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Thokair, Mosaad Al, Minjian Zhang, Umang Mathur i Mahesh Viswanathan. "Dynamic Race Detection with O(1) Samples". Proceedings of the ACM on Programming Languages 7, POPL (9.01.2023): 1308–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3571238.
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Happens before-based dynamic analysis is the go-to technique for detecting data races in large scale software projects due to the absence of false positive reports. However, such analyses are expensive since they employ expensive vector clock updates at each event, rendering them usable only for in-house testing. In this paper, we present a sampling-based, randomized race detector that processes only constantly many events of the input trace even in the worst case. This is the first sub-linear time (i.e., running in o ( n ) time where n is the length of the trace) dynamic race detection algorithm; previous sampling based approaches like run in linear time (i.e., O ( n )). Our algorithm is a property tester for -race detection — it is sound in that it never reports any false positive, and on traces that are far, with respect to hamming distance, from any race-free trace, the algorithm detects an -race with high probability. Our experimental evaluation of the algorithm and its comparison with state-of-the-art deterministic and sampling based race detectors shows that the algorithm does indeed have significantly low running time, and detects races quite often.
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Grivas, Gerasimos V. "Beyond the Finish Line: Examining the Role of Children in Marathon Races—A Narrative Review". Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology 9, nr 1 (7.03.2024): 47. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9010047.
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Compared with other sports, running is popular sport for children throughout the world. Over the last few decades, marathon running has become increasingly popular even in the age group below 18 years. While the majority of youth athletes fall within the 16–18 age range, it is noteworthy that there are also participants younger than 12 years engaging in marathon races. Advice on the safety of youth athletes participating in these events is frequently sought by parents, coaches, sport scientists, and medical professionals, particularly concerning potential short- and long-term health consequences. The act of marathon running has the potential to impact key organ systems during the crucial phases of growth and development. To ensure the safety of marathon running in youth runners, it is essential to address multiple physiological and psychological aspects of health. These recommendations are directed towards ensuring the safe participation of youth athletes in marathon races through proper and individualized assessments.
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Carmona, Gerard, Emma Roca, Mario Guerrero, Roser Cussó, Cristina Bàrcena, Mercè Mateu i Joan Cadefau. "Fibre-type-specific and Mitochondrial Biomarkers of Muscle Damage after Mountain Races". International Journal of Sports Medicine 40, nr 04 (5.03.2019): 253–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/a-0808-4692.
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AbstractConsequences of running mountain races on muscle damage were investigated by analysing serum muscle enzymes and fibre-type-specific sarcomere proteins. We studied 10 trained amateur and 6 highly trained runners who ran a 35 km and 55 km mountain trail race (MTR), respectively. Levels of creatine kinase (CK), CK-MB isoform (CK-MB), sarcomeric mitochondrial CK (sMtCK), transaminases (AST and ALT), cardiac troponin I (cTnI) and fast (FM) and slow myosin (SM) isoforms, were assessed before, 1 h, 24 h and 48 h after the beginning of MTR. Significant SM increases were found at 24 h in the 55 km group. Levels of CK, CK-MB, AST and cTnI were significantly elevated in both groups following MTR, but in the 55 km group they tended to stabilize in at 48 h. Using pooled data, time-independent serum peaks of SM and CK-MB were significantly correlated. Moreover, concentration of sMtCK was significantly elevated at 1 and 24 h after the race in the 35 km group. Although training volume could confer protection on the mitochondria, the increase in serum CK-MB and SM in the 55 km group might be related to damage to the contractile apparatus type I fibres. Competing in long-distance MTRs might be related to deeper type I muscle fibre damage, even in highly trained individuals
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Simpson, Richard J., Martin R. Wilson, James R. Black, James A. Ross, Greg P. Whyte, Keith Guy i Geraint D. Florida-James. "Immune Alterations, Lipid Peroxidation, and Muscle Damage Following a Hill Race". Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology 30, nr 2 (1.04.2005): 196–211. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/h05-115.
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Hill races usually include large downhill running sections, which can induce significant degrees of muscle damage in a field setting. This study examined the link between muscle damage, oxidative stress, and immune perturbations following a 7-km mountainous hill race with 457 m of ascent and 457 m of descent. Venous blood samples were taken from 7 club level runners before, immediately after, and 48 hrs postrace. Samples were analysed for total and differential leukocyte counts, markers of muscle damage (CK), lipid peroxidation (MDA), and acute phase proteins (CRP; fibrinogen; α-1-ACT). The total antioxidant status (TEAC) and plasma levels of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α were also determined. Subjective pain reports, and plasma activities of CK, MDA, and circulatory monocytes reached peak values at 48 hrs postrace (p < 0.05). TEAC and the cytokine IL-8 increased immediately after the race (p < 0.05). Plasma TNF-α remained unchanged (p > 0.05). Despite the reports of muscle damage and soreness, no evidence of an acute phase response was observed (p > 0.05), which may be explained by the failure of the race to induce a plasma TNF-α response. Future studies should examine the link between muscle damage, oxidative stress, and the acute phase response following hill races of longer duration with larger eccentric components. Key words: acute phase response, cytokines, antioxidant capacity, creatine kinase, field study
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Rauh, Mitchell J., Micah C. Garcia, David M. Bazett-Jones, Jason T. Long, Kevin R. Ford, Mark V. Paterno i Jeffery A. Taylor-Haas. "Comparison of Y-Balance Test Performance by maturation status in youth distance runners". Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 9, nr 7_suppl3 (1.07.2021): 2325967121S0008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967121s00084.
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Background: Distance running is a popular interscholastic sport, but also has an associated high risk of running-related injuries. Recent literature suggests that functional tests may help to identify athletes at increased risk of injury. The Y-Balance Test (YBT) is an objective measure used to assess functional muscle strength and balance and to expose asymmetries between tested limbs. Purpose: To determine if YBT performance was associated with maturation status in healthy, youth distance runners. We hypothesized that mid-pubertal (MP) runners would demonstrate less functional reach distance than pre-pubertal (PrP) or post-pubertal (PoP) runners. Methods: A convenience sample of 142 (Females: n=79, Males: n=63) uninjured youth runners (ages 13.5±2.7 years; weekly running distance: 18.2±20.4 km) were recruited from the local community. All runners met inclusion criteria, indicating that they were between 9 and 19 years old and participated in long-distance running activities such as school/club track and field, cross country, road races, trail running, and/or soccer. The runners completed a modified Pubertal Maturational Observation Scale (PMOS), then were screened for right (R) and left (L) anterior (ANT), posteromedial (PM) and posterolateral (PL) reach distances (cm) normalized by lower limb length (cm). Composite reach distance was calculated by the sum of the three reach distances divided by three times the limb length multiplied by 100 for R and L limbs. ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc tests were used to compare maximum normalized reach distances for the three directions and composite reach distance by maturation status and sex. Results: Overall, 31.7% were classified as PrP status, 26.1% as MP, and 42.3% as PoP, with similar percentages by sex ( p=0.84). The only significant mean difference was found for R ANT maximum normalized reach distance between PrP and PoP ( p=0.02), indicating a greater normalized reach in PrP athletes. No significant mean differences were found for R or L PM and PL maximum normalized reach distances, or for R or L composite reach distances, by maturation status or when stratified by maturation and sex ( p>0.05). Conclusions: In this sample of youth runners, the YBT was only a discriminator of anterior reach distance between pre-pubertal and post-pubertal runners. As decreased anterior reach is associated with reduced quadriceps muscle strength and anterior knee pain, reduced anterior reach in post-pubertal runners may potentially signify an increased risk of sustaining a running-related injury. Thus, preventive efforts to ensure good functional quadriceps muscle strength may be merited.
