Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Risky Driving”

Internationally, young novice drivers (aged 17-25 years) are often overrepresented in road-related crash injury and fatality statistics. Compared with older, more experienced drivers, prominent contributors to young driver crash-risk is their lower perceived risk, higher engagement in risky driving behaviours (e.g., speeding), and poorer hazard perception skills. This thesis describes seven studies conducted to address three research aims. The first aim was to model and examine three psychological theories of personality, social–cognitive, and social-learning, to propose a new conceptual framework that explores how young novice drivers perceive driving risk, and whether they choose to engage or not in risky driving behaviours. In studies 1-4, using a sample of 643 young novice drivers (490 females) who held an Australian driver’s licence (Provisional-1, Provisional-2, or Open), models of: i) reinforcement sensitivity, ii) protection motivation, and iii) prototype willingness, were examined. From these models, factors of reward sensitivity, coping appraisal, threat appraisal, driver prototypes, and behavioural willingness predicted young driver perecived risk, and reported risky driving engagement. The second aim was to examine whether a developed and piloted brief hazard perception training session can improve Provisional-1 drivers (aged 17-25years) overall hazard perception knowledge, identification, response and handling to road user related driving hazards using a driving simulator. Educational, passive and active training methods incorporating a number of established behavioural change techniques were employed, while elements of process and product evaluation were undertaken. Also examined was whether any training group differences persisted at 2-3 week follow-up. In Study 5 a sample of 23 drivers (n=7 Provisional-1, n=7 Provisional-2, and n=9 Open licence) piloted and validated the training methods and hazard perception outcome measures. In Study 6, a brief training session was implemented with a sample of 52 (18 male) Provisional-1 licence drivers aged 17-25 years. Participants were equally randomised to four training conditions (pamphlet, passive, active, and no-training). Participants who received training significantly outperformed the no-training participants in hazard perception identification, response, and handling of hazards, in the simulator hazard perception test. When assessed again at a follow-up session (n=40), support was found for participants who received training that was higher in interactivity (passive and active training) outperforming the no-training participants and participants who only received an educational pamphlet in the hazard perception tests (static and simulator). The third aim was to evaluate whether the brief hazard perception training session’s key objectives were met using feedback from participants who completed the training session, and to identify whether factors identified from the new conceptual model (research aim 1) were associated with hazard perception performance. Study 7 evaluated the training session using feedback from drivers who participated in study 5 (N=52), and explored initial associations between protection motivation theory and the prototype willingness model for perceived risk, reported risky driving engagement, and hazard perception. This approach sought to expand the literature by examining factors associated with these three prominent young driver crash risk models to better adjust and address such factors in future training programs targeting safety outcomes. While potential correlates of hazard knowledge were examined, only three were found to share significant relationships: coping appraisal, previous traffic violations, and risky driver prototype similarity. From participant feedback, three key areas of learning were identified by participants: increased knowledge, awareness of new hazards, and greater awareness of driving laws and rules. A majority of participants in the training conditions also indicated that after the training session their understanding of driving hazard perception and driving related hazards had improved. Across training conditions, 91.5% (n=43) of participants who completed the evaluation measure indicated that they would recommend the session for other Provisional-1 drivers. Examining potential underlying influences for why young drivers are overrepresented in international injury and death tolls is important for road safety research and practice (e.g., driver-oriented interventions). Highlighted in this thesis are factors from the conceptual models that could be amenable to change in influencing young driver decision-making, perceived risk, and risky driving engagement, in addition to a brief training session that showed evidence of hazard perception improvement. These results may contribute to improved road safety initiatives, preventive strategies and interventions that focus on this vulnerable driver demographic.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Applied Psychology
Griffith Health
Full Text

