Artykuły w czasopismach na temat „Stari Konak”

This paper presents research on the historical and urban development of the palace complex on Terazije during the 19th and early 20th centuries, placing a focus on the period from the 1840s to the 1880s, i.e. upon the architecture of the Prince's Court (Knežev dvorac, also known as the Stari konak) and the Court of Crown Prince Mihailo, which were both demolished in the early 20th century. The process of urban transformation of the complex and the design of buildings for the accommodation of the then-rulers is presented, based on the available historical material (old plans and photographs), as well as pre-existing interpretations of this topic available in published literature. Both the appearance of the court buildings and the complex itself in certain phases of development are reconstructed, facilitated by comparative situational representations and axonometric projections. A typological and stylistic analysis of the architectural characteristics of the Stari konak and the court, which are to be considered representative examples of the transition from the Classicist to the Romantic era of Serbian architecture in the middle of the 19th century, is given. The paper places a particular emphasis on the historical and cultural significance in the present of these now-demolished buildings for preserving the memory of an extremely important period in the history of the modern Serbian state.

Rannsóknin er um fyrstu tvö ár sjö kennslukarla í starfi sem grunnskólakennarar. Spurt var: Hvaða og hvers konar formlegir sem óformlegir þættir í skólunum reyndust styðjandi við starf nýju kennslukarlanna? Fram kom að formleg leiðsögn var takmörkuð en margt í starfi skólanna reyndist þeim notadrjúgt, þar með taldar góðar móttökur og vinsamlegt viðmót. Samvinnan við aðra kennara, óformleg eða í formlegri teymiskennslu, virtist vera sá styðjandi þáttur sem mestu skipti fyrir viðmælendur. Í sumum skólanna voru sérstakir karlaklúbbar sem viðmælendur töldu jákvæða fyrir aðlögun sína að starfinu. Í lok greinarinnar eru settar fram fimm leiðir til að styðja nýliða í kennarastarfinu: Í fyrsta lagi að efla formlega leiðsögn eins leiðsagnarkennara við hvern nýliða, í öðru lagi að tengja formlegu leiðsögnina við teymiskennslu, í þriðja lagi nýliðakaffi, í fjórða lagi að skoða hvort kynjaskiptir klúbbar nýliða komi að notum og loks að tekið verði upp reglubundið áhorf í kennslustofum nýliða

Abstract Eukaryotic protein synthesis generally initiates at a start codon defined by an AUG and its surrounding Kozak sequence context, but the quantitative importance of this context in different species is unclear. We tested this concept in two pathogenic Cryptococcus yeast species by genome-wide mapping of translation and of mRNA 5′ and 3′ ends. We observed thousands of AUG-initiated upstream open reading frames (uORFs) that are a major contributor to translation repression. uORF use depends on the Kozak sequence context of its start codon, and uORFs with strong contexts promote nonsense-mediated mRNA decay. Transcript leaders in Cryptococcus and other fungi are substantially longer and more AUG-dense than in Saccharomyces. Numerous Cryptococcus mRNAs encode predicted dual-localized proteins, including many aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, in which a leaky AUG start codon is followed by a strong Kozak context in-frame AUG, separated by mitochondrial-targeting sequence. Analysis of other fungal species shows that such dual-localization is also predicted to be common in the ascomycete mould, Neurospora crassa. Kozak-controlled regulation is correlated with insertions in translational initiation factors in fidelity-determining regions that contact the initiator tRNA. Thus, start codon context is a signal that quantitatively programs both the expression and the structures of proteins in diverse fungi.

The carbon star is one of the best probes for the galactic study; (1)it is intrinsically bright (Mbol = − 2 to − 6) especially in the red and infrared wavelength regions,(2)it has spectral features readily detectable on objective prism plates due to their strong carbon molecular bands,(3)it is an evolved star distributed abundantly (∼1 star per square degree) along the galactic plane.We can detect it in the Galaxy up to several kpc from the sun on objective prism plates of the Schmidt telescope.We have been making survey observations of faint cool carbon stars using the Kiso 105-cm Schmidt telescope. Kodak IN and 103aF plates are respectively taken behind the 4-degree objective prism (700 Åmm−1 at Hα) for the detection and for the spectral classification. V-band plates are utilized to obtain the position and the brightness of the stars detected.The survey areas are distributed along the northern galactic plane. Seven fields in the Cassiopeia region (l = 115° to 133° and eight fields in the Taurus-Auriga-Gemini region (i = 170° to 188°) have been observed and processed up to now (Maehara and Soyano 1987a,b).

We present a new technique in double star photography leading to high accuracy measurements in amateur-size instruments. The trailing method has been improved by the use of a chopper that cuts the trail into a number of segments. The chopper period is accurately known, so it is the length of each segment on the plate. In this way the scale factor is measured in each exposure. Fine-grain films, such as hyper-sensitized Kodak 2415, are used and all measurements are performed at the microscope. The same technique may also be applied to CCD cameras. A statistical analysis of errors shows that Δθ ≤ 30′ and Δρ/ρ ≈ 0.01 for most binaries with ρ ≥ 3″. This method has been applied to professional-amateur joint programs dealing with multiple systems with variable components and a survey of poorly-observed wide binaries.

AbstractWe are conducting a long-term deep spectral survey to investigate the distribution of Ap and Am stars in selected fields of the Milky Way and in open star clusters of different ages. The spectral survey is based on objective prism spectra obtained with an eight degree prism attached to the 70/98 cm meniscus telescope (f/3, 135 Å mm−1 at Hδ) at the Abastumani Observatory. Kodak IIIa-J emulsions hypersensitized by baking in nitrogen gas are used in combination with a 500 Å FWHM filter centered on Hδ. A limiting magnitude of mB = 14 was reached in an exposure time of 120 m. Study of the objective prism plates is still in a very early stage. Observations of the central part of the same field taken with a CCD resulted in a limiting magnitude mB = 16. On the basis of spectral material obtained, a wide range of spectra may be classified in the MK system.

The eukaryotic 43S preinitiation complex (PIC) bearing Met-tRNAiMet in a ternary complex (TC) with eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF)2-GTP scans the mRNA leader for an AUG codon in favorable “Kozak” context. AUG recognition provokes rearrangement from an open PIC conformation with TC bound in a state not fully engaged with the P site (“POUT”) to a closed, arrested conformation with TC tightly bound in the “PIN” state. Yeast ribosomal protein Rps3/uS3 resides in the mRNA entry channel of the 40S subunit and contacts mRNA via conserved residues whose functional importance was unknown. We show that substitutions of these residues reduce bulk translation initiation and diminish initiation at near-cognate UUG start codons in yeast mutants in which UUG selection is abnormally high. Two such substitutions—R116D and R117D—also increase discrimination against an AUG codon in suboptimal Kozak context. Consistently, the Arg116 and Arg117 substitutions destabilize TC binding to 48S PICs reconstituted in vitro with mRNA harboring a UUG start codon, indicating destabilization of the closed PIN state with a UUG–anticodon mismatch. Using model mRNAs lacking contacts with either the mRNA entry or exit channels of the 40S subunit, we demonstrate that Arg116/Arg117 are crucial for stabilizing PIC–mRNA contacts at the entry channel, augmenting the function of eIF3 at both entry and exit channels. The corresponding residues in bacterial uS3 promote the helicase activity of the elongating ribosome, suggesting that uS3 contacts with mRNA enhance multiple phases of translation across different domains of life.