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Robinson, Sarah L., Clara Kulich, Cristina Aelenei i Vincenzo Iacoviello. "Political Ideology Modifies the Effect of Glass Cliff Candidacies on Election Outcomes for Women in American State Legislative Races (2011–2016)". Psychology of Women Quarterly 45, nr 2 (2.03.2021): 155–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361684321992046.
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Research on glass cliff political candidacies shows that compared to men, women are more likely to run for office in districts where they are likely to lose. We examined if party differences in whether female candidates face these worse conditions in the United States could account for persistent and growing party and state variation in women’s representation. Using election data from 2011 to 2016, we compared Republican versus Democratic candidacies at the state legislative level. We found that women in both parties faced glass cliffs in House races, but not in the Senate. For Republican women, glass cliff conditions accounted for worse election outcomes, but Democratic women were more likely to win when these conditions were considered. Variation in party by state measures of glass cliff effects were also found to explain state variation in women’s office holding. We found that for Democrats, more women win when more women run, but for Republicans, more women win only when the seats they face are more winnable. These results point to the role of polarized traditional versus progressive political ideologies in structuring the motives which underlie glass cliff conditions for women in politics, suggesting that practical solutions be tailored to party. To overcome the growing gap in women’s representation, current efforts to increase the quantity of women running would be complemented by a focus on improving the quality of contests they face, with Republican women most likely to benefit. Further research attending to the multiple sources of variation which impact gendered election outcomes can inform more targeted solutions for advancing equality. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/0361684321992046
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Loland, Sigmund. "Caster Semenya, athlete classification, and fair equality of opportunity in sport". Journal of Medical Ethics 46, nr 9 (20.07.2020): 584–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2019-105937.
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According to the Differences of Sex Development (DSD) Regulations of the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), Caster Semenya and other athletes with heightened testosterone levels are considered non-eligible for middle distance running races in the women’s class. Based on an analysis of fair equality of opportunity in sport, I take a critical look at the Semenya case and at IAAF’s DSD Regulations. I distinguish between what I call stable and dynamic inequalities between athletes. Stable inequalities are those that athletes cannot impact or control in any significant way such as inequalities in biological sex, body size and chronological age. Dynamic inequalities, such as inequalities in strength, speed and endurance, or in technical and tactical skills, can be impacted and to a certain extent controlled by athletes. If stable inequalities exert significant and systematic impact on performance, they provide a rationale for classification. If high testosterone level is an inborn, strong and systemic driver of performance development, inequalities in such levels can provide a rationale for classification. As is emphasised by the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), this leads to a dilemma of rights: the right of Semenya to compete in sport according to her legal sex and gender identity, and the right of other athletes within the average female testosterone range to compete under fair conditions. I conclude with providing conditional support of the CAS decision in the Semenya case and of IAAF’s DSD Regulations.
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Bozianu, Dominic, i Leighton Jones. "Exploring the use of music during ultramarathons using a think-aloud procedure". Graduate Journal of Sports Science, Coaching, Management, & Rehabilitation 1, nr 3 (7.06.2024): 65. http://dx.doi.org/10.19164/gjsscmr.v1i3.1551.
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Introduction: ultrarunning is a rapidly growing sport and is receiving increased attention in scientific literature. Ultrarunning is the act of running ultramarathons, defined as any distance over a marathon (42.2 km). Some ultramarathons are run over a set time e.g., 12 hours. Ultrarunners face many different challenges throughout their races, including injuries and pain, thoughts of quitting, and boredom (Holt et al., 2014, Sport Psych, 28, 22-35). The application of music during sports and exercise has been shown to be a powerful psychological and ergogenic aid, however, there is a dearth of studies exploring how music is applied in ultrarunning. Previous research around ultramarathons has typically used interviews or a range of scales to collect data (Watkins et al., 2022, Psych Sport Ex, 63, 102271). Think-Aloud (TA) procedures have been used in studies involving shorter distance running (Johnson et al., 2023, Int J Sport Ex Psych) but have not yet been applied to ultrarunning. Accordingly, the present study uses a TA approach to capture ultramarathoners’ thoughts and feelings during an event where they listen to music. Method: ten participants completed a two-stage training procedure of TA to conform with established procedures (McGreary et al., 2024, Sport Ex Perf Psych). The TA procedure permits recording of real-time thoughts. The first stage consists of two problems: a multiplication problem, and an anagram-based problem. The second stage involves thinking aloud for a short period while on a training run. Following the training, participants recorded their thoughts at six time points around their event: before the race, after 1 mile, at 30, 60, and 90% into the race, and within five minutes of race completion. Data Analysis: thematic analysis will be undertaken on the transcribed data and will follow standard procedures. Applications: TA has not been applied in ultrarunning previously and its use in the present study can offer evidence to its future feasibility for similar research. Findings of this study will inform the practical application of music around ultramarathon events, with insights offered for athletes and coaches. Moreover, recommendations will be made as to when music could be applied during an event to maximise its effects. These findings will be couched within contemporary conceptual frameworks for applying music in sport and exercise contexts and offer fresh insight into how these models could be expanded to consider ultra-endurance events more fully.
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Scott, Johan. "Regspraak: ’n Tydige waarskuwing dat waaksaamheid van sowel deelnemers as omstanders by padwedlope – ’n oënskynlik nie-riskante sportsoort – verwag kan word". Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2023, nr 2 (2023): 332–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.47348/tsar/2023/i2a9.