Alcohol intoxication represents one situation an individual might increase their amount of risk taking when driving. This dissertation is comprised of three studies that investigate the mechanisms by which alcohol increases driver risk-taking. Study 1 examined the effect of alcohol on driver risk-taking using a proxemics approach. The study also tested whether alcohol-induced increases in risky driving co-occurred with pronounced impairment in the driver’s skill. The study also examined whether the most disinhibited drivers were also the riskiest. Indeed, alcohol increased driver risk-taking and impaired driving skill. The study also revealed risky driving can be dissociable from impairing effects on driver skill and that poor inhibitory control is selectively related to elevated risky driving. Studies 2 and 3 built on this work by addressing whether the apparent dissociation between behavioral measures of driver risk and skill was mediated by perceptions the drivers held. While maintaining the distinction between driver risk and skill, Study 2 tested the relationship between drivers’ BAC estimations and their tendency to take risks on the roadway. Drivers who estimated their BAC to be lower were the riskiest drivers following both alcohol and placebo. Study 3 addressed whether risky driving could be increased by environmental factors that shape perceptions the driver holds. There is evidence post-licensure training programs might inadvertently generate overconfidence in drivers’ perceived ability to operate a motor vehicle and thus fail to perceive dangers normally associated with risky driving behavior. To test this hypothesis, twenty-four drivers received either advanced skill training or no training in a driving simulator. Drivers who received skill training showed increased risky driving under alcohol whereas those who received no training tended to decrease their risk taking. Trained drivers also self-reported more confidence in their driving ability. Taken together, these studies represent a large step towards the betterment of laboratory-based models of driving behavior. The work highlights the importance of distinguishing between driver risk-taking and driving skill. The studies also identified that drivers’ personal beliefs influence alcohol-induced risky driving; this suggests training programs focused on correcting drivers’ misconceptions might be most efficacious in reducing their risk taking on the roadway.

The overall aim of the study was to examine relapse among participants in the DWI Prevention Programme and those who get prison sentence after driving when influenced by alcohol and to examine the participants’ attitudes towards drunk – driving, risk behavior and traffic safety. A direct evaluation of the sentence and penal accomplishment is also examined. The sample of the survey study (see article 1) was 44 from the DWI – sample and 44 from the prison – sample that completed a questionnaire answering about their attitudes towards drunk – driving, risk behavior and traffic safety. The results presented in article 2 are based on transcripts of criminal convicts that participated in the DWI Prevention Programme during the period of 1998 – 2002 in the Salten District ( n = 68) and a sample of convicts to an unconditional sentence for drunk - driving in the same time periode (n = 112). The 1st analysis revealed that the DWI – sample had more ideal attitudes towards drunk – driving, risk behavior and traffic safety. There were also significant differences in how they evaluated their sentence and penal accomplishment. The DWI - sample were generally more satisfied with the penal accomplishment, the way they was treated and how the relationships around them were. They were also more satisfied with the contents of the penal accomplishment. Multivariate analysis, Kaplan – Meier and Cox regression was used in the 2nd analysis calculating if there were significant differences between the samples, survival time and to investigate effects of several variables upon the time a specified event takes to happen. In this study the relapse time was shorter for men than for women and the youngest age – groups had a shorter relapse time than the oldest age – groups. The Kaplan – Meier plot revealed that the prison – group have a shorter relapse time compared to the DWI – group. Based on the results of the two articles we can conclude that the DWI Prevention Programme had a very good effect on the participants compared to those who get traditional prison – sentence. The participants in the programme had the most ideal attitudes and the longest survival time after participating. When it comes to survival time among gender and age, women and the older age – groups had the longest survival time.

The Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI) was created to measure drivers' self-reported propensity to drive dangerously (Dula & Ballard, in press). In the early stages of development, the DDDI and each of its subscales (Dangerous Driving Total, Aggressive Driving, Negative Emotional Driving, and Risky Driving) were found to have strong internal reliability (alphas from .83 to .92), and there was evidence of construct validity. In Study One, the alpha coefficient of .91 for the DDDI Total scale indicated excellent internal reliability for the measure and good internal reliability was demonstrated for its subscales with coefficient alphas equal to .81 for the DDDI Risky Driving subscale, .79 for the DDDI Negative Emotional subscale, and the DDDI Aggressive Driving subscale. Additionally, convergent and divergent validity was shown for the DDDI, but evidence was weaker for the validity of the separate subscales. Factor analysis demonstrated that the DDDI seemed to measure a unitary construct. In Study Two, coefficients of stability were generated from a four-week test-retest procedure, which were .76 for the DDDI Risky Driving subscale, .68 for the DDDI Negative Emotional subscale, .55 for the DDDI Aggressive Driving subscale, and .73 for the DDDI Total. In Study Three, the percentage of variance accounted for in criterion variables by different models ranged from 13.6% to 47.7%, where the DDDI Negative Emotional and DDDI Total scales frequently accounted for large portions of variance. In Study Four, the percent of variance accounted for in criterion variables by different models ranged from 22.0% to 65.6%, where some of the DDDI scales were regularly found to account for significant variance. Thus, it was concluded that the DDDI is a measure with high levels of internal reliability and reasonable stability across time, and that face, construct, and predictive validity was demonstrated. However, the evidence in support of the present division of subscales was weak, though present. Therefore, should further data fail to produce more substantial evidence for the validity of the DDDI subscales, a singular dangerous driving measure would be warranted, and the number of items should be shortened as guided by results from factorial analysis.
Ph. D.