The purpose of the article is to analyze the conflicts of Russian soldiers with the Zaporozhian population in Kodatsky and Starosamarsky ferriage and to identify the causes of conflict.Methods: analysis, synthesis, induction, biographical, historical-genetic. In general, research is based on microhistory.The main results. Control over the ferriage brought appreciable profits to the Zaporozhian Cossacks. The ferriages, including Kodatsky and Starosamarsky, were under the strict control of the specifically appointed officials of the Kosh of Nova Zaporozhian Sich. These two ferriages were operated by the Kodatsky special manager – "shafar", and the control over the Starosamarsky ferriage was carried out by persons, authorized of the Kodatsky shafar. At the time of Nova Sich in the strategically important points of territory of the Zaporozhian Cossacks were established fortified points, which also located the Russian garrisons. Often such fortifications were formed at the intersection of roads, in important communication nodes. Russian officers, in breach of the law, are making efforts to control cash revenues from ferriage. Most of the conflicts are connected with the Starosamarsky ferriage, where there was a powerful Russian fortification with a significant garrison. In the Kodatsky ferriage, where the Russians had a small Kodatsky redoubt with a small garrison on the left bank of the Dnipro, the number of conflicts was much smaller. Zaporozhian Kish and the local Cossack administration counteracted of such actions through appeals to the top Russian leadership, the transfer of the crossing points to another place and force confrontation directly on the ferriage. Concise conclusions. The basis of the conflicts, in my opinion, were two reasons. First reasons is a common desire of man to money, and Russian soldiers behaved trivially. The second reason is their perception of oneself in Zaporozhian territories. Despite the declarative recognition of the rights of the Cossacks, Russian military, as soon as they have the power advantage for this, demonstrate disregard for these rights. They feel themselves higher than the Cossacks, the representatives and leaders of the power of the empire, so it is obvious for them, what they may quite reward themselves with the extra money seized from the local population. At the same time, the strength of the Cossacks returns Russian military to respect for the rights of others. Practical meaning.The results of the research can be used to study the wider problem of interaction between the Ukrainian Cossacks and Russian military in the middle of the XVII – XVIII centuries.Originality: for the first time systematically described and analyzed the interaction of the Zaporozhian population and Russian military on the Starosamarsky and Kodatsky ferriages in the days of Nova Sich.Scientific novelty: the causes of conflicts and key aspects of mutual perception Ukrainian Cossacks and Russian military are determined.Type of article: empirical.

Abstract In translation initiation, AUG recognition triggers rearrangement of the 48S preinitiation complex (PIC) from an open conformation to a closed state with more tightly-bound Met-tRNAi. Cryo-EM structures have revealed interactions unique to the closed complex between arginines R55/R57 of eIF2α with mRNA, including the −3 nucleotide of the ‘Kozak’ context. We found that R55/R57 substitutions reduced recognition of a UUG start codon at HIS4 in Sui− cells (Ssu− phenotype); and in vitro, R55G-R57E accelerated dissociation of the eIF2·GTP·Met-tRNAi ternary complex (TC) from reconstituted PICs with a UUG start codon, indicating destabilization of the closed complex. R55/R57 substitutions also decreased usage of poor-context AUGs in SUI1 and GCN4 mRNAs in vivo. In contrast, eIF2α-R53 interacts with the rRNA backbone only in the open complex, and the R53E substitution enhanced initiation at a UUG codon (Sui− phenotype) and poor-context AUGs, while reducing the rate of TC loading (Gcd− phenotype) in vivo. Consistently, R53E slowed TC binding to the PIC while decreasing TC dissociation at UUG codons in vitro, indicating destabilization of the open complex. Thus, distinct interactions of eIF2α with rRNA or mRNA stabilize first the open, and then closed, conformation of the PIC to influence the accuracy of initiation in vivo.

Start-up adalah teknologi inkubasi yang didirikan oleh beberapa orang atau lebih untuk mendapatkan keuntungan. Perkembangan start-up di Indonesia berkembang dengan pesat. Perkembangan start-up juga memasuki ranah Pondok Pesantren Begitu pula yang terjadi pada Pondok Pesantren Alam Sayang Ibu (PAMSI), Dasan Geriya, Lingsar Lombok Barat. PAMSI memiliki visi menjadi salah satu pesantren yang islami, professional, unggul, berwawasan lingkungan dengan kultur riset kewirausahaan secara menyeluruh dan berkelanjutan. Hal ini terbukti dengan adanya lebih dari 23 (dua puluh tiga) jenis barang dan jasa yang telah diwujudkan oleh para santri PAMSI. Jenis usaha santri yang mencakup barang dan jasa terbagi lagi menjadi beberapa kategori yaitu usaha makanan, minuman dan kreasi santri. Salah satu contohnya adalah Kopi dari Kacang hijau, Masker Kefir, Yoghurt dari bunga Telang, Abon ares (pelepah pisang), Kaktus hampers, Kotak mewarnai dan masih banyak produk yang dihasilkan serta dapat berdaya saing nasional maupun internasional. Berdasarkan hal tersebut diatas, diperlukan sebuah sistem berbasis website untuk dapat memfasilitasi santri untuk dapat berjualan dan memulai start-up berbasis pesantren. Website dipilih karena penggunaannya yang mudah, cepat dan terintegrasi dengan platform yang lain. Pembangunan sistem start-up menggunakan metode extreme programming (XP). XP juga memudahkan komunikasi antara user dengan pembuat sistem sehingga didapatkan user requirement yang memadai. Hasil pengujian menghasilkan kepuasan pengguna dalam menggunakan sistem start-up PAMSI.

The molecular mechanism with which an appropriate AUG codon is selected as the start site for translational initiation by eukaryotic ribosomes is not known. By using a cell-free translation system, small RNA molecules containing single AUG codons, surrounded by various nucleotide sequences, were tested for their abilities to interfere with the translation of a reporter mRNA. RNAs containing the AUG in an ACCAUGG context (Kozak consensus sequence) were able to inhibit translation of the reporter mRNA. In contrast, RNAs containing the AUG in a less favorable context for start site selection (for example, CAGAUGG) had no effect on the translation of the reporter mRNA. The effect mediated by the ACCAUGC-containing RNAs was not due to sequestration of ribosomal subunits or to particular structural features in these RNAs. To identify potential trans-acting factors that might be preferentially bound by ACCAUGG-containing RNAs, ACCAUGG- and CAGAUGC-containing RNAs with a single 4-thiouridine residue at the AUG were incubated with partially fractionated extracts, and AUG-binding proteins were identified after irradiation of the complexes with UV light and subsequent analysis by gel electrophoresis. The analysis (of such complexes in competition experiments revealed that proteins, approximately 50 and 100 kDa in size, were found to bind directly at the AUG codon embedded in the ACCAUGG motif. One of these proteins has been identified as the La autoantigen. These findings indicate that trans-acting factors may play a role in AUG start site selection during translational initiation.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is endemic in Rwanda and is a major etiologic agent for chronic liver disease in the country. In a previous analysis of HBV strains from Rwanda, the S genes of most strains segregated into one single clade of subgenotype, A1. More than half (55%) of the anti-HBe positive individuals were viremic. In this study, 23 complete HBV genomes and the core promoter region (CP) from 18 additional strains were sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis of complete genomes confirmed that most Rwandan strain formed a single unique clade, within subgenotype A1. Strains from 17 of 22 (77%) anti-HBe positive HBV carriers had either mutated the precore start codon (9 strains with either CUG, ACG, UUG, or AAG) or mutations in the Kozak sequence preceding the pre-core start codon (8 strains). These mutually exclusive mutations were also identified in subgenotypes A1 (70/266; 26%), A2 (12/255; 5%), and A3 (26/49; 53%) sequences from the GenBank. The results showed that previous, rarely described HBV variants, expressing little or no HBeAg, are selected in anti-HBe positive subgenotype Al carriers from Rwanda and that mutations reducing HBeAg synthesis might be unique for a particular HBV clade, not just for a specific genotype or subgenotype.