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In South Africa road-running has developed into a very popular sport over the last few years. Those participating in it range from novices to professionals, the homeless to billionaires. Notwithstanding the vast numbers of participants, spectators and other bystanders present at road-running events, very few injuries and fatalities have thus far been recorded, and then exclusively in respect of participants. Cases of injuries or fatalities to spectators and bystanders can rather be expected in other forms of sport and recreation such as cricket, rugby, golf and car races, although our jurisprudence is devoid of any such examples, with one exception, namely Clark v Welsh (1975 4 SA 469 (W); 1976 3 SA 484 (A)), containing extensive obiter dicta applicable to spectator injuries. In the USA there have been some development regarding the law applicable to spectator injuries, while English law contains only a few judgments dealing specifically with this topic. In both American and English law it would appear that delictual liability for the causing of injury to spectators and other bystanders is mostly dependent on a finding of negligence, although the doctrine of volenti non fit iniuria also features in some cases. In the case at hand, Kalmer, a well-known top South African Olympian, seriously injured a spectator/bystander, Salie, who had negligently stepped into the runners’ path, by running into her at full speed during the annual Spar ladies’ race in Cape Town. In the Cape Town high court Salie failed in her damages claim against both Western Province Athletics who had organised the event, and Kalmer. The court found no negligence in the conduct of both defendants. Salie subsequently passed away and her appeal to the full Cape court was brought by Davids in her capacity as executrix of the latter’s deceased estate. The appeal partially succeeded, as the court found Kalmer to have been negligent. The court issued an order based on section 1(1)(a) of the Apportionment of Damages Act in terms of which the appellant could recover only 30 per cent of proven damages in view of a finding of 70 per cent contributory negligence on Salie’s part. Gamble J first dealt with the claim against Kalmer. After meticulously analysing the evidence, he found that she had been negligent because she could have avoided the accident by keeping a better lookout – based on case law applicable to the drivers of motor vehicles in collision cases, with reference inter alia to drivers’ reaction times. Furthermore, it was held that the injured Salie had not been a spectator in the strict sense of the word, but an occasional bystander, rendering the case law applicable to spectators useless. It is argued that the court erred in this regard, mainly because the analogy drawn between the conduct of an athlete such as Kalmer and the driver of a motor vehicle in ordinary traffic is a strained one. A better analogy would have been that of a racing driver during the Monte Carlo F1 race, or a cyclist in the Tour de France contest. Furthermore, the court contradicted itself in characterising Salie as a disconnected bystander on the one hand, and someone fully aware of her surroundings on the other hand. It is further argued that the outcome of this appeal would mean that top athletes who have developed a successful running style over a prolonged period – which style has the effect that they cannot keep a proper lookout over longer distances (as in this case) – would have to adapt their style according to the specific venues of events, which is unacceptable as it would adversely affect their performance. Although the court favoured Kalmer (or her insurer) with its reduction of the amount of damages to be proven by 70 per cent, she was held responsible for the appellant’s legal costs. Furthermore, the reduced amount of damages will probably still be considerable. This is an extremely unfair outcome for a top performer who merely exercised her sport in an accepted way to achieve her best performance. It is suggested that Kalmer should have presented expert evidence on the effect of running style and related factors on performance, which would have enabled her to prove that her style was acceptable and should not have been found to form the basis of negligence.
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Diez, Y., M. Fort, M. Korman i J. A. Sellarès. "Group evolution patterns in running races". Information Sciences 479 (kwiecień 2019): 20–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ins.2018.11.044.
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Corbí-Santamaría, Pedro, Alba Herrero-Molleda, Juan García-López, Daniel Boullosa i Vicente García-Tormo. "Variable Pacing Is Associated with Performance during the OCC® Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc® (2017–2021)". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, nr 4 (13.02.2023): 3297. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043297.
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The current evidence suggests that pacing may not be affected by performance level or sex in trail-running races as may occur in road running races. However, the previous studies included races of >100 km. Therefore, we aimed to verify the influence of performance level and sex on pacing in the last four (2017, 2018, 2019, and 2021) editions of a shorter (56.3 km) ultra-trail running race (i.e., Orsières–Champex–Chamonix; OCC®) that maintained the same race profile. The mean finishing time for the 5656 participants was 10 h 20 min 33 s ± 2 h 01 min 19 s. Pacing variability (CV%) was higher in high-level participants, thus showing a greater ability to adapt their pace to the race profile than low-level runners. Males also had a higher pacing variability than females although the effect sizes were small. Based on the current findings, we may recommend for non-elite OCC® participants to adapt their pace to the race profile with a slower pace during uphills and a faster pace during downhills. Further studies including participants’ experience are necessary to confirm the effectiveness of this suggestion in trail-running races of variable distances.
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Hill, D. W. "ENERGY COST OF MIDDLE DISTANCE RUNNING RACES". Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 27, Supplement (maj 1995): S8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199505001-00045.
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Kim, Jonathan H., Rajeev Malhotra, George Chiampas, Pierre d'Hemecourt, Chris Troyanos, John Cianca, Rex N. Smith i in. "Cardiac Arrest during Long-Distance Running Races". New England Journal of Medicine 366, nr 2 (12.01.2012): 130–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1106468.
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Cidell, Julie. "Running road races as transgressive event mobilities". Social & Cultural Geography 15, nr 5 (30.04.2014): 571–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2014.908236.
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Shephard, R. J. "Cardiac Arrest during Long-Distance Running Races". Yearbook of Sports Medicine 2012 (styczeń 2012): 242–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yspm.2012.01.018.
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Urbaneja, Jordi Segui, i Estela Inés Farias. "El trail running (carreras de o por montaña) en España. Inicios, evolución y (actual) estado de la situación (Trail running in Spain. Origin, evolution and current situation; natural áreas)". Retos, nr 33 (15.09.2017): 123–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.47197/retos.v0i33.56462.
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Es objeto de este artículo explicar, desde un punto de vista descriptivo, los inicios y evolución del trail running (carreras de o por montaña) en España con el objetivo de determinar la existencia (o no) del boom del trail running. Se realiza el análisis cuantitativo de las carreras de trail running organizadas en el año 2015 (n=1901) a partir del cual se identifica que: a) la carrera a pie es la tipología de actividad deportiva más utilizada; b) las épocas en que más eventos se organizan son los periodos de primavera y otoño; c) Cataluña es la comunidad autónoma que más carreras organiza; d) los municipios de menos de 5000 habitantes son los que más pruebas acogen; e) atendiendo a la evolución en la creación de nuevas pruebas se observan tres periodos: 1) del 1940 hasta 1977, con un crecimiento nulo; 2) del 1978 hasta el 2006, con un ligero crecimiento y 3) del 2007 hasta el 2015, con un boom en la creación de nuevas pruebas; y finalmente f) se observa que en la creación de una prueba, mayoritariamente, se inicia con una distancia, posteriormente así como avanza en ediciones, aumenta el número de pruebas para a partir de la cuarta edición volver a una única distancia. Con estos resultados este es el primer estudio que demuestra la existencia del boom del trail running, a la vez que realiza una fotografía de la situación del trail running en España en el 2015 y de cómo ha llegado hasta aquí. Abstract. This article explains the beginnings and evolution of trail running in Spain from a descriptive point of view. The objective is to determinate the existence of the term trail running boom. The study is based on a quantitative analysis of trail running races organized in the year 2015 (n=1901). The results are: a) foot race is the most used type of trail running; b) spring and autumn are the two periods in which more events are organized; c) Catalonia is the autonomous community that more trail running races organizes; d) municipalities of less than 5000 inhabitants organize the highest number of trail running races; e) considering the evolution in the creation of new trail running races, three periods are observed: 1) from 1940 to 1977, with no growth; 2) from 1978 to 2006, with a slow growth and 3) from 2007 to 2015, with a boom in the creation of new races; and finally f) we could observe that the organization of trail running races usually starts with only one distance; successively, in following editions the number of modalities increases, whereas from the fourth edition again it comes back to a single distance. This is the first study that demonstrates the existence of the trail running boom, as well as it explains the situation of trail running in Spain in 2015 and how it has reached its current state.