Road trauma is recognized as a major public health problem worldwide (particularly for younger drivers), and risky driving has been identified as an important contributor to road crashes. It is often assumed that similar factors influence all risky driving behaviours, although direct and systematic examination of the differences between risky driving behaviours in terms of precipitating factors is lacking. The present thesis sought to undertake a systematic investigation of relevant factors in the prediction of four key risky driving behaviours (speeding, drink-driving, driving while fatigued, and not wearing seat belts). Four versions of a Risky Driving Questionnaire were developed to assess beliefs, personality factors and behavioural intentions, in relation to each of the four behaviours. Four versions of the Implicit Association Test were developed to assess attitudes toward each of the four behaviours, without reliance on self-report (in terms of the relative strength of pairs of associations). Data were collected from a student sample (N=215: Study 1), as well as urban (N=587) and rural (N=422) general population samples (Study 2), and regression models were examined for each of the four behaviours, with interaction terms to assess moderations involving perceived risk. Mediations involving gender were also assessed. Results indicate that different risky driving behaviours are predicted by different factors. For example, in the urban sample, speeding was predicted by driver anger and illusory invulnerability, drink driving was predicted by peer influence, driving while fatigued was predicted by the perceived benefits of not driving while fatigued, and not wearing seat belts was predicted by the (sensation seeking x illusory invulnerability) interaction. Results also suggest that different predictors of risky driving behaviours are relevant for different driver populations. For example, speeding was predicted by authority rebellion in the urban sample, and by sensation seeking in the rural sample. Observed moderations of perceived risk suggest that relationships between perceived risk and risky driving may differ for males versus females, and for low versus high sensation seekers. Findings suggest that future road safety interventions should be based on research of the determinants of individual risky driving behaviours, and in specific driver populations.

Introduction: This study moves to examine the prevalence of risky driving behaviors and deficiency of communication pertinent to topics related to safe driving among adolescents in central Appalachia. Even though plenty of research displays the consequences associated with driving, drivers continue to take part in risky behaviors such as texting while driving, riding in a vehicle without wearing a seatbelt, and riding in a vehicle with someone who has been drinking. Methods: Participants of the study included three high schools in Southwest Virginia consisting of 385 11th and 12th grade students. Students were administered a paper-pencil survey either during homeroom or last period with questions taken from the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance Survey. Results: The results of the study indicate the frequent occurrence of young drivers engaging in risky driving behaviors associated with texting while driving and not wearing a seatbelt as both passenger and driver in a vehicle. Additionally, the results of the study indicate that there is a lack of healthcare provider communication related to risks associated with driving. This information is crucial because the data demonstrates the missed opportunity to provide better education to adolescents on how they can prevent harm to their lives or the lives of other citizens while driving. Conclusion: After analyzing these results, it becomes evident that more education about safe driving behaviors is crucial for benefiting the young drivers of this region. Because road injury is the leading cause of death among adolescents, it is paramount to provide educational resources to young drivers to decrease the impact of injuries and deaths related to risky driving behaviors. There resides a missed opportunity to educate adolescents about behaviors that may risk their lives or those of their peers and loved ones. In addition, researchers can conduct further studies to examine effective safe driving education programs to decrease the risk behaviors commonly engaged in by adolescent drivers.

The present study aimed the adaptation of the Driving Log, a questionnaire that assesses aggressive and risky driving behaviors in a day by day basis, with 395 Spanish participants. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the questionnaire fitted properly in two correlated factors, labeled as Risky Driving and Aggressive Driving. Subsequent analyses showed that the number of drives is significantly associated to Risky Driving, while the number of occasions in which anger is experimented correlated with Risky Driving as well as Aggressive Driving. Other findings suggest that men behave in a more risky and aggressive mannerthan women. Young people follow this same tendency in comparison to their elders.
El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo la adaptación del Driving Log, un cuestionario que valora los comportamientos agresivos y arriesgados al volante, en una muestra española de 395 personas. El análisis factorial confirmatorio mostró que el cuestionario ajustaba satisfactoriamente en dos factores, etiquetados como Conducción Arriesgada y Conducción Agresiva. Los análisis posteriores mostraron que el número de trayectos realizados se asoció significativamente a la Conducción Arriesgada, mientras que el número de veces en que se experimentó ira lo hizo tanto con la Conducción Arriesgada como con la Conducción Agresiva. Igualmente, se vio que los hombres se comportaban de forma más arriesgada y agresiva que las mujeres, y que los jóvenes lo hacían en mayor grado que los mayores.