Abstract Human ACAT1 cDNA K1 was first cloned and functionally expressed in 1993. There are two adjacent in-frame AUG codons, AUG1397–1399 and AUG1415–1417, at 5′-terminus of the open reading frame (ORF, nt 1397–3049) of human ACAT1 mRNA corresponding to cDNA K1. In current work, these two adjacent inframe AUGs at 5′-terminus of the predicted ORF (5′-ORF-AUGs) as start codons for translation initiation of human ACAT1 mRNA were characterized in detail. Codon mutations indicated that both of these two adjacent 5′-ORF-AUGs can be selected as start codons but the first 5′-ORF-AUG1397–1399 is a main start codon consistent with that of the predicted ORF of human ACAT1 mRNA. Further deletion and mutation analyses demonstrated that a stable upstream stem-loop structure enhanced the selection of the first 5′-ORF-AUG1397–1399 as a main start codon, in addition to upstream nucleotide A in the –3 position, which is a key site of Kozak sequence. In addition, result of ACAT1 enzymatic activity assay showed no obvious difference between these two ACAT1 proteins respectively initiated from the two adjacent 5′-ORF-AUGs. This work showed that a stable upstream stem-loop structure could modulate the start codon selection during translation initiation of mRNAs that contain adjacent multi-5′-ORF-AUGs.

V Švici živeči arhitekt in uspešen poslovnež Janez Hacin pripoveduje v dokumentarnem filmu, posvečenem njegovi življenjski zgodbi, kako je nekega dne v svojem biroju na kolegovi mizi videl narisano neobičajno in nelogično arhitekturno rešitev. Na vprašanje, zakaj se je odločil za tako rešitev, mu je kolega odvrnil: »Zakaj pa ne?« Podobno je na Ljubljanski »Arhitekturi« pred nekaj leti proizvajalec gradbenih elementov vabil študente k iskanju novih idej za uporabo njegovih proizvodov z udarnim sloganom »razbij obstoječe«… Cvetki, nabrani na vrtičku arhitekturnega ustvarjanja, nehote razkrivata pomembni in hkrati simptomatični značajski potezi avantgardnih tokov sodobne umetnosti. Kažeta se v nonšalantnem spogledovanju z vsem, kar še ni bilo predmet umetniške tematizacije, iščoč hipnih atrakcij, ob hkratnem zmrdovanju nad temami brezčasne veljave na eni strani ter v razbrzdani relativizaciji samih temeljev istovetnosti umetnosti na drugi, ne meneč se za to, kaj bo pognalo na pogoriščih tega grotesknega zmagoslavja. Tako kot v preteklosti, ko je umetnost v plitvinah kriz, v katere je v stilni izvotljenosti že večkrat zašla, vedno našla v antiki svež navdih, ki se je razrasel v žlahtnost novega stilnega izraza, se tudi danes ob očitnih znamenjih neizogibnega bližajočega se »brodoloma« sodobnih umetniških praks zdi smiselno soočiti izzive sedanjosti z modrostjo »starih«. Med področji, kjer je vez med sodobnostjo in antičnim izročilom živa, skoraj neposredna, je nedvomno kultura telesa. Če se namreč naš čas lahko v čem primerja s časom antične Grčije, se lahko prav v svoji zagledanosti v telo. Reklamna in modna industrija sta preplavili naš vsakdan s podobami idealiziranih teles in v za potrošniške manipulacije vse bolj dojemljivemu posamezniku prebudili željo po podobnosti le-tem. Slednja se kaže v eksplozivnem množenju »fitness klubov«, vseh oblik osebne rekreacije, v množičnosti in raznolikosti športnih prireditev in medijski pozornosti, ki jih spremlja ter prerašča v obsesijo, če smemo sklepati po razcvetu, pa tudi vse bolj množični uporabi lepotne kirurgije. Skrb za telo že zdavnaj ni več zgolj korak k trajnejšemu oziroma trdnejšemu osebnemu zdravju, ampak vse bolj postaja cilj, za dosego katerega je marsikdo pripravljen žrtvovati vse, celo zdravje samo. In kaj ima s tem opraviti arhitektura?

Skólaárið 2019-2020 var í fyrsta sinn í boði að taka heilsársvettvangsnám sem launað starfsnám í grunnskólakennaranámi við Menntavísindasvið HÍ. Starf á vettvangi er hluti af heilsársnámskeiði, Nám og kennsla – Fagmennska í starfi I og II. Þetta námskeið er arftaki tveggja námskeiða á meistarastigi; Nám og kennsla – Fagmennska í starfi og Faggreinakennsla. Í greininni er skoðað hvaða breytingar hafa orðið á þessum námskeiðum og hvernig þau hafa stutt kennaranemana í kennslunni, því mikilvægt er fyrir kennaramenntakennara að greina áhrif slíkra breytinga. Megináhersla námskeiðanna er að tengja saman fræði og starf á vettvangi. Þar er fjallað fræðilega um fjölmarga þætti kennarastarfsins og skoða kennaranemar þessa sömu þætti á vettvangi, prófa í kennslu og ræða við æfingakennara sína, ásamt að skrifa um þá í rannsóknardagbók. Sagt er frá aðdraganda, markmiðum, skipulagi og helstu grunnhugmyndum sem byggt var á við þróun námskeiðsins frá 2013 og greint frá niðurstöðum rannsóknar á reynslu kennaranema af heilsársnámskeiðinu. Markmið rannsóknarinnar var að skoða hvernig inntak námskeiðsins og skipulag nýtist og styður nemana í kennarastarfinu og hvort þeir teldu sig almennt vel undirbúna fyrir það. Tekin voru viðtöl við átta kennaranema í janúar og febrúar 2020 og stuðst við ýmis skrifleg gögn kennara námskeiðsins. Niðurstöður viðtalanna benda til almennrar ánægju með námskeiðið. Nemarnir telja að viðfangsefni þess styðji þá í starfi og að umræðutímar í smærri hópum um námsþætti og eigin kennslu séu sérlega gagnlegir. Þá segja þeir að regluleg, markviss ígrundun um kennsluna efli þá í starfsþróun og mótun eigin starfskenningar. Fram kemur að skipulag og námsþættir námskeiðsins styðji við uppbyggingu lærdómssamfélags, bæði í kennaramenntuninni sjálfri og úti á vettvangi. Í ljós hefur komið að skipulag námskeiðsins er flókið ferli sem krefst samhæfingar margra ólíkra aðila og hafa margs konar hindranir orðið þetta fyrsta ár. Mikilvægt er að læra af reynslunni og nýta hana til að þróa kennaramenntunina til gagns fyrir alla sem að henni koma; kennaranema, vettvangsskóla og kennaramenntunarstofnunina.

Í þessari grein er vakin athygli á nýju samskiptaformi sem er að ryðja sér til rúms innan stjórnsýslunnar með tilkomu stefnumörkunarinnar Ísland 2020. Stýrinet (e. governance network) er hugtak sem æ fleiri fræðimenn og embættismenn hafa skoðað síðastliðin tíu ár sem mögulegan valkost við stigveldisstjórnsýslu og útvistaða stjórnsýslu, sem varð vinsæl í lok tíunda áratugarins með tilkomu nýsköpunar í ríkisrekstri (New Public Management). Samstarf þvert á ráðuneyti eru ekki ný af nálinni en með stefnuskjalinu Ísland 2020 eru sett fram verkefni sem krefjast annars konar vinnubragða en tíðkast hafa áður innan stjórnsýslunnar. Ísland 2020 hefur ýtt bæði undir samhentari stjórnsýslu með auknu samstarfi en krefst þess jafnframt að starfshópar starfi í anda stýrineta svo að sem mestur árangur megi verða af starfi þeirra. Í greininni er stýrinetskerfi, sem sett var upp innan Stjórnarráðsins og landshlutasamtaka í tengslum við sóknaráætlanir landshluta, skoðað. Tilraun er gerð til að meta hvort stýrinet séu betur til þess fallin en annars konar samstarf til að skila markvissari árangri við lausn verkefna.