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Lambert, Mike I., Lise Bryer, David B. Hampson, Les Nobbs, Andrea M. Rapolthy, M. Sharhidd Taliep i L. Wayne Viljoen. "Accelerated Decline in Running Performance in a Master Runner with a History of a Large Volume of Training and Racing". Journal of Aging and Physical Activity 10, nr 3 (lipiec 2002): 314–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/japa.10.3.314.
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The aim of this study was to measure the change in running performance in a runner from age 27–64 years. During this time the runner had a history of high-volume training and racing. The change in his average running speed over 10-, 21.1-, 42.2-, and 90-km races was compared with the changes in the age-group records for each distance. He trained an average of 4,051 ± 1,762 km/year and ran 16,604 km during races. His training load reached a peak of 7,596 km/year at the age of 33. His rate of decline in running performance was higher than the expected age decline at 47 years for 10-km, 47 years for 21.1-km, 40 years for the 42.2-km, and 48 years for 90-km races. Decreases in performance with increasing age could be explained by reduced training volume, or, alternatively, high volumes of training and racing might accelerate the normal age-related decrements in running performance.
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Edmonds. "Running as Art". Journal of Speculative Philosophy 29, nr 2 (2015): 165. http://dx.doi.org/10.5325/jspecphil.29.2.0165.
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Waldvogel, Karin J., Pantelis T. Nikolaidis, Stefania Di Gangi, Thomas Rosemann i Beat Knechtle. "Women Reduce the Performance Difference to Men with Increasing Age in Ultra-Marathon Running". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, nr 13 (4.07.2019): 2377. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16132377.
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Age and sex are well-known factors influencing ultra-marathon race performance. The fact that women in older age groups are able to achieve a similar performance as men has been documented in swimming. In ultra-marathon running, knowledge is still limited. The aim of this study was to analyze sex-specific performance in ultra-marathon running according to age and distance. All ultra-marathon races documented in the online database of the German Society for Ultra-Marathon from 1964 to 2017 for 50-mile races (i.e., 231,980 records from 91,665 finishers) and from 1953 to 2017 for 100-mile races (i.e., 107,445 records from 39,870 finishers) were analyzed. In 50-mile races, race times were 11.74 ± 1.95 h for men and 12.31 ± 1.69 h for women. In 100-mile races, race times were 26.6 ± 3.49 h for men and 27.47 ± 3.6 h for women. The sex differences decreased with older age and were smaller in 100-mile (4.41%) than in 50-mile races (9.13%). The overall age of peak performance was 33 years for both distances. In summary, women reduced the performance difference to men with advancing age, the relative difference being smaller in 100-mile compared to 50-mile races. These findings might aid coaches and ultra-marathon runners set long-term training goals considering their sex and age.
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Skinner, Samantha. "Mothering, Running, and the Renegotiation of Running Identity". Qualitative Sociology Review 11, nr 3 (31.07.2015): 18–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/1733-8077.11.3.03.
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Qualitative interviews with six female runners shed light on the gender gap in women’s participation in shorter versus longer road races. The interviews reveal that “mother guilt” and “time constraints” play a significant role in the development of a running identity among women. While the running community promotes a discourse centered around a “disembodied” runner — someone totally and unconstrainedly dedicated to running — the participants in this study experienced conflicts between their roles as mothers and their identity as runners. The conflicts led them to engage in challenging the dominant discourse by actively negotiating a mothering and running identity. The findings suggest that women are redefining the boundaries around running and subsequently — running subculture itself.
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Espeit, Loic, Callum G. Brownstein, Nicolas Royer, Thibault Besson, Vincent Martin, Guillaume Y. Millet i Thomas Lapole. "Central fatigue aetiology in prolonged trail running races". Experimental Physiology 106, nr 3 (18.01.2021): 663–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/ep089177.
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Frere, Jennifer A., Lewis G. Maharam i Steven P. Van Camp. "The Risk of Death in Running Road Races". Physician and Sportsmedicine 32, nr 4 (kwiecień 2004): 33–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.3810/psm.2004.04.204.
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Camm, Jeffrey D., i Thomas J. Grogan. "An Application of Frontier Analysis: Handicapping Running Races". Interfaces 18, nr 6 (grudzień 1988): 52–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/inte.18.6.52.
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Giovanelli, Nicola, Amanda Louise Ryan Ortiz, Keely Henninger i Rodger Kram. "Energetics of vertical kilometer foot races; is steeper cheaper?" Journal of Applied Physiology 120, nr 3 (1.02.2016): 370–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00546.2015.
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Vertical kilometer foot races consist of a 1,000-m elevation gain in <5,000 m of overall distance, and the inclines of the fastest courses are ∼30°. Previous uphill locomotion studies have focused on much shallower angles. We aimed to quantify the metabolic costs of walking and running on very steep angles and to biomechanically distinguish walking from running. Fifteen runners (10 male, 5 female, 32.9 ± 7.5 yr, 1.75 ± 0.09 m, 64.3 ± 9.1 kg) walked and ran for 5 min at seven different angles (9.4, 15.8, 20.4, 24.8, 30.0, 35.0, and 39.2°) all at a fixed vertical velocity (0.35 m/s). We measured the metabolic rates and calculated the vertical costs of walking (Cwvert) and running (Crvert). Using video analysis, we determined stride frequency, stride length, and duty factor (fraction of stride that each foot is in ground contact). At all angles other than 9.4°, Cwvert was cheaper than Crvert (average −8.45 ± 1.05%; P < 0.001). Further, broad minima for both Cwvert and Crvert existed between 20.4 and 35.0° (average Cwvert 44.17 ± 0.41 J·kg−1·m−1 and average Crvert 48.46 ± 0.35 J·kg−1·m−1). At all angles and speeds tested, both walking and running involved having at least one foot on the ground at all times. However, in walking, stride frequency and stride length were ∼28% slower and longer, respectively, than in running. In conclusion, we found that there is a range of angles for which energy expenditure is minimized. At the vertical velocity tested, on inclines steeper than 15.8°, athletes can reduce their energy expenditure by walking rather than running.
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Zhou, Hui, Jun Zheng, Ji Xing Hu, Rui Peng Sang i Zhi Hua Wan. "Study of MoS2-Ti Composite Coatings Applied in Precision Ball Bearings". Advanced Materials Research 538-541 (czerwiec 2012): 281–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.538-541.281.