Despite the tremendous efforts made in recent years towards improving overall health status of adolescents, road traffic crashes remain a global problem worldwide among teen drivers. It is well established that the first few months of independent driving are the most dangerous. Indeed, crash risk among adolescent drivers is particularly high during the early months of independent driving, after which it starts to rapidly decrease over a period of over a period of years. Hypotheses for this decline have focused on Some researchers have hypothesized accumulation of driving experience, maturation, and increasing self-regulation. However, the mechanisms by which they interact to decrease teen crash risk in few months are not well understood. Additionally, safety researchers are engaged in a longstanding quest to fundamentally improve teen driving. To that end, increasing number of studies have been striving for solutions. Understanding the processes underlying patterns in teen crash risk and catalyze effective teen driving interventions can benefit from techniques for modelling complexity. The goal of this project was to develop a model that provides initial insights into the mechanisms underlying adolescent risky driving patterns over time. The purpose of the modeling is to investigate how much faster the early improvement of teen risky driving could be with interventions. This study utilized naturalistic driving data derived from a clinical trial study. A sample of newly-licensed teen drivers and at least one of their parents was recruited from high schools in Iowa and randomly assigned to one out of three groups: control group, feedback group, and feedback plus parent communication group. Each participant's vehicle was equipped with an event triggered video recording system to gather data on near-crashes and crashes as well as their proxies denoted risky driving events. The video recording system was installed in the vehicles of the control group only for data collection purposes. For the feedback intervention group, teen drivers received an immediate feedback via blinking of LED lights on the in-vehicle video system when a driving error occurred. In addition, each teen and their parent in this feedback group received a weekly report card that summarized the types of driving errors made by the teen and provided video clips of those errors. The feedback plus parent communication group was exposed to the feedback intervention described above plus communication strategies for discussing safe driving with teens. The video recording system was also used to collect data on mileage, driver behaviors (eg. traffic violations, cell phone use), and traffic conditions (eg. snow, rain). The first aim of this study thoroughly investigated heterogeneity in driving outcomes within the population of teen drivers. Results showed two distinct risky driving trajectories, including one inverted U-shaped pattern (initial increase in risky driving followed by a steady decrease) and one relatively constant pattern over time. Risk-taking behavior trajectories were found to follow the same patterns as risky driving. The study also identified two groups of teens with respect to amount of driving: one group has a linear increase in the amount of driving and the second group has an upward U-shaped pattern. Teens classified in the high risk-taking behavior group are more likely to be in the high risky driving group whereas the teens classified in the low risk-taking behavior are more likely to be in the low risky driving group. Results showed that males are more likely to be in high risky driving and high risk-taking behavior groups compared to females. The second aim of this project was to develop a dynamic model of teen risky driving and use this framework as a guide to leverage an understanding of the dynamic process underlying patterns in teen risky driving over time. The analysis suggests that the natural risky driving behavior (absent intervention) is slow improvement followed by faster improvement, and finally a plateau: that is, S-shaped decline in errors. The results showed that a model that includes cumulative miles driven and recent risky driving events as stock variables and their feedback is capable of explaining the dynamics of teen risky driving over time. The analysis suggests the existence of a reinforcing loop and two negative feedbacks. The reinforcing loop arises from a decline in recent events leading to a faster increase in driving; this leads to a faster accumulation of driving and thus a greater decrease in driving error rate; the decrease in driving error rate leads to a further decline in recent events via a slow replenishing of the stock “recent events”. The first negative feedback is from recent events to amount of driving. By this feedback mechanism, more recent events (or memories of events) lead to less driving, and thus slow accumulation of driving experience (cumulative miles driven). The second feedback in the model is from recent events to event rate. A greater number of recent events (or memories of events) leads to a decrease in event rate perhaps via corrective actions taken by the teen driver. Thus, more recent events (or memories of events) lead to a decrease in event rate, but slow accumulation of experience via less driving. The results highlight that variations of individualized trends in driving event rate and monthly driving are more likely due to significant variations in the stock “cumulative miles driven” and the stock “recent events”. Variations in these stocks are influenced by initial event rates and driving need. The methodological approach provides an explanation for the peak in crash rates during the latter months post-licensure rather than the first month, which was not fully understood. The third, and final, aim of this teen driving dynamic model project sought to simulate driver feedback intervention and conduct its cost effectiveness analysis. To examine the impact of driver feedback intervention and its tradeoffs, a previous version of the model was extended to create a model that allows the simulation of the intervention and the comparison between its expected costs and benefits. The analysis suggested that the simulated intervention data are comparable to data from actual feedback intervention group. The simulation results indicate significant differences in the period over which the intervention is needed. While the intervention is economically beneficial for some drivers, it is worthless for others. The model also suggests the need of combining several interventions for some drivers for a faster improvement in risky driving. This research offered initial insights for understanding risky driving patterns, risk-taking behavior, and amount of driving among adolescent drivers and can be helpful when designing teen driving interventions, as the different trajectories may represent unique strata of crash risk level. The dynamic model developed can be used to design and evaluate teen driving interventions in order to identify key leverage points to guide policy and direct the optimum combination of prevention strategies.