Það greinasafn sem hér birtist hefur fengið titilinn Þau skiptu máli – sögur grunnskólakennara. Markmiðið var að gefa út rit um grunnskólakennara sem hafa vakið athygli fyrir störf sín við kennslu í þeim tilgangi að halda á lofti eftirtektarverðu skólastarfi og gefa næstu kynslóðum kennara tækifæri til að kynnast starfi fyrirmyndarkennara. Við höfundar þessarar yfirlitsgreinar að ritinu höfum allan okkar starfsferil unnið sem kennarar, fyrst í grunnskóla og síðar við kennaramenntun. Á kennsluferlinum í grunnskóla kynntumst við mörgum framsæknum kennurum og fengum tækifæri til að taka þátt í margs konar þróunarstarfi. Í starfi okkar með kennaranemum höfum við endurtekið orðið varar við að þeir telja margir að skólastarf á Íslandi hafi alltaf verið hefðbundið og litlar framfarir orðið. Þegar við höfum kynnt þeim skapandi vinnubrögð sem byggja á samvinnu og sýn á nemendur, sem öfluga gerendur í eigin námi, höfum við oft heyrt setningar eins og: „Ég vildi að við hefðum fengið að vinna svona þegar ég var í skóla. Við vorum alltaf bara að vinna verkefni í vinnubókum, áttum að vinna þegjandi og sitja stillt og prúð.“ Þetta hefur vakið okkur til umhugsunar um hve mikilvægt er að raddir kennara fái að heyrast og þeir fái að segja sögur sínar. Í rannsóknum okkar höfum við allar valið að vinna með kennurum og rýnt í hvernig jákvæð sýn þeirra á menntun og öflugt þróunarstarf getur leitt til þess að skapa námsumhverfi þar sem nemendur fá að njóta sín á eigin forsendum. Niðurstöður þeirra rannsókna hafa orðið til þess að efla trú okkar á að mikilvægt sé að birta sögur framsækinna kennara sem hafa verið öflugir í þróunarstarfi og nýtt reynslu sína til að stuðla að samvinnu kennara. Hugmyndin að bók eða greinasafni varð til og skyldi hver grein fjalla um einn kennara sem segði sögu sína og hvernig hann hefði unnið starf sitt. Við fengum til liðs við okkur samstarfsfólk okkar sem við vissum að hefði unnið með kennurum sem höfðu áhugaverða sögu að segja. Hver rannsakandi valdi kennara til þátttöku og hafði að leiðarljósi við valið að þeir væru eða hefðu verið sjálfstæðir í starfi, ekki látið segja sér fyrir verkum umhugsunarlaust, tekið af skarið varðandi kennslumál, verið frumkvöðlar og óhræddir við að prófa sig áfram í kennslu. Afraksturinn birtist hér í greinasafni þar sem sagt er frá starfi 10 kennara. Við byrjum á að kynna efni ritsins með stuttri samantekt um hverja grein. Fyrst er fjallað um kennara sem hófu kennslu um miðja síðustu öld, næst um þá sem byrjuðu síðar og í lokin um kennara sem hóf kennslu á 21. öld. Þá fjöllum við um rannsóknaraðferðir sem höfundar greinanna byggja á við rannsóknir sínar á störfum kennaranna. Síðan vörpum við ljósi á hvernig þróun menntastefnu á Íslandi birtist í lögum og námskrám á þeim tíma sem kennararnir störfuðu og drögum að lokum saman hvernig við sjáum hana birtast í frásögnum kennaranna

Abstract The eukaryotic 43S pre-initiation complex (PIC) containing Met-tRNAiMet in a ternary complex (TC) with eIF2-GTP scans the mRNA leader for an AUG codon in favorable “Kozak” context. AUG recognition triggers rearrangement of the PIC from an open conformation to a closed state with more tightly bound Met-tRNAiMet. Yeast ribosomal protein uS5/Rps2 is located at the mRNA entry channel of the 40S subunit in the vicinity of mRNA nucleotides downstream from the AUG codon or rRNA residues that communicate with the decoding center, but its participation in start codon recognition was unknown. We found that nonlethal substitutions of conserved Rps2 residues in the entry channel reduce bulk translation initiation and increase discrimination against poor initiation codons. A subset of these substitutions suppress initiation at near-cognate UUG start codons in a yeast mutant with elevated UUG initiation, and also increase discrimination against AUG codons in suboptimal Kozak context, thus resembling previously described substitutions in uS3/Rps3 at the 40S entry channel or initiation factors eIF1 and eIF1A. In contrast, other Rps2 substitutions selectively discriminate against either near-cognate UUG codons, or poor Kozak context of an AUG or UUG start codon. These findings suggest that different Rps2 residues are involved in distinct mechanisms involved in discriminating against different features of poor initiation sites in vivo.

Framhaldsskólastigið fór ekki varhluta af breyttu starfsumhverfi vegna COVID-19-faraldursins. Þegar samkomubann var sett á í mars 2020 fluttist öll staðkennsla yfir í fjarkennslu og hélst það fyrirkomulag fram eftir vorönn 2020. Um haustið tók við tímabil síbreytilegra samkomutakmarkana. Kennt var ýmist á staðnum eða í eins konar blöndu af fjar- og staðnámi en í lok annar fluttist kennsla aftur alfarið yfir í fjarkennslu. Markmið þessarar rannsóknar er að varpa ljósi á starfsumhverfi íslenskra framhaldsskólakennara við síbreytilegar aðstæður árið 2020. Sérstök áhersla er lögð á starfsaðstæður framhaldsskólakennara, starfsskyldur, stuðning og álag en einnig á samskipti kennara við nemendur, foreldra og samstarfsfólk. Auk þess verður kannað hvort kyn og stærð skóla hafi áhrif á fyrrgreinda þætti. Unnið er með gögn úr tveimur könnunum Menntavísindastofnunar Háskóla Íslands sem lagðar voru fyrir starfsfólk framhaldsskóla. Fyrri spurningalistinn var lagður fyrir í lok vorannar 2020 og sá seinni í lok haustannar 2020. Niðurstöður sýna að kennarastarfið tók miklum breytingum á fyrsta ári heimsfaraldurs. Framhaldsskólakennarar fundu fyrir auknu álagi og þeim fannst starf sitt flóknara en áður. Streita jókst frá vormisseri til haustmisseris, þrátt fyrir þá tilfinningu kennara að þeir hefðu betri tök á starfi sínu. Konur vörðu meiri tíma í umönnun barna og þær fundu fyrir meiri streitu en karlar. Samstarf kennara var meira og fundir voru tíðari en kennurunum fannst samstarfið gagnlegt. Samskipti við nemendur og foreldra jukust í heildina, einkum að mati kvenkyns kennara. Kennarar töldu að skólarnir hefðu lagað starfshætti sína að breyttri stöðu nemenda á þessum krefjandi tímum. Niðurstöðurnar vekja áleitnar spurningar um starfsumhverfi kennara og starfsþróun þeirra á tímum heimsfaraldurs og síbreytilegra starfsaðstæðna. Þær eru jafnframt innlegg í samtal um hvernig megi bregðast við komandi kreppum og varpa ljósi á ýmsa veikleika í kerfinu.