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708C Ball bearings were made of 9Cr18 steel which had precision of class 4, MoS2-Ti composite coatings were deposited on inner and outer races of ball bearings by unbalanced magnetron sputtering system, and bearing cages were made of PTFE-based self-lubricating polymers. Bearing’s tribological torques as a function of storage time in high humidity environment were studied by using LHU-2 thermal & humidity test chamber and Bearing 2000 torque measurement device. Developing bearing vacuum performance test rig to research bearing’s torque as a function of running time, bearings were dismantled after test and using XPS to analyze the surfaces of bearing’s races and balls. The results show that storied in the environment of 30°C, 85% RH, bearing’s running torques increased proportionally as the storage time went on. When run-in the bearings which were storied for 440 days, the start and average running torques of bearings could come back to the level which was the same as the test start, but the fluctuation of bearing’s average running torque increased. Running in one direction at the speed of 650 r/min, in vacuum environment (~10-4Pa) and ambient temperature, tested bearings showed good running performance with low friction torque varied only between 1g·cm~2 g·cm until to the test ended at 1.872×108 revolutions. XPS analysis showed that a stable and sustainable solid lubrication system was established among bearing’s races, balls and cages.
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Ranum, Madeline, Carl Foster, Clayton Camic, Glenn Wright, Flavia Guidotti, Jos J. de Koning, Christopher Dodge i John P. Porcari. "Effect of Running Velocity Variation on the Aerobic Cost of Running". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, nr 4 (19.02.2021): 2025. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042025.
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The aerobic cost of running (CR), an important determinant of running performance, is usually measured during constant speed running. However, constant speed does not adequately reflect the nature of human locomotion, particularly competitive races, which include stochastic variations in pace. Studies in non-athletic individuals suggest that stochastic variations in running velocity produce little change in CR. This study was designed to evaluate whether variations in running speed influence CR in trained runners. Twenty competitive runners (12 m, VO2max = 73 ± 7 mL/kg; 8f, VO2max = 57 ± 6 mL/kg) ran four 6-minute bouts at an average speed calculated to require ~90% ventilatory threshold (VT) (measured using both v-slope and ventilatory equivalent). Each interval was run with minute-to-minute pace variation around average speed. CR was measured over the last 2 min. The coefficient of variation (CV) of running speed was calculated to quantify pace variations: ±0.0 m∙s−1 (CV = 0%), ±0.04 m∙s−1 (CV = 1.4%), ±0.13 m∙s−1(CV = 4.2%), and ±0.22 m∙s−1(CV = 7%). No differences in CR, HR, or blood lactate (BLa) were found amongst the variations in running pace. Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was significantly higher only in the 7% CV condition. The results support earlier studies with short term (3s) pace variations, that pace variation within the limits often seen in competitive races did not affect CR when measured at running speeds below VT.
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Peckover, Sean, Aldo Raineri i Aaron T. Scanlan. "Implementation of Congestion-Related Controls Improves Runner Density, Flow Rate, Perceived Safety, and Satisfaction during an Australian Running Event". Sports 10, nr 9 (31.08.2022): 132. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports10090132.
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This study examined the impact of congestion-related controls on runner density, flow rate, perceived safety, and satisfaction during an Australian running event. Runner congestion was compared between races organized at the Sunshine Coast Marathon and Running Festival in 2019 without controls and in 2021 with added controls, including modifications to the start corral design and use of wave starts. Following a mixed-method design, runner congestion was quantitatively measured via determining runner density and flow rate in the start corrals with video analyses, while post-event surveys were used to gather qualitative evidence regarding the prevalence of congestion and its impact on runner safety and satisfaction. Descriptive analyses for quantitative data showed runner density (1.48–3.01 vs. 0.52–1.20 runners per m2) and flow rate (102–152 vs. 36–59 runners per min per m) were reduced across races with controls. Regarding qualitative data, Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney rank-sum tests demonstrated a significantly (p < 0.01) lower prevalence of congestion was perceived on course while running, alongside a reduced (p = 0.08) perceived impact of congestion on event satisfaction across races with controls. Furthermore, descriptive analyses for qualitative data showed a reduced proportion of runners indicated the start corrals were “somewhat” to “extremely” (rating of at least 3 on a 5-point scale) congested upon race commencement with controls (64% vs. 75%), and perceived safety (10% vs. 17%) and satisfaction (17% vs. 30%) were “somewhat” to “extremely” impacted by congestion across races with controls. Adopting suitable start corral designs with wave starts may enable race directors to reduce runner congestion to enhance continued participation among the public and viability of their running events.
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Knechtle, Beat, Thomas Rosemann i Pantelis Theo Nikolaidis. "The Role of Nationality in Ultra-Endurance Sports: The Paradigm of Cross-Country Skiing and Long-Distance Running". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, nr 7 (8.04.2020): 2543. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072543.
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Although the variation of performance by nationality in endurance sports such as marathon has been well studied, little information exists so far on the role of nationality on performance in ultra-endurance sports. The aim of the present study was to review the role of nationality on cross-country skiing and ultra-endurance running. Scopus and PubMed were searched using the syntax “nationality AND (ultra-endurance OR ultra-marathon OR cross-country skiing) in 1/4/2020. This search identified 17 articles, whose references were further examined for relevant literature. It was observed that Russian athletes dominated ultra-endurance running and cross-country skiing races. It was shown that these races were in other countries, where it was assumed that only the best Russians competed. Potential explanations could be misuse of performance enhancing substances, historical, climate-geographical and psychophysiological (e.g., combination of genetic and social factors). In summary, recent studies found a dominance of Russian athletes in specific races (i.e., ‘Comrades Marathon’, ‘Vasaloppet’, and ‘Engadin Ski Marathon’) and disciplines (i.e., ultra-marathon running, cross-country skiing) over a period of several decades. Future studies are need to investigate other events and other sport disciplines to confirm this Russian dominance.
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Alexandris, Kostas. "Testing the role of sport event personality on the development of event involvement and loyalty". International Journal of Event and Festival Management 7, nr 1 (7.03.2016): 2–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijefm-10-2015-0041.
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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to test: the applicability of Aaker’s (1997) brand personality model in the context of mountain running races; and the influence of event personality on event involvement and loyalty. Design/methodology/approach – In total, 177 runners (n=177) at two mountain running races participated in the study and filled the brand personality (Aaker, 1997) and leisure involvement (Kyle et al., 2004a, b) questionnaires. Findings – The confirmatory factor analysis provided support for the factorial validity of the brand personality and event involvement models. The analysis confirmed also the structural model. Four of the five personality facets (excitement, competence, ruggedness and sincerity) significantly influenced the three dimensions of event involvement, which in their turn influenced event loyalty (intention to participate and W-O-M communications). Practical implications – The topic of brand personality is important for building brand equity and guiding market positioning in the growing running races sector. The current study provides event organizers with a tool for measuring the personality of their events. Furthermore, it explains how event personality influences the development of event involvement, which is an important variable for the development of event loyalty. Originality/value – It contributes to the academic literature in two ways: first, the construct of brand personality has not been previously applied in the context of outdoor sport events and especially mountain running races; and second, while it has been theoretically proposed (Aaker, 1997; Keller, 2008) and empirically supported (Eisend and Stokburger-Sauer, 2013) in the general marketing literature that brand personality is associated with positive behavioral and attitudinal (e.g. brand loyalty and brand involvement) outcomes, there has been no published research to test the relationships among brand personality, involvement and loyalty in the context of outdoor sport events.
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McGehee, Nancy Gard, Yooshik Yoon i David Cárdenas. "Involvement and Travel for Recreational Runners in North Carolina". Journal of Sport Management 17, nr 3 (lipiec 2003): 305–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsm.17.3.305.
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This study utilized an adaptation of the uni-dimensional involvement scale developed by Josiam, Smeaton, and Clements (1999) to test Havitz and Dimanche's Proposition XI, which states that “an individual's involvement profile with a recreational activity, tourist destination, or related equipment is positively related to frequency of participation, travel, or purchase” (1990, p. 189). Relationships between recreational runners' involvement in travel to road races and behavioral characteristics, including preparation for and participation in road races, travel behavior and running-related expenditures were examined. Proposition XI was partially supported. The research found statistically significant differences between the high involvement group and medium involvement group in terms of travel behavior and running-related expenditures. There were no significant differences between involvement groups and preparation for or participation in road races. It was concluded that involvement should be considered by sport and tourism agencies when planning, marketing, and managing events targeted at traveling recreational runners.
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Armstrong, John, Alice Sullivan i George M. Perry. "Performance of non-binary athletes in mass-participation running events". BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine 9, nr 4 (grudzień 2023): e001662. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2023-001662.
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ObjectivesTo test the hypothesis that, controlling for age, natal-sex differences in running performance are lower among non-binary athletes than in the rest of the population. To test the hypothesis that natal-male non-binary athletes outperform natal-female non-binary athletes.MethodsA secondary analysis of 166 race times achieved by non-binary athletes within a data set of 85 173 race times derived from races with a non-binary category in the New York Road Runners database. The natal sex of non-binary athletes was modelled probabilistically using US Social Security Administration data when it could not be derived from previous races. Race times were used as the outcome variable in linear models with explanatory variables derived from natal sex, gender identity, age and the event being raced. Statistical significance was estimated using Monte Carlo methods as the model was not Gaussian.ResultsThere was no evidence that controlling for age, natal-sex differences in running performance are lower among non-binary athletes. Natal-male non-binary athletes outperform natal-female non-binary athletes at a confidence level of p=0.1%.ConclusionsBoth natal sex and gender identity may be useful explanatory variables for the performance of athletes in mass-participation races. It is, therefore, valuable to include both variables in data collection.
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Robinson, James N., Mark Alan Fontana, Jordan D. Metzl, Sameer Dixit, Stephanie A. Kliethermes, Brianna Quijano i Brett Toresdahl. "Running races during the COVID-19 pandemic: a 2020 survey of the running community". BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine 7, nr 4 (listopad 2021): e001192. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2021-001192.
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ObjectivesTo survey runners and triathletes about their willingness to resume in-person racing during the COVID-19 pandemic, health concerns related to mass races and changes in running patterns since the start of the pandemic.DesignAn electronic survey was distributed from 15 July to 1 September 2020 to runners and triathletes by New York Road Runners, ASICS North America, and race medical directors, and through social media.ParticipantsRunners and triathletes 18 years of age or older who participated in at least one race in 2019.ResultsA total of 2278 surveys were received. Not all participants answered every question; the denominator represents the number of responses to each question. Most participants were from the USA (1620/1940, 83.5%), of which over half were from New York (812/1475, 55.1%). Regarding when respondents would feel comfortable returning to in-person racing, the most frequent response was ‘Whenever local laws allow, but only if there are sufficient precautions’ (954/2173, 43.9%), followed by ‘Not until there is a vaccine’ (540/2173, 24.9%). The most common concerns about in-person races were crowded starting corrals (1802/2084, 86.5%), the number of COVID-19 cases in the race location (1585/2084, 76.1%) and the number of participants (1517/2084, 72.8%). Comparing running patterns before the pandemic to Summer 2020, the mean weekly mileage decreased from 25.5 (SD 15.4) miles to 22.7 (16.2) miles (p<0.001).ConclusionMost runners are willing to return to racing when local laws allow, though as of Summer 2020, many desired certain precautions to feel comfortable.
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Coelho, Clarisse S., Ticiane R. P. Sodré, Lara N. Sousa, Thadeu M. Silva, Joana Simões, Vinicius R. C. Souza, Renata F. Siqueira i Helio C. Manso Filho. "Analysis of Stress Predictors in Vaquejada Horses Running with Different Interval Rest Periods". Stresses 3, nr 4 (13.12.2023): 858–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/stresses3040058.
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The purpose of this study was to assess the stress responses associated with vaquejada simulating tests (VSTs). Ten clinically healthy 8.9 ± 4.3-year-old Quarter horses, weighing 441.3 ± 25.0 kg, performed two VSTs five days apart. In the first VST (M1), animals ran three times with a 5-min rest between races; and in the second (M2), they ran with a 15-min rest between races. Horses were examined before (T0) and immediately after the third run (T1) and at 4 h (T2) of recovery. Stress biomarkers included heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), cortisol, and white blood cell count. All variables were analyzed by ANOVA and Tukey tests, considering p < 0.05. A significant reduction in cortisol was observed for pull (p = 0.0463) and helper (p = 0.0349) horses when they had a 15-min rest between races. The rMSSD and mean R-R values for helper horses were also significantly lower in M2. In conclusion, the 15-min rest interval proved to be better than the 5-min period for both categories of equine athletes used in vaquejada mainly for helper horses. A longer rest time between races allowed the organic recovery necessary for these animals to impose a greater applied physical effort load, which is a fact that guarantees good performance and well-being.
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Kretz, Tobias. "What Can Be Learned From (Public) Running Result Data?" Collective Dynamics 9 (19.06.2024): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.17815/cd.2024.173.
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Results from running races is available in abundance. In this contribution it is shown, how this data might help to understand pedestrian dynamics in general, as well as the situation at the start and experience for runners.
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Entin, Pauline. "Do racehorses and Greyhound dogs exhibit a gender difference in running speed?" Equine and Comparative Exercise Physiology 4, nr 3-4 (listopad 2007): 135–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1478061507851036.
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AbstractAt any level of competition, men run faster than women. Consequently, a male speed advantage is often presumed for other species. This assumption was tested in two animals bred for speed: horses and dogs. Results from Thoroughbred (TB), Standardbred (STB) and Greyhound (GH) races were analysed by ANOVA to compare the speeds of victorious males, neutered males (TB and STB only) and females. Separate analyses were run for shorter (TB: ≤ 1609 m, GH: 503 m) and longer (TB: >1609 m, GH: 603.5 m) TB and GH races. All STB races (trotters and pacers) were 1609 m. In TB races, intact males were 0.7% faster than females at ≤ 1609 m (n = 305; P < 0.01) and 1.4% faster at >1609 m (n = 194; P < 0.01). The speed of neutered males was equivalent to that of females at both distances. Gender accounted for 3.8 and 10.7% of the variance in speed at short and long distances, respectively. In STB pacers, intact males were 1.5% faster than females and gender accounted for 10.1% of the variance in speed (n = 96; P < 0.01). Gender was not a significant predictor of STB trotter (n = 95) or GH speed at 503 m (n = 146) or 603.5 m (n = 23). In conclusion, gender has a significant effect on speed of TBs and STB pacers. Although the effect size is small, it may be significant for racing; in a 7 furlong (1408 m) TB race, the 0.7% difference translates to an advantage of several lengths.
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Blau, Peter J. "Running-in: Art or engineering?" Journal of Materials Engineering 13, nr 1 (marzec 1991): 47–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02834123.
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Tang, Wing Yee. "Running Head: Childrens In-group Out-group Effect Children Predict Trustworthy based on In-group Out-group Effect". Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media 6, nr 1 (17.05.2023): 68–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2753-7048/6/20220156.
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Does a new person's ethnic facial resemblance influence snap judgments? If so, when did people start to have an in-group and out-group concept? We are using a within-subject design in the experiment. The participant was separated into different rooms and did 20 tryouts to choose one of the two pictures (different races) based on our questions. As a result, we predict that the participant will choose their races more than other races, proving that children around age 3-4 had already developed the in-group out-group concept. This research could help educators know when children start to develop the in-group and out-group concepts at the earliest age. This could help those educators know when the earliest time could be to educate children that it is not hard to trust other races. This research is vital because it might be able to help society to achieve global citizenship.
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Nilson, Finn, i Mats Börjesson. "Mortality in long-distance running races in Sweden - 2007–2016". PLOS ONE 13, nr 4 (9.04.2018): e0195626. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195626.
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Morton, R. Hugh. "Statistical effects of lane allocation on times in running races". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series D (The Statistician) 46, nr 1 (marzec 1997): 101–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9884.00063.
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Reardon, James. "Optimal pacing for running 400- and 800-m track races". American Journal of Physics 81, nr 6 (czerwiec 2013): 428–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.4803068.
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Bieuzen, François, Jeanick Brisswalter, Christopher Easthope, Fabrice Vercruyssen, Thierry Bernard i Christophe Hausswirth. "Effect of Wearing Compression Stockings on Recovery After Mild Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage". International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 9, nr 2 (marzec 2014): 256–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2013-0126.
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Background:Compression garments are increasingly popular in long-distance running events where they are used to limit cumulative fatigue and symptoms associated with mild exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD). However, the effective benefits remain unclear.Objective:This study examined the effect of wearing compression stockings (CS) on EIMD indicators. Compression was applied during or after simulated trail races performed at competition pace in experienced off-road runners.Methods:Eleven highly trained male runners participated in 3 simulated trail races (15.6 km: uphill section 6.6 km, average gradient 13%, and downhill section 9.0 km, average gradient –9%) in a randomized crossover trial. The effect of wearing CS while running or during recovery was tested and compared with a control condition (ie, run and recovery without CS; non- CS). Indicators of muscle function, muscle damage (creatine kinase; CK), inflammation (interleukin-6; IL-6), and perceived muscle soreness were recorded at baseline (1 h before warm-up) and 1, 24, and 48 h after the run.Results:Perceived muscle soreness was likely to be lower when participants wore CS during trail running compared with the control condition (1 h postrun, 82% chance; 24 h postrun, 80% chance). A likely or possibly beneficial effect of wearing CS during running was also found for isometric peak torque at 1 h postrun (70% chance) and 24 h postrun (60% chance) and throughout the recovery period on countermovement jump, compared with non-CS. Possible, trivial, or unclear differences were observed for CK and IL-6 between all conditions.Conclusion:Wearing CS during simulated trail races mainly affects perceived leg soreness and muscle function. These benefits are visible very shortly after the start of the recovery period.
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Knechtle, Beat, Thomas Rosemann i Pantelis Nikolaidis. "Pacing and Changes in Body Composition in 48 h Ultra-Endurance Running—A Case Study". Sports 6, nr 4 (1.11.2018): 136. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports6040136.
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Pacing has been investigated in elite and master runners competing in marathon and ultra-marathon races up to 100 km and 100 miles, but not in longer ultra-marathons. In this case study, a 54-year-old master ultra-marathoner—intending to achieve as many kilometers as possible in a 48 h run—was examined. The changes in running speed during the race and selected anthropometric characteristics using bioelectrical impedance analysis (i.e., body mass and body water), during and after the race, were analyzed. The runner achieved a total distance of 230 km and running speed decreased non-linearly during the race. Body mass decreased, while percent body water increased, non-linearly, across the race. There was no statistically significant relationship between the decrease in body mass and the increase in percent body water. Considering the popularity of ultra-endurance running races, the findings of the present study offered valuable insight in the pacing and changes of body mass and body water during a 48 h run, and this information can be used by ultra-endurance runners and practitioners working with them.
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Foster, Carl, Jos J. de Koning i Christian Thiel. "Evolutionary Pattern of Improved 1-Mile Running Performance". International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 9, nr 4 (lipiec 2014): 715–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2013-0318.
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The official world records (WR) for the 1-mile run for men (3:43.13) and for women (4:12.58) have improved 12.2% and 32.3%, respectively, since the first WR recognized by the International Association of Athletics Federations. Previous observations have suggested that the pacing pattern for successive laps is characteristically faster-slower-slowest-faster. However, modeling studies have suggested that uneven energy-output distribution, particularly a high velocity at the end of the race, is essentially wasted kinetic energy that could have been used to finish sooner. Here the authors report that further analysis of the pacing pattern in 32 men’s WR races is characterized by a progressive reduction in the within-lap variation of pace, suggesting that improving the WR in the 1-mile run is as much about how energetic resources are managed as about the capacity of the athletes performing the race. In the women’s WR races, the pattern of lap times has changed little, probably secondary to a lack of depth in the women’s fields. Contemporary WR performances have been achieved a coefficient of variation of lap times on the order of 1.5–3.0%. Reasonable projection suggests that the WR is overdue for improving and may require lap times with a coefficient of variation of ~1%.
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Skinner, Sarah, Elie Nader, Emeric Stauffer, Mélanie Robert, Camille Boisson, Agnès Cibiel, Clément Foschia i in. "Differential impacts of trail and ultra-trail running on cytokine profiles: An observational study". Clinical Hemorheology and Microcirculation 78, nr 3 (3.08.2021): 301–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/ch-211121.
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BACKGROUND: Endurance running events are known to cause inflammation and result in increased cytokine production. However, the effects of ultramarathons on cytokine profiles are not well characterized. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to describe and compare the effects of a trail (40 km) race and an ultra-trail (171 km) race on leukocyte concentrations and cytokine profiles. METHODS: The study was conducted during the Ultra-Trail du Mont Blanc® ultra-marathon running event, and included 11 runners who completed the 40 km trail run and 12 runners who completed the 171 km ultra-trail. Blood samples were taken before and after the races. RESULTS: Leukocyte concentrations significantly increased after both races. Circulating levels of IL-6, IL-1β, MCP-1, and IFN-γ were significantly higher after the longer race compared to the shorter race. Furthermore, while both races resulted in significant increases in IL-6 and IL-8, only the longer race resulted in significant increases in MIP-1β, IL-7, IL-17a, and IL-4. CONCLUSIONS: These results illustrate that a 171 km ultra-trail race results in greater modulations in cytokine profiles than a traditional trail race.
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DeJong, Alexandra F., i Jay Hertel. "Outdoor Running Activities Captured Using Wearable Sensors in Adult Competitive Runners". International Journal of Athletic Therapy and Training 25, nr 2 (1.03.2020): 76–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijatt.2019-0051.
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Treadmill running analyses cannot adequately replicate outdoor running demands, and wearable sensors offer a means to overcome this clinical limitation. The purpose of this report is to describe five individual runners’ biomechanical outcomes during hill and track intervals, stroller running, and 5- and 21-K races using wearable sensors. Step rates and lengths increased while foot contact time decreased during sprints and 5-K race portions. Stroller running increased step rate, length, and pronation. Step length decreased and pronation and foot contact time increased over the 21-K race. Wearable sensors helped identify patterns in natural training environments as a basis for clinical application.
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Gibson, Michaela J., Charlotte F. Bolwell, Erica K. Gee, Kylie A. Legg i Chris W. Rogers. "Race-Level Reporting of Incidents during Two Seasons (2015/16 to 2016/17) of Thoroughbred Flat Racing in New Zealand". Animals 12, nr 8 (15.04.2022): 1033. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani12081033.
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The objective of this study was to describe the incident and non-incident reports of Thoroughbred flat racing in New Zealand. Retrospective stipendiary stewards’ reports of race day events during the 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 racing season were examined. The primary injury and reporting outcomes were analysed to assess the horse- and race-level risk factors associated with the occurrence of incident and non-incident reports. The number of incident and non-incident events and binomial exact 95% confidence intervals were calculated per 1000 horse starts. Most reports were for non-incidents and examinations were requested for poor performance (10.3 per 1000 races, 95% CI = 9.5–11.1). Horses running in open-class races had greater odds of having an incident than horses in lower-rating classes. The incidence of musculoskeletal injuries (1.3 per 1000 races, 95% CI = 1.13–1.40) and fractures (0.6 per 1000 races, 95% CI = 0.39–0.74) were low and similar to previous New Zealand reports. There was a low incidence of epistaxis (0.8 per 1000 races, 95% CI = 0.69–0.92) possibly due to trainers screening susceptible horses before entering them in races, due to the regulatory consequences of an episode of epistaxis during a race.
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Young, L. E., K. Rogers i J. L. N. Wood. "Left ventricular size and systolic function in Thoroughbred racehorses and their relationships to race performance". Journal of Applied Physiology 99, nr 4 (październik 2005): 1278–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01319.2004.
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Cardiac morphology in human athletes is known to differ, depending on the sports-specific endurance component of their events, whereas anecdotes abound about superlative athletes with large hearts. As the heart determines stroke volume and maximum O2 uptake in mammals, we undertook a study to test the hypothesis that the morphology of the equine heart would differ between trained horses, depending on race type, and that left ventricular size would be greatest in elite performers. Echocardiography was performed in 482 race-fit Thoroughbreds engaged in either flat (1,000–2,500 m) or jump racing (3,200–6,400 m). Body weight and sex-adjusted measures of left ventricular size were largest in horses engaged in jump racing over fixed fences, compared with horses running shorter distances on the flat (range 8–16%). The observed differences in cardiac morphologies suggest that subtle differences in training and competition result in cardiac adaptations that are appropriate to the endurance component of the horses' event. Derived left ventricular mass was strongly associated with published rating (quality) in horses racing over longer distances in jump races ( P ≤ 0.001), but less so for horses in flat races. Rather, left ventricular ejection fraction and left ventricular mass combined were positively associated with race rating in older flat racehorses running over sprint (<1,408 m) and longer distances (>1,408 m), explaining 25–35% of overall variation in performance, as well as being closely associated with performance in longer races over jumps (23%). These data provide the first direct evidence that cardiac size influences athletic performance in a group of mammalian running athletes.
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C. C., OLARU. "Development of motricity in naval pentathlon". Scientific Bulletin of Naval Academy XXII, nr 2 (15.12.2019): 377–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.21279/1454-864x-19-i2-044.
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The technical skills specific to naval pentathlon are largely conditioned by the level of development of certain conditional and coordinative motoric skills, and the level of aptitudes, which plays a very important role. The naval pentathlon, practiced by the military of the naval forces, consists of each athlete passing the following five races: obstacle race, lifesaving swimming race, utility swimming race, amphibious cross-country race, seamanship race. The races have a rich content of swimming related actions, throwing, running, jumping, climbing, shooting and rowing and require from the athlete a complex training.
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Mewett, Peter G., i John Perry. "A Sporting Chance? The “Dark Horse Strategy” and Winning in Professional Running". Sociology of Sport Journal 14, nr 2 (czerwiec 1997): 121–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ssj.14.2.121.
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Professional running, derived from 19th century pedestrianism, is a gambling sport mostly confined to working men. Runners compete for prize money and, particularly, in the hope that they will win races as “dark horses” which should ensure substantial winnings from the betting ring. This sport involves handicapping athletes to level ability differences between them and, in theory, gives each competitor an equal chance of winning. Competitors conceal their true potential and lose races, however, with the dual objectives of acquiring favorable handicaps, thereby increasing their chances of success in their targeted events and getting favorable odds from the bookmakers. People in the sport use numerous tactics of secrecy and deception to reduce the risk of discovery of their dark horse prospects. A case study of a runner is presented to demonstrate the processes involved in the use of the “dark horse” strategy to win a major race.
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Renfree, Andrew, Graham J. Mytton, Sabrina Skorski i Alan St Clair Gibson. "Tactical Considerations in the Middle-Distance Running Events at the 2012 Olympic Games: A Case Study". International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 9, nr 2 (marzec 2014): 362–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2013-0020.
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Purpose:To identify tactical factors associated with progression from preliminary rounds in middle-distance running events at an international championship.Methods:Results from the 2012 Olympic Games were used to access final and intermediate positions, finishing times, and season-best (SB) times for competitors in men’s and women’s 800-m and 1500-m events (fifteen 800-m races and ten 1500-m races). Finishing times were calculated as %SB, and Pearson product–moment correlations were used to assess relationships between intermediate and finishing positions. Probability (P) of qualification to the next round was calculated for athletes in each available intermediate position.Results:There were no significant differences in finishing times relative to SB between qualifiers and nonqualifiers. In the 800-m, correlation coefficients between intermediate and final positions were r = .61 and r = .84 at 400 m and 600 m, respectively, whereas in the 1500-m, correlations were r = .35, r = .43, r = .55, and r = .71 at 400 m, 800 m, 1000 m, and 1200 m, respectively. In both events, probability of qualification decreased with position at all intermediate distances. At all points, those already in qualifying positions were more likely to qualify for the next round.Conclusions:The data demonstrate that tactical positioning at intermediate points in qualifying rounds of middle-distance races is a strong determinant of qualification. In 800-m races it is important to be in a qualifying position by 400 m. In the 1500-m event, although more changes in position are apparent, position at intermediate distances is still strongly related to successful qualification.