Young novice drivers - that is, drivers aged 16-25 years who are relatively inexperienced in driving on the road and have a novice (Learner, Provisional) driver's licence - have been overrepresented in car crash, injury and fatality statistics around the world for decades. There are numerous persistent characteristics evident in young novice driver crashes, fatalities and offences, including variables relating to the young driver themselves, broader social influences which include their passengers, the car they drive, and when and how they drive, and their risky driving behaviour in particular. Moreover, there are a range of psychosocial factors influencing the behaviour of young novice drivers, including the social influences of parents and peers, and person-related factors such as age-related factors, attitudes, and sensation seeking. Historically, a range of approaches have been developed to manage the risky driving behaviour of young novice drivers. Traditional measures predominantly relying upon education have had limited success in regulating the risky driving behaviour of the young novice driver. In contrast, interventions such as graduated driver licensing (GDL) which acknowledges young novice drivers' limitations - principally pertaining to their chronological and developmental age, and their driving inexperience - have shown to be effective in ameliorating this pervasive public health problem. In practice, GDL is a risk management tool that is designed to reduce driving at risky times (e.g., at night) or in risky driving conditions (e.g., with passengers), while still enabling novice drivers to obtain experience. In this regard, the GDL program in Queensland, Australia, was considerably enhanced in July 2007, and major additions to the program include mandated Learner practice of 100 hours recorded in a logbook, and passenger limits during night driving in the Provisional phase. Road safety researchers have also continued to consider the influential role played by the young driver's psychosocial characteristics, including psychological traits and states. In addition, whilst the majority of road safety user research is epidemiological in nature, contemporary road safety research is increasingly applying psychological and criminological theories. Importantly, such theories not only can guide young novice driver research, they can also inform the development and evaluation of countermeasures targeting their risky driving behaviour. The research is thus designed to explore the self-reported behaviours - and the personal, psychosocial, and structural influences upon the behaviours - of young novice drivers This thesis incorporates three stages of predominantly quantitative research to undertake a comprehensive investigation of the risky driving behaviour of young novices. Risky driving behaviour increases the likelihood of the young novice driver being involved in a crash which may harm themselves or other road users, and deliberate risky driving such as driving in excess of the posted speed limits is the focus of the program of research. The extant literature examining the nature of the risky behaviour of the young novice driver - and the contributing factors for this behaviour - while comprehensive, has not led to the development of a reliable instrument designed specifically to measure the risky behaviour of the young novice driver. Therefore the development and application of such a tool (the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale, or BYNDS) was foremost in the program of research. In addition to describing the driving behaviours of the young novice, a central theme of this program of research was identifying, describing, and quantifying personal, behavioural, and environmental influences upon young novice driver risky behaviour. Accordingly the 11 papers developed from the three stages of research which comprise this thesis are framed within Bandura's reciprocal determinism model which explicitly considers the reciprocal relationship between the environment, the person, and their behaviour. Stage One comprised the foundation research and operationalised quantitative and qualitative methodologies to finalise the instrument used in Stages Two and Three. The first part of Stage One involved an online survey which was completed by 761 young novice drivers who attended tertiary education institutions across Queensland. A reliable instrument for measuring the risky driving behaviour of young novices was developed (the BYNDS) and is currently being operationalised in young novice driver research in progress at the Centre for Injury Research and Prevention in Philadelphia, USA. In addition, regression analyses revealed that psychological distress influenced risky driving behaviour, and the differential influence of depression, anxiety, sensitivity to punishments and rewards, and sensation seeking propensity were explored. Path model analyses revealed that punishment sensitivity was mediated by anxiety and depression; and the influence of depression, anxiety, reward sensitivity and sensation seeking propensity were moderated by the gender of the driver. Specifically, for males, sensation seeking propensity, depression, and reward sensitivity were predictive of self-reported risky driving, whilst for females anxiety was also influential. In the second part of Stage One, 21 young novice drivers participated in individual and small group