Prije Prvog svjetskog rata u Crnoj Gori je bila dominantna Herbartova paradigma pedagogije. Međutim, tamošnje prosvjetne vlasti su bile u određenoj mjeri tolerantne prema nastavnicima koji se toga u praksi nisu u potpunosti pridržavali. Do njih su u to doba počeli dopirati raznovrsni novi pedagoški koncepti iz Europe i šire, što je još više dobilo na intenzitetu ulaskom Crne Gore u sustav Kraljevine Jugoslavije. Ipak, ideje reformskih pedagoških pokreta u Crnoj Gori između Dva svjetska rata nisu našle svoju primjenu, iako su stjecale sve veću afirmaciju u stručnoj javnosti. Tadašnja pedagoška znanstvena misao bila je nedovoljno razvijena, a obrazovna politika se nije razvijala samostalno i neovisno od ostatka zajedničke države, kao i kasnije u vrijeme SFR Jugoslavije i dominantne socijalističke pedagogije. Raspadom zajedničke države pojavio se brisani prostor koji je u Crnoj Gori omogućio obnavljanje i osvijestio potrebu za preispitivanje i otvorenost za dotada drugačije pedagoške koncepte, nove i stare nedovoljno istražene. Poslednjih par desetljeća postoje pokušaji provedbe određenih ideja i koncepata iz okvira reformske pedagogije, kao što su najčešće ideje Marie Montessori u predškolskim ustanovama. Praktično se najčešće reafirmacija pojedinih ideja reformske pedagogije predstavlja kao alternativa prethodnim paradigmama obrazovanja. Skoro da nema privatnih inicijativa i škola koje bi imale obilježja altenativnog pedagoškog koncepta. Ipak, kao alternativa „staroj školi“ realiziraju se brojni projekti, odnosno programi stručnog usavršavanja nastavnika i druge aktivnosti koje imaju za cilj unaprjeđivanje nastave i učenja u školama, kao što su Aktivno učenje – primjena metoda aktivne nastave/učenja, Korak po korak, Čitanje i pisanje za kritičko mišljenje, itd. Navedene aktivnosti i pojedine ideje reformske pedagogije su sve više prisutne i u službenim dokumentima strategije obrazovne politike Crne Gore. Međutim, u tim dokumentima moguće je pronaći i ne razumijevanja i problematične interpretacije, što se odražava i na programe za provedbe ideja reformske pedagogije i suvremenih alternativnih pedagoških koncepata.

Greinin er framlag til umræðu um skólasálfræði á Íslandi – meðal kennara og skólafólks, sálfræðinga og helst á milli allra þessara hópa. Tvenns konar skólasálfræði er kynnt til sögunnar; fyrst fræðin sem æskilegt er að kennarar kunni deili á og síðan fagið sem „skólasálfræðingar“ stunda og standa fyrir. Skýrð eru grundvallaratriði sem lúta að hagnýtingu sálfræðinnar og kynnt málefni sem skipta máli fyrir sameiginlegan skilning kennara og sálfræðinga á hlutverki sálfræðinnar í skólastarfi. Næst er vikið að sálfræði í námi og starfi kennara – og loks er fjallað um þróun í starfi skólasálfræðinga á Íslandi og æskilega stefnu í þeim efnum – með sérstöku tilliti til skóla án aðgreiningar.Við teljum að nýting sálfræðinnar í skólastarfi eigi einkum að byggjast á viðteknum kenningum með sterka rannsókna- og staðfestingasögu, til dæmis um nám, áhuga og þroskaferli – en síður á almennum kenningum sem ætlað er að treysta gildi á við mannúð, réttsýni og lýðræði í kennslu. Sálfræði er auðvitað ekki sneydd gildismati en greinin gagnast best í skólastarfi þegar traustur rannsóknaþáttur og gagnreyndar aðferðir – í samvinnu við kennara – einkenna starfið.Í sögu sérfræðiþjónustu í íslenskum skólum frá áttunda áratug síðustu aldar til nútímans má greina ósamstæð markmið – einkum með hliðsjón af menntastefnu um skóla án aðgreiningar á síðari hluta þessa tímabils. Stefnan er að skólinn eigi að vera fyrir öll börn en nauðsynleg sérfræðiþjónusta til að gera það mögulegt er ekki til staðar innan skólanna. Síðasta aldarfjórðung hefur áhersla í sérfræðiþjónustunni verið á ráðgjöf sem geri kennurum kleift að leysa fjölþætt vandamál innan skólanna, iðulega utan þeirra sérsviðs. Þetta eykur líklega álag og setur mark á starfsanda og árangur í skólum. Aukin þörf fyrir sérfræðiþjónustu í skólum kallar á að lög og reglur beini slíkri þjónustu þangað – ekki þaðan. Þörf er á endurskoðun á lögum og reglugerðum þannig að sérfræðiþekking nýtist til lausnar innan skóla

Umfjöllunarefni greinarinnar er karlkyns sjúkraliðar og störf þeirra á vettvangi þar sem langflest starfsfólk er kvenkyns og var meginrannsóknarspurningin hver reynsla karla væri af starfi sjúkraliða. Tekin voru viðtöl við átta karlkyns sjúkraliða á ólíkum aldri snemma árs 2017. Reynsla viðmælenda var sú að karlar gætu sinnt nærgætinni umönnun og þeir væru jafn færir um að sýna fagmennsku og alúð og konurnar í starfinu. Þótt þeir væru ánægðir með starfið var reynsla þeirra innan kvennastéttar í samræmi við margvíslegar staðalmyndir og kynhlutverk í samfélaginu. Niðurstöður gefa til kynna að í nánast öllum þáttum er lutu að starfinu var hægt að sjá einhvers konar afleiðingar eðlishyggju í samfélaginu um að starfið væri kvennastarf. Ekki síst kom þetta í ljós hvað fordóma varðar, til dæmis þegar notendur þjónustunnar eða aðstandendur voru tortryggnir körlum í starfinu, eða þegar sett var jafnaðarmerki á milli þess að vera karl og eiga að hafa meiri afkastagetu en konurnar. Viðmælendurnir virtust þó ekki taka þá fordóma sem þeir mættu nærri sér. Þegar þeir voru inntir eftir hvers vegna ekki væru fleiri karlar í stéttinni, og hvort rétt væri að reyna að fjölga þeim og þá hvernig, nefndu þeir gjarnan leiðir sem tengdust hugmyndum um karlmennsku og eðlishyggju, svo sem meiri ábyrgð og hærri laun.

Viðfangsefni þessarar greinar er hluti af samnorrænu verkefni sem unnið var á vegum Norrænu ráðherranefndarinnar og hefur það að markmiði að kanna hvernig Norðurlöndunum hefur tekist að innleiða Heimsmarkmið 4.7 um menntun til sjálfbærrar þróunar. Rannsóknarsviðið er víðtækt en hér verður sérstaklega hugað að tveimur meginþáttum. Annars vegar er litið til þess hvað lög og reglugerðir segja um menntun til sjálfbærni á Íslandi og hins vegar eru tveir grunnskólar skoðaðir sérstaklega til þess að fá innsýn í hvernig þeir vinna að þeim þáttum sem falla undir markmið 4.7.Gagnaöflun var tvenns konar. Annars vegar var gerð textagreining á lögum um grunnskóla, núgildandi Aðalnámskrá grunnskóla frá 2011, skólastefnum sex sveitarfélaga og skólanámskrám þátttökuskólanna tveggja. Hins vegar voru tekin þrjú rýnihópaviðtöl í sömu grunnskólum, það er Síðuskóla á Akureyri og Þelamerkurskóla í Hörgársveit.Textagreiningin leiðir í ljós að í lögum um grunnskóla er lítið fjallað um hugtökin sjálfbærni, mannréttindi, kynjajafnrétti, menningarlega fjölbreytni og alheimsvitund, sem öll eru grundvallarhugtök í nefndu Heimsmarkmiði. Í Aðalnámskrá grunnskóla eru hins vegar sett fram metnaðarfull markmið í tengslum við þau. Sveitarfélögin sex leggja mismikla áherslu á hugtökin í skólastefnum sínum en innan beggja þátttökuskólanna virðist unnið metnaðarfullt starf í tengslum við þau. Þannig læra nemendur bæði um hugtökin í verki og í gegnum skipulögð verkefni í ólíkum námsgreinum þótt viðfangsefni sem falla undir umhverfismennt séu mest áberandi.

Maja letos se je začela Konferenca o prihodnosti Evrope oziroma posvet, na katerem lahko sodelujemo državljanke in državljani Evropske unije ter predstavimo svoje predloge in mnenja. Sodelujemo lahko individualno ali skupinsko, s strokovnim, znanstvenim ali povsem osebnim prispevkom se lahko vključimo v razprave, dogodke oziroma organiziramo dogodek v svoji skupnosti o eni izmed prednostnih tem – vse je predstavljeno na posebnih skupnih spletnih straneh EU in držav članic. Hkrati na institucionalni ravni Evropske unije nastaja Strateški kompas, dokument, ki naj bi združil, uskladil in poenotil vse predloge, razprave in izhodišča o prihodnosti Unije tako, da jih bo mogoče tudi čim bolj uresničiti. Tokratna tematska številka Sodobnih vojaških izzivov se v okviru razprave o prihodnosti Evropske unije posebej osredotoča na področje skupne varnostne in obrambne politike. Nastala je v sodelovanju z Novo univerzo v okviru projekta Integralna teorija o prihodnosti Evropske unije (J5-1791), ki ga vodi Matej Avbelj in financira Agencija Republike Slovenije za raziskovalno dejavnost. O evropski varnostni in obrambni politiki je bilo že veliko napisanega. Že leta 1998 sta se v Saint-Malu sestala takratni francoski predsednik in angleški ministrski predsednik ter podpisala izjavo o oblikovanju evropske varnostne in obrambne politike, vključno z evropsko avtonomno vojaško silo, ki bo sposobna delovati v primerih, ko se Nato ne bi odločil za vojaško sodelovanje. Leto pozneje je bil kot neposredna posledica vrha v Saint-Malu v Helsinkih oblikovan glavni cilj, v okviru katerega je bilo leto 2003 določeno kot ciljni datum za ustanovitev evropskih oboroženih sil z do 60.000 vojaki. Evropska unija cilja še vedno ni uresničila, ponovno pa ga je obudila Globalna strategija Unije iz leta 2016 z nekaterimi novimi pristopi k starim izzivom. Tako so nastali med bolj znanimi dejavnostmi Evropski obrambni sklad, Stalno strukturno sodelovanje, Usklajeni letni pregled obrambe in drugi. V ospredju razprave o prihodnosti skupne varnostne in obrambne politike Unije so spremembe v mednarodnem varnostnem okolju, ki vplivajo na Evropsko unijo in dogajanje v njej ter v njenem sosedstvu. Analiza varnostnih groženj in z njimi povezana tveganja predstavljajo prvi korak pri nastajanju prihodnjega strateškega okvirja, ki ga bodo dorekli razpravljavci na nacionalnih ravneh in ga uskladili na evropski ravni. Med najpomembnejše dosežke bomo šteli usklajene dogovore na področju doseganja glavnega cilja iz leta 2003, in sicer Evropsko unijo kot samostojnega akterja na področju varnosti in obrambe. Ta naj bi imel več geopolitične moči, ki bo, kot se je leta 2019 izrazil Josep Borrel, visoki predstavnik EU za zunanje zadeve in varnostno politiko, »znal uporabljati tudi jezik moči«. Pot do tega cilja ne bo lahka. Medsebojno usklajevanje sedemindvajsetih članic na varnostnem in obrambnem področju je zahteven proces, ki ga je treba tudi ustrezno umestiti v odnosu do strateškega varnostnega partnerja Nata. Najzahtevnejša in pomembna pa bo njegova umestitev v obrambno načrtovanje držav članic. Republika Slovenija prav v času nastajanja pomembnih sprememb za Unijo, ki so lahko odločilne v prihodnosti, predseduje Svetu Evropske unije. S to tematsko številko Sodobnih vojaških izzivov želimo sodelovati pri slovenskem prispevku v tem dogajanju. O pomenu odpornosti Evropske unije v kognitivnem smislu piše Igor Senčar, ki v prispevku Kognitivni vidiki evropskih varnostnih in obrambnih izzivov na primeru ruskega zavzetja Krima razloži, kako je prišlo do nekega pojava, kako smo ga kolektivno zaznali, razumeli in kaj smo se iz njega naučili. Sodobna evropska družba ima s svojo blaginjo in visokimi demokratičnimi standardi tudi pomanjkljivosti, ki jih je treba ozavestiti, da bi dosegli večjo odpornost družbe v prihodnje. Eden izmed načinov, kako bi lahko dosegli večjo moč Unije, je tudi večja vloga njene skupnosti oziroma njenih ustanov, kar Katarina Vatovec predlaga v prispevku Komunitarizacija obrambne politike Evropske unije. Spremembe so nujne tudi pri načinu sprejemanja odločitev, v kar spada način glasovanja, ki bi moral biti večinski, da bi lahko dosegli večjo učinkovitost te politike. V prispevku Evropska varnost in obramba: preboj ali nadaljnje životarjenje Dick Zandee ugotavlja, da mora v Uniji na področju varnostni in obrambe priti do sprememb. Dolgoletno dogovarjanje in usklajevanje na tem področju, ki se kaže predvsem v njenih dokumentih in ne v dejanjih, se mora končati. Avtor predlaga konkretne spremembe, ki so potrebne za dosego tega cilja. Dvajset let delovanja Evropske unije na področju mednarodnih operacij in misij dokazuje, da je ta pomemben mednarodni akter. Podrobnosti o njenem delovanju predstavlja Aleksandra Koziol v prispevku Misije in operacije kot orodje za oblikovanje delovanja EU na globalni ravni. Ugotavlja, da je epidemija virusa covid-19 povzročila preusmeritev pozornosti Unije z globalnih na notranje zadeve, zaradi česar je potreben premislek o prihodnosti tudi na tem področju. V okviru slovenskega predsedovanja Svetu Evropske unije Jelena Juvan v prispevku Prihodnost skupne varnostne in obrambne politike in majhne države članice razpravlja o tem, kaj majhna država lahko doseže ob dejstvu, da Uniji ni uspelo uresničiti svojih odločitev iz pretekosti. Pomembno pa je, ali je področje skupne varnostne in obrambne politike zasnovano tako, da bi lahko predstavljalo odgovor na sodobne varnostne grožnje.

Introduction 2021 was the year that NFTs got big—not just in value but also in terms of the cultural consciousness. When digital artist Beeple sold the portfolio of his 5,000 daily images at Christie’s for US$69 million, the art world was left intrigued, confused, and outraged in equal measure. Depending on who you asked, non-fungible tokens (NFTs) seemed to be either a quick cash-grab or the future of the art market (Bowden and Jones; Smee). Following the Beeple sale, articles started to appear indicating that the film industry was abuzz for NFTs. Independent filmmaker Kevin Smith was quick to announce that he planned to release his horror film Killroy Was Here as an NFT (Alexander); in September 2021 the James Bond film No Time to Die also unveiled a series of collectibles to coincide with the film’s much-delayed theatrical release (Natalee); the distribution and collectible platforms Vuele, NFT Studios, and Mogul Productions all emerged, and the industry rumour mill suggests more start-ups are en route (CurrencyWorks; NFT Studios; NewsBTC). Blockchain disciples say that the technology will solve all the problems of the Internet (Tewari; Norton; European Business Review); critics say it will only perpetuate existing accessibility and equality issues (Davis and Flatow; Klein). Those more circumspect will doubtless sit back until the dust settles, waiting to see what parts of so-called web3 will be genuinely integrated into the architecture of the Internet. Pamela Hutchinson puts it neatly in terms of the arts sector: “the NFT may revolutionise the art market, film funding and distribution. Or it might be an ecological disaster and a financial bubble, in which few actual movies change hands, and fraudsters get rich from other people’s intellectual property” (Hutchinson). There is an uptick in the literature around NFTs and blockchain (see Quiniou; Gayvoronskaya & Meinel); however, the technology remains unregulated and unstandardised (Yeung 212-14; Dimitropoulos 112-13). Similarly, the sheer amount of funding being put into fundamental technical, data, and security-related issues speaks volumes to the nascency of the space (Ossinger; Livni; Gayvoronskaya & Meinel 52-6). Put very briefly, NFTs are part of a given blockchain system; think of them, like cryptocurrency coins, as “units of value” within that system (Roose). NFTs were initially rolled out on Ethereum, though several other blockchains have now implemented their own NFT frameworks. NFTs are usually not the artwork itself, but rather a unique, un-copyable (hence, non-fungible) piece of code that is attached, linked, or connected to another digital file, be that an image, video, text, or something else entirely. NFTs are often referred to as a digital artwork’s “certificate of authenticity” (Roose). At the time of writing, it remains to be seen how widely blockchain and NFT technology will be implemented across the entertainment industries. However, this article aims to outline the current state of implementation in the film trade specifically, and to attempt to sort true potential from the hype. Beginning with an overview of the core issues around blockchain and NFTs as they apply to film properties and adjacent products, current implementations of the technology are outlined, before finishing with a hesitant glimpse into the potential future applications. The Issues and Conversation At the core of current conversations around blockchain are three topics: intellectual property and ownership, concentrations of power and control, and environmental impact. To this I would like to add a consideration of social capital, which I begin with briefly here. Both the film industry and “crypto” — if we take the latter to encompass the various facets of so-called ‘web3’ — are engines of social capital. In the case of cinema, its products are commodified and passed through a model that begins with exclusivity (theatrical release) before progressing to mass availability (home media, streaming). The cinematic object, i.e., an individual copy of a film, is, by virtue of its origins as a mass product of the twentieth century, fungible. The film is captured, copied, stored, distributed, and shared. The film-industrial model has always relied on social phenomena, word of mouth, critical discourse, and latterly on buzz across digital social media platforms. This is perhaps as distinct from fine art, where — at least for dealers — the content of the piece does not necessarily matter so much as verification of ownership and provenance. Similarly, web3, with its decentralised and often-anonymised processes, relies on a kind of social activity, or at least a recorded interaction wherein the chain is stamped and each iteration is updated across the system. Even without the current hype, web3 still relies a great deal on discourse, sharing, and community, particularly as it flattens the existing hierarchies of the Internet that linger from Web 2.0. In terms of NFTs, blockchain systems attach scarcity and uniqueness to digital objects. For now, that scarcity and uniqueness is resulting in financial value, though as Jonathan Beller argues the notion of value could — or perhaps should — be reconsidered as blockchain technology, and especially cryptocurrencies, evolve (Beller 217). Regardless, NFT advocates maintain that this is the future of all online activity. To questions of copyright, the structures of blockchain do permit some level of certainty around where a given piece of intellectual property emerged. This is particularly useful where there are transnational differences in recognition of copyright law, such as in France, for instance (Quiniou 112-13). The Berne Convention stipulates that “the subsistence of copyright does not rest on the compliance with formal requirements: rights will exist if the work meets the requirements for protection set out by national law and treaties” (Guadamuz 1373). However, there are still no legal structures underpinning even the most transparent of transactions, when an originator goes out of their way to transfer rights to the buyer of the accompanying NFT. The minimum requirement — even courtesy — for the assignment of rights is the identification of the work itself; as Guadamuz notes, this is tricky for NFTs as they are written in code (1374). The blockchain’s openness and transparency are its key benefits, but until the code can explicitly include (or concretely and permanently reference) the ‘content’ of an NFT, its utility as a system of ownership is questionable. Decentralisation, too, is raised consistently as a key positive characteristic of blockchain technology. Despite the energy required for this decentralisation (addressed shortly), it is true that, at least in its base code, blockchain is a technology with no centralised source of truth or verification. Instead, such verification is performed by every node on the chain. On the surface, for the film industry, this might mean modes of financing, rights management, and distribution chains that are not beholden to multinational media conglomerates, streamers like Netflix, niche intermediaries, or legacy studios. The result here would be a flattening of the terrain: breaking down studio and corporate gatekeeping in favour of a more democratised creative landscape. Creators and creative teams would work peer-to-peer, paying, contracting, servicing, and distribution via the blockchain, with iron-clad, publicly accessible tracking of transactions and ownership. The alternative, though, is that the same imbalances persist, just in a different form: this is outlined in the next section. As Hunter Vaughan writes, the film industry’s environmental impact has long been under-examined. Its practices are diverse, distributed, and hard to quantify. Cinematic images, Vaughan writes, “do not come from nothing, and they do not vanish into the air: they have always been generated by the earth and sun, by fossil fuels and chemical reactions, and our enjoyment of them has material consequences” (3). We believe that by watching a “green” film like Avatar we are doing good, but it implicates us in the dirty secret, an issue of “ignorance and of voluntary psychosis” where “we do not see who we are harming or how these practices are affecting the environment, and we routinely agree to accept the virtual as real” (5). Beyond questions of implication and eco-material conceptualisation, however, there are stark facts. In the 1920s, the Kodak Park Plant in New York drew 12 million gallons of water from Lake Ontario each day to produce film stock. As the twentieth century came to a close, this amount — for a single film plant — had grown to 35-53 million gallons per day. The waste water was perfunctorily “cleaned” and then dumped into surrounding rivers (72-3). This was just one plant, and one part of the filmmaking process. With the shift to digital, this cost might now be calculated in the extraction of precious metals used to make contemporary cameras, computers, or storage devices. Regardless, extrapolate outwards to a global film industry and one quickly realises the impact is almost beyond comprehension. Considering — let alone calculating — the carbon footprint of blockchain requires outlining some fundamentals of the technology. The two primary architectures of blockchain are Proof of Work (PoW) and Proof of Stake (PoS), both of which denote methods of adding and verifying new blocks to a chain. PoW was the first model, employed by Bitcoin and the first iteration of Ethereum. In a PoW model, each new block has a specific cryptographic hash. To confirm the new block, crypto miners use their systems to generate a target hash that is less than or equal to that of the block. The systems process these calculations quickly, as the goal is to be “the first miner with the target hash because that miner is the one who can update the blockchain and receive crypto rewards” (Daly). The race for block confirmation necessitates huge amounts of processing power to make these quick calculations. The PoS model differs in that miners are replaced by validators (or staking services where participants pool validation power). Rather than investing in computer power, validators invest in the blockchain’s coins, staking those coins (tokens) in a smart contract (think of this contract like a bank account or vault). When a new block is proposed, an algorithm chooses a validator based on the size of their stake; if the block is verified, the validator receives further cryptocurrency as a reward (Castor). Given the ubiquity and exponential growth of blockchain technology and its users, an accurate quantification of its carbon footprint is difficult. For some precedent, though, one might consider the impact of the Bitcoin blockchain, which runs on a PoW model. As the New York Times so succinctly puts it: “the process of creating Bitcoin to spend or trade consumes around 91 terawatt-hours of electricity annually, more than is used by Finland, a nation of about 5.5 million” (Huang, O’Neill and Tabuchi). The current Ethereum system (at time of writing), where the majority of NFT transactions take place, also runs on PoW, and it is estimated that a single Ethereum transaction is equivalent to nearly nine days of power consumption by an average US household (Digiconomist). Ethereum always intended to operate on a PoS system, and the transition to this new model is currently underway (Castor). Proof of Stake transactions use significantly less energy — the new Ethereum will supposedly be approximately 2,000 times more energy efficient (Beekhuizen). However, newer systems such as Solana have been explicit about their efficiency goals, stating that a single Solana transaction uses less energy (1,837 Joules, to be precise) than keeping an LED light on for one hour (36,000 J); one Ethereum transaction, for comparison, uses over 692 million J (Solana). In addition to energy usage, however, there is also the question of e-waste as a result of mining and general blockchain operations which, at the time of writing, for Bitcoin sits at around 32 kilotons per year, around the same as the consumer IT wastage of the Netherlands (de Vries and Stoll). How the growth in NFT awareness and adoption amplifies this impact remains to be seen, but depending on which blockchain they use, they may be wasting energy and resources by design. If using a PoW model, the more valuable the cryptocurrency used to make the purchase, the more energy (“gas”) required to authenticate the purchase across the chain. Images abound online of jerry-rigged crypto data centres of varying quality (see also efficiency and safety). With each NFT minted, sold, or traded, these centres draw — and thus waste, for gas — more and more energy. With increased public attention and scrutiny, cryptocurrencies are slowly realising that things could be better. As sustainable alternatives become more desirable and mainstream, it is safe to predict that many NFT marketplaces may migrate to Cardano, Solana, or other more efficient blockchain bases. For now, though, this article considers the existing implementations of NFTs and blockchain technology within the film industry. Current Implementations The current applications of NFTs in film centre around financing and distribution. In terms of the former, NFTs are saleable items that can raise capital for production, distribution, or marketing. As previously mentioned, director Kevin Smith launched Jay & Silent Bob’s Crypto Studio in order to finish and release Killroy Was Here. Smith released over 600 limited edition tokens, including one of the film itself (Moore). In October 2021, renowned Hong Kong director Wong Kar-wai sold an NFT with unreleased footage from his film In the Mood for Love at Sotheby’s for US$550,000 (Raybaud). Quentin Tarantino entered the arena in January 2022, auctioning uncut scenes from his 1994 film Pulp Fiction, despite the threat of legal action from the film’s original distributor Miramax (Dailey). In Australia, an early adopter of the technology is director Michael Beets, who works in virtual production and immersive experiences. His immersive 14-minute VR film Nezunoban (2020) was split into seven different chapters, and each chapter was sold as an NFT. Beets also works with artists to develop entry tickets that are their own piece of generative art; with these tickets and the chapters selling for hundreds of dollars at a time, Beets seems to have achieved the impossible: turning a profit on a short film (Fletcher). Another Australian writer-producer, Samuel Wilson, now based in Canada, suggests that the technology does encourage filmmakers to think differently about what they create: At the moment, I’m making NFTs from extra footage of my feature film Miles Away, which will be released early next year. In one way, it’s like a new age of behind-the-scenes/bonus features. I have 14 hours of DV tapes that I’m cutting into a short film which I will then sell in chapters over the coming months. One chapter will feature the dashing KJ Apa (Songbird, Riverdale) without his shirt on. So, hopefully that can turn some heads. (Wilson, in Fletcher) In addition to individual directors, a number of startup companies are also seeking to get in on the action. One of these is Vuele, which is best understood as a blockchain-based streaming service: an NFT Netflix, if you like. In addition to films themselves, the service will offer extra content as NFTs, including “behind the scenes content, bonus features, exclusive Q&As, and memorabilia” (CurrencyWorks). Vuele’s launch title is Zero Contact, directed by Rick Dugdale and starring Anthony Hopkins. The film is marketed as “the World’s First NFT Feature Film” (as at the time of writing, though, both Vuele and its flagship film have yet to launch). Also launching is NFT Studios, a blockchain-based production company that distributes the executive producer role to those buying into the project. NFT Studios is a decentralised administrative organisation (DAO), guided by tech experts, producers, and film industry intermediaries. NFT Studios is launching with A Wing and a Prayer, a biopic of aeronaut Brian Milton (NFT Studios), and will announce their full slate across festivals in 2022. In Australia, Culture Vault states that its aim is to demystify crypto and champion Australian artists’ rights and access to the space. Co-founder and CEO Michelle Grey is well aware of the aforementioned current social capital of NFTs, but is also acutely aware of the space’s opacity and the ubiquity of often machine-generated tat. “The early NFT space was in its infancy, there was a lot of crap around, but don’t forget there’s a lot of garbage in the traditional art world too,” she says (cited in Miller). Grey and her company effectively act like art dealers; intermediaries between the tech and art worlds. These new companies claim to be adhering to the principles of web3, often selling themselves as collectives, DAOs, or distributed administrative systems. But the entrenched tendencies of the film industry — particularly the persistent Hollywood system — are not so easily broken down. Vuele is a joint venture between CurrencyWorks and Enderby Entertainment. The former is a financial technology company setting up blockchain systems for businesses, including the establishment of branded digital currencies such as the controversial FreedomCoin (Memoria); the latter, Enderby, is a production company founded by Canadian film producer (and former investor relations expert in the oil and uranium sectors) Rick Dugdale (Wiesner). Similarly, NFT Studios is partnered with consulting and marketing agencies and blockchain venture capitalists (NFT Investments PLC). Depending on how charitable or cynical one is feeling, these start-ups are either helpful intermediaries to facilitate legacy media moving into NFT technology, or the first bricks in the capitalist wall to bar access for entry to other players. The Future Is… Buffering Marketplaces like Mintable, OpenSea, and Rarible do indeed make the minting and selling of NFTs fairly straightforward — if you’ve ever listed an item for sale on eBay or Facebook, you can probably mint an NFT. Despite this, the current major barrier for average punters to the NFT space remains technical knowledge. The principles of blockchain remain fairly opaque — even this author, who has been on a deep dive for this article, remains sceptical that widespread adoption across multiple applications and industries is feasible. Even so, as Rennie notes, “the unknown is not what blockchain technology is, or even what it is for (there are countless ‘use cases’), but how it structures the actions of those who use it” (235). At the time of writing, a great many commentators and a small handful of scholars are speculating about the role of the metaverse in the creative space. If the endgame of the metaverse is realised, i.e., a virtual, interactive space where users can interact, trade, and consume entertainment, the role of creators, dealers, distributors, and other brokers and players will be up-ended, and have to re-settle once again. Film industry practitioners might look to the games space to see what the road might look like, but then again, in an industry that is — at its best — somewhat resistant to change, this may simply be a fad that blows over. Blockchain’s current employment as a get-rich-quick mechanism for the algorithmic literati and as a computational extension of existing power structures suggests nothing more than another techno-bubble primed to burst (Patrickson 591-2; Klein). Despite the aspirational commentary surrounding distributed administrative systems and organisations, the current implementations are restricted, for now, to startups like NFT Studios. In terms of cinema, it does remain to be seen whether the deployment of NFTs will move beyond a kind of “Netflix with tchotchkes” model, or a variant of crowdfunding with perks. Once Vuele and NFT Studios launch properly, we may have a sense of how this all will play out, particularly alongside less corporate-driven, more artistically-minded initiatives like that of Michael Beets and Culture Vault. It is possible, too, that blockchain technology may streamline the mechanics of the industry in terms of automating or simplifying parts of the production process, particularly around contracts, financing, licensing. This would obviously remove some of the associated labour and fees, but would also de-couple long-established parts and personnel of the industry — would Hollywood and similar industrial-entertainment complexes let this happen? 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