se, and that in the absence of accessory factors, telomere binding proteins can inhibit multiple, distinct steps in the replication process.
45
Mondello, Chiara, i A. Ivana Scovassi. "Telomeres, telomerase, and apoptosis". Biochemistry and Cell Biology 82, nr 4 (1.08.2004): 498–507. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/o04-048.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Telomeres are specialized high-order chromatin structures that cap the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. In vertebrates, telomeric DNA is composed of repetitions of the TTAGGG hexanucleotide, is bound to a set of specific proteins, and is elongated by the reverse transcriptase enzyme telomerase. Telomerase activity is promptly detected in cells with an indefinite replicative potential, such as cancer cells, while is almost undetectable in normal cells, which are characterized by a limited life span. Mounting evidence indicates that the maintenance of telomere integrity and telomerase protect cells from apoptosis. Disruption of the telomere capping function and (or) telomerase inhibition elicit an apoptotic response in cancer cells, while restoration of telomerase activity in somatic cells confers resistance to apoptosis. The possible mechanisms linking telomeres, telomerase and apoptosis are discussed in this review, together with the impact of this field in anticancer research.Key words: telomeres, telomerase, telomeric proteins, apoptosis, tumorigenesis.
46
Ogrocká, Anna, Pavla Polanská, Eva Majerová, Zlatko Janeba, Jiří Fajkus i Miloslava Fojtová. "Compromised telomere maintenance in hypomethylated Arabidopsis thaliana plants". Nucleic Acids Research 42, nr 5 (10.12.2013): 2919–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkt1285.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Abstract Telomeres, nucleoprotein structures at the ends of linear eukaryotic chromosomes, are important for the maintenance of genomic stability. Telomeres were considered as typical heterochromatic regions, but in light of recent results, this view should be reconsidered. Asymmetrically located cytosines in plant telomeric DNA repeats may be substrates for a DNA methyltransferase enzyme and indeed, it was shown that these repeats are methylated. Here, we analyse the methylation of telomeric cytosines and the length of telomeres in Arabidopsis thaliana methylation mutants (met 1-3 and ddm 1-8), and in their wild-type siblings that were germinated in the presence of hypomethylation drugs. Our results show that cytosine methylation in telomeric repeats depends on the activity of MET1 and DDM1 enzymes. Significantly shortened telomeres occur in later generations of methylation mutants as well as in plants germinated in the presence of hypomethylation drugs, and this phenotype is stably transmitted to the next plant generation. A possible role of compromised in vivo telomerase action in the observed telomere shortening is hypothesized based on telomere analysis of hypomethylated telomerase knockout plants. Results are discussed in connection with previous data in this field obtained using different model systems.
47
Liu, Jia-Cheng, Qian-Jin Li, Ming-Hong He, Can Hu, Pengfei Dai, Fei-Long Meng, Bo O. Zhou i Jin-Qiu Zhou. "Swc4 positively regulates telomere length independently of its roles in NuA4 and SWR1 complexes". Nucleic Acids Research 48, nr 22 (3.12.2020): 12792–803. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkaa1150.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Abstract Telomeres at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes are essential for genome integrality and stability. In order to identify genes that sustain telomere maintenance independently of telomerase recruitment, we have exploited the phenotype of over-long telomeres in the cells that express Cdc13-Est2 fusion protein, and examined 195 strains, in which individual non-essential gene deletion causes telomere shortening. We have identified 24 genes whose deletion results in dramatic failure of Cdc13-Est2 function, including those encoding components of telomerase, Yku, KEOPS and NMD complexes, as well as quite a few whose functions are not obvious in telomerase activity regulation. We have characterized Swc4, a shared subunit of histone acetyltransferase NuA4 and chromatin remodeling SWR1 (SWR1-C) complexes, in telomere length regulation. Deletion of SWC4, but not other non-essential subunits of either NuA4 or SWR1-C, causes significant telomere shortening. Consistently, simultaneous disassembly of NuA4 and SWR1-C does not affect telomere length. Interestingly, inactivation of Swc4 in telomerase null cells accelerates both telomere shortening and senescence rates. Swc4 associates with telomeric DNA in vivo, suggesting a direct role of Swc4 at telomeres. Taken together, our work reveals a distinct role of Swc4 in telomere length regulation, separable from its canonical roles in both NuA4 and SWR1-C.
48
Jay, Kyle A., Dana L. Smith i Elizabeth H. Blackburn. "Early Loss of Telomerase Action in Yeast Creates a Dependence on the DNA Damage Response Adaptor Proteins". Molecular and Cellular Biology 36, nr 14 (9.05.2016): 1908–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.00943-15.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Telomeres cap the ends of chromosomes, protecting them from degradation and inappropriate DNA repair processes that can lead to genomic instability. A short telomere elicits increased telomerase action on itself that replenishes telomere length, thereby stabilizing the telomere. In the prolonged absence of telomerase activity in dividing cells, telomeres eventually become critically short, inducing a permanent cell cycle arrest (senescence). We recently showed that even early after telomerase inactivation (ETI), yeast cells have accelerated mother cell aging and mildly perturbed cell cycles. Here, we show that the complete disruption of DNA damage response (DDR) adaptor proteins in ETI cells causes severe growth defects. This synthetic-lethality phenotype was as pronounced as that caused by extensive DNA damage in wild-type cells but showed genetic dependencies distinct from such damage and was completely alleviated by SML1 deletion, which increases deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) pools. Our results indicated that these deleterious effects in ETI cells cannot be accounted for solely by the slow erosion of telomeres due to incomplete replication that leads to senescence. We propose that normally occurring telomeric DNA replication stress is resolved by telomerase activity and the DDR in two parallel pathways and that deletion of Sml1 prevents this stress.
49
Premkumar, Vidjaya Letchoumy, Stacey Cranert, Benjamin R. Linger, Gregg B. Morin, Sasha Minium i Carolyn Price. "The 3′ Overhangs at Tetrahymena thermophila Telomeres Are Packaged by Four Proteins, Pot1a, Tpt1, Pat1, and Pat2". Eukaryotic Cell 13, nr 2 (2.12.2013): 240–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.00275-13.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACTAlthough studies with the ciliateTetrahymena thermophilahave played a central role in advancing our understanding of telomere biology and telomerase mechanisms and composition, the full complement ofTetrahymenatelomere proteins has not yet been identified. Previously, we demonstrated that inTetrahymena, the telomeric 3′ overhang is protected by a three-protein complex composed of Pot1a, Tpt1, and Pat1. Here we show that Tpt1 and Pat1 associate with a fourth protein, Pat2 (Pot1 associatedTetrahymena2). Mass spectrometry of proteins copurifying with Pat1 or Tpt1 identified peptides from Pat2, Pot1a, Tpt1, and Pat1. The lack of other proteins copurifying with Pat1 or Tpt1 implies that the overhang is protected by a four-protein Pot1a-Tpt1-Pat1-Pat2 complex. We verified that Pat2 localizes to telomeres, but we were unable to detect direct binding to telomeric DNA. Cells depleted of Pat2 continue to divide, but the telomeres exhibit gradual shortening. The lack of growth arrest indicates that, in contrast to Pot1a and Tpt1, Pat2 is not required for the sequestration of the telomere from the DNA repair machinery. Instead, Pat2 is needed to regulate telomere length, most likely by acting in conjunction with Pat1 to allow telomerase access to the telomere.
50
Mattern, Karin A., Susan J. J. Swiggers, Alex L. Nigg, Bob Löwenberg, Adriaan B. Houtsmuller i J. Mark J. M. Zijlmans. "Dynamics of Protein Binding to Telomeres in Living Cells: Implications for Telomere Structure and Function". Molecular and Cellular Biology 24, nr 12 (15.06.2004): 5587–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.24.12.5587-5594.2004.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
ABSTRACT Telomeric proteins have an essential role in the regulation of the length of the telomeric DNA tract and in protection against end-to-end chromosome fusion. Telomere organization and how individual proteins are involved in different telomere functions in living cells is largely unknown. By using green fluorescent protein tagging and photobleaching, we investigated in vivo interactions of human telomeric DNA-binding proteins with telomeric DNA. Our results show that telomeric proteins interact with telomeres in a complex dynamic fashion: TRF2, which has a dual role in chromosome end protection and telomere length homeostasis, resides at telomeres in two distinct pools. One fraction (∼73%) has binding dynamics similar to TRF1 (residence time of ∼44 s). Interestingly, the other fraction of TRF2 binds with similar dynamics as the putative end-protecting factor hPOT1 (residence time of ∼11 min). Our data support a dynamic model of telomeres in which chromosome end-protection and telomere length homeostasis are governed by differential binding of telomeric proteins to telomeric DNA.