interviews. The normative influences of parents, peers, and the Police were explicated. Content analysis supported four themes of influence through punishments, rewards, and the behaviours and attitudes of parents and friends. The Police were also influential upon the risky driving behaviour of young novices. The findings of both parts of Stage One informed the research of Stage Two. Stage Two was a comprehensive investigation of the pre-Licence and Learner experiences, attitudes, and behaviours, of young novice drivers. In this stage, 1170 young novice drivers from across Queensland completed an online or paper survey exploring their experiences, behaviours and attitudes as a pre- and Learner driver. The majority of novices did not drive before they were licensed (pre-Licence driving) or as an unsupervised Learner, submitted accurate logbooks, intended to follow the road rules as a Provisional driver, and reported practicing predominantly at the end of the Learner period. The experience of Learners in the enhanced-GDL program were also examined and compared to those of Learner drivers who progressed through the former-GDL program (data collected previously by Bates, Watson, & King, 2009a). Importantly, current-GDL Learners reported significantly more driving practice and a longer Learner period, less difficulty obtaining practice, and less offence detection and crash involvement than Learners in the former-GDL program. The findings of Stage Two informed the research of Stage Three. Stage Three was a comprehensive exploration of the driving experiences, attitudes and behaviours of young novice drivers during their first six months of Provisional 1 licensure. In this stage, 390 of the 1170 young novice drivers from Stage Two completed another survey, and data collected during Stages Two and Three allowed a longitudinal investigation of self-reported risky driving behaviours, such as GDL-specific and general road rule compliance; risky behaviour such as pre-Licence driving, crash involvement and offence detection; and vehicle ownership, paying attention to Police presence, and punishment avoidance. Whilst the majority of Learner and Provisional drivers reported compliance with GDL-specific and general road rules, 33% of Learners and 50% of Provisional drivers reported speeding by 10-20 km/hr at least occasionally. Twelve percent of Learner drivers reported pre-Licence driving, and these drivers were significantly more risky as Learner and Provisional drivers. Ten percent of males and females reported being involved in a crash, and 10% of females and 18% of males had been detected for an offence, within the first six months of independent driving. Additionally, 75% of young novice drivers reported owning their own car within six months of gaining their Provisional driver's licence. Vehicle owners reported significantly shorter Learner periods and more risky driving exposure as a Provisional driver. Paying attention to Police presence on the roads appeared normative for young novice drivers: 91% of Learners and 72% of Provisional drivers reported paying attention. Provisional drivers also reported they actively avoided the Police: 25% of males and 13% of females; 23% of rural drivers and 15% of urban drivers. Stage Three also allowed the refinement of the risky behaviour measurement tool (BYNDS) created in Stage One; the original reliable 44-item instrument was refined to a similarly reliable 36-item instrument. A longitudinal exploration of the influence of anxiety, depression, sensation seeking propensity and reward sensitivity upon the risky behaviour of the Provisional driver was also undertaken using data collected in Stages Two and Three. Consistent with the research of Stage One, structural equation modeling revealed anxiety, reward sensitivity and sensation seeking propensity predicted self-reported risky driving behaviour. Again, gender was a moderator, with only reward sensitivity predicting risky driving for males. A measurement model of Akers' social learning theory (SLT) was developed containing six subscales operationalising the four constructs of differential association, imitation, personal attitudes, and differential reinforcement, and the influence of parents and peers was captured within the items in a number of these constructs. Analyses exploring the nature and extent of the psychosocial influences of personal characteristics (step 1), Akers' SLT (step 2), and elements of the prototype/willingness model (PWM) (step 3) upon self-reported speeding by the Provisional driver in a hierarchical multiple regression model found the following significant predictors: gender (male), car ownership (own car), reward sensitivity (greater sensitivity), depression (greater depression), personal attitudes (more risky attitudes), and speeding (more speeding) as a Learner. The research findings have considerable implications for road safety researchers, policy-makers, mental health professionals and medical practitioners alike. A broad range of issues need to be considered when developing, implementing and evaluating interventions for both the intentional and unintentional risky driving behaviours of interest. While a variety of interventions have been historically utilised, including education, enforcement, rehabilitation and incentives, caution is warranted. A multi-faceted approach to improving novice road safety is more likely to be effective, and new and existing countermeasures should capitalise on the potential of parents, peers and Police to be a positive influence upon the risky behaviour of young novice drivers. However, the efficacy of some interventions remains undetermined at this time. Notwithstanding this caveat, countermeasures such as augmenting and strengthening Queensland's GDL program and targeting parents and adolescents particularly warrant further attention. The findings of the research program suggest that Queensland's current-GDL can be strengthened by increasing compliance of young novice drivers with existing conditions and restrictions. The rates of speeding reported by the young Learner driver are particularly alarming for a number of reasons. The Learner is inexperienced in driving, and travelling in excess of speed limits places them at greater risk as they are also inexperienced in detecting and responding appropriately to driving hazards. In addition, the Learner period should provide the foundation for a safe lifetime driving career, enabling the development and reinforcement of non-risky driving habits. Learners who sped reported speeding by greater margins, and at greater frequencies, when they were able to drive independently. Other strategies could also be considered to enhance Queensland's GDL program, addressing both the pre-Licence adolescent and their parents. Options that warrant further investigation to determine their likely effectiveness include screening and treatment of novice drivers by mental health professionals and/or medical practitioners; and general social skills training. Considering the self-reported pre-licence driving of the young novice driver, targeted education of parents may need to occur before their child obtains a Learner licence. It is noteworthy that those participants who reported risky driving during the Learner phase also were more likely to report risky driving behaviour during the Provisional phase; therefore it appears vital that the development of safe driving habits is encouraged from the beginning of the novice period. General education of parents and young novice drivers should inform them of the considerably-increased likelihood of risky driving behaviour, crashes and offences associated with having unlimited access to a vehicle in the early stages of intermediate licensure. Importantly, parents frequently purchase the car that is used by the Provisional driver, who typically lives at home with their parents, and therefore parents are ideally positioned to monitor the journeys of their young novice driver during this early stage of independent driving. Parents are pivotal in the development of their driving child: they are models who are imitated and are sources of attitudes, expectancies, rewards and punishments; and they provide the most driving instruction for the Learner. High rates of self-reported speeding by Learners suggests that GDL programs specifically consider the nature of supervision during the Learner period, encouraging supervisors to be vigilant to compliance with general and GDL-specific road rules, and especially driving in excess of speed limit. Attitudes towards driving are formed before the adolescent reaches the age when they can be legally licensed. Young novice drivers with risky personal attitudes towards driving reported more risky driving behaviour, suggesting that countermeasures should target such attitudes and that such interventions might be implemented before the adolescent is licensed. The risky behaviours and attitudes of friends were also found to be influential, and given that young novice drivers tend to carry their friends as their passengers, a group intervention such as provided in a school class context may prove more effective. Social skills interventions that encourage the novice to resist the negative influences of their friends and their peer passengers, and to not imitate the risky driving behaviour of their friends, may also be effective. The punishments and rewards anticipated from and administered by friends were also found to influence the self-reported risky behaviour of the young novice driver; therefore young persons could be encouraged to sanction the risky, and to reward the non-risky, driving of their novice friends. Adolescent health programs and related initiatives need to more specifically consider the risks associated with driving. Young novice drivers are also adolescents, a developmental period associated with depression and anxiety. Depression, anxiety, and sensation seeking propensity were found to be predictive of risky driving; therefore interventions targeting psychological distress, whilst discouraging the expression of sensation seeking propensity whilst driving, warrant development and trialing. In addition, given that reward sensitivity was also predictive, a scheme which rewards novice drivers for safe driving behaviour - rather than rewarding the novice through emotional and instrumental rewards for risky driving behaviour - requires further investigation. The Police were also influential in the risky driving behaviour of young novices. Young novice drivers who had been detected for an offence, and then avoided punishment, reacted differentially, with some drivers appearing to become less risky after the encounter, whilst for others their risky behaviour appeared to be reinforced and therefore was more likely to be performed again. Such drivers saw t

Young adults have a tendency to engage in risk taking behaviours such as dangerous driving, substance use, violent behaviours towards themselves or others, and unsafe sexual practices. This program of research designed, built and tested a model aimed at understanding how young adult's sleep health, mood, and stress related experiences influence their risk taking in day-to-day life. Novel pathways for future interventions aimed at reducing the harms associated with these behaviours were explored and developed.

This thesis deepens our understanding of boredom as a trigger for unsafe user experiences, e.g., smartphone distractions behind the steering wheel. Addressing such driver distractions, this study explores how the use of in-car technologies can be reframed as a strategy to increase driver attention. To that end, it presents the design and evaluation of digital interventions aimed at reducing boredom while increasing safety. The study's contributions pave the way for new approaches to enhancing task engagement in vigilance settings that are increasingly augmented by digital technologies, within and beyond the context of mobility.

Emergency medical services personnel work in a fast-paced, stressful environment requiring rapid, efficient response to critical situations, creating unique safety considerations within the workforce. With an occupational fatality rate notably higher than average, most of which are attributed to vehicular crashes, compounded by risks faced on rural roadways, rural EMS personnel face unique driving challenges that may be exacerbated by the very traits, self-efficacy and risk propensity, that may have initially drawn them to the profession. The purpose of this study was to identify the extent to which rural EMS personnel engage in off-duty, risky driving behaviors and to examine the relationship between these behaviors and their levels of risk propensity as well as their self-efficacy relative to driving. A cross-sectional, quantitative study was conducted to explore the relationship between the variables. A 63-item survey was completed by 227 rural EMS personnel. The statistical model resulting from this study identifies risky-driving self-efficacy and risk propensity as significant predictors of engaging in risky driving behaviors, with self-efficacy emerging as the strongest predictor. The predictive model fit well within the Social Cognitive Theory construct of triadic reciprocity, providing a platform from which to develop mitigating strategies to foster systemic as well as behavioral changes, while tailoring interventions to highly self-efficacious, risk-taking individuals who gravitate toward risky professions, including rural EMS personnel.

Alcohol-related motor vehicle crashes are a major preventable cause of death in the United States. One potential factor that may modulate the influence of alcohol intoxication on driving-related decision-making is posttraumatic stress. The current study evaluated the influence of induction of acute trauma-related stress (via script-driven imagery) during alcohol intoxication (.06% BrAC) on driving-related risky decision-making – willingness to drive, driving-related decision-making (i.e., attempted red light runs), and driving-related reaction time (i.e., braking latency) – among 56 trauma-exposed (currently symptomatic) adult drinkers from the community (M = 25.32; 46.4% female). Results indicated that trauma-related stress may exacerbate willingness to drive during a state of acute alcohol intoxication, but, alternatively, may have only a minimal-to-moderate effect on performance-based, driving-related decision-making (i.e., red light runs), and a potentially mitigating impact on driving-related reaction time (i.e., braking latency) under the influence of alcohol. Generally, results suggest that trauma-related stress may differentially impact varying aspects of driving-related risky decision-making, above and beyond the influence of alcohol. Implications for theoretical modeling for driving-related decision-making during acute intoxication and for the advancement of education and intervention efforts, as well as suggestions for future directions, including methodological and procedural improvements, are discussed.

This thesis took a novel approach to examining factors associated with risky attitudes and risky road use in China by investigating the economic and political background status of a sample of young Chinese drivers. Using data from an online survey significant relationships are found between some family background factors and road safety variables. Correlation analysis, ANOVA, hierarchical regression analysis and structural equation modelling are applied in this study, with culture, personality and demographic variables as additional factors for a better understanding of the key findings. The findings are discussed in light of China's political management system and potential education opportunities for young drivers.

Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of teenage deaths in the United States, highlighting the need for ways to reduce teenage driver crash rates. Adolescents (n = 176, M age = 16.4 years, 53% female) and their parents (n = 204, 71% mothers) self-reported on parenting style, driving restrictions, and risky driving. Results showed that more parental restrictions were associated with less adolescent risky driving. Three-way interactions were found such that more restrictions were associated with less concurrent risky driving in boys only under conditions of high parental warmth, structure, or autonomy support. Parenting style generally did not moderate the association for girls, although more restrictions were associated with less risky driving one year later for girls only in the context of low autonomy support. Findings are discussed in terms of how parenting may differentially affect risky driving as a form of risk-taking versus risky driving stemming from inexperience.

The purpose of this thesis was to determine which perceptual cues drivers use to identify pedestrians that may constitute a risk in traffic. Methods chosen were recordings of pedestrian behaviour in Linköping by means of a stationary video camera as well as video camera mounted in a car. Interviews on the recordings from the mobile camera were conducted with taxi drivers and driving instructors.

Results include that drivers not only react to pedestrians they believe will behave in a dangerous way, but also react to pedestrians that probably not will behave in such a way, but where the possibility still exists. The study concluded that it was not possible to determine how risky a pedestrian is considered to be by only using behavioural factors such as trajectory or position on the sidewalk, and distance. It is necessary also to include environmental factors, mainly where the pedestrian and car are positioned in relation to the side of the road, so that the behaviour of the pedestrian can be interpreted.

Worldwide, young drivers are involved in more road traffic collisions than any other age group (Taubman & Katz, 2012). Comprehensive driver training and various forms of pre- and- post-test road safety interventions (RSIs) are in place, but young drivers continue to be involved in more at-fault, fatal collisions than older, newly qualified drivers (e.g. Emmerson, 2008; Braitman et al, 2008; Clarke et al, 2010). The evidence base to date is mixed regarding why young drivers are at a heightened risk of collision and so this thesis aims to provide further understanding about the factors underpinning young drivers’ engagement in risky driving. An evaluation of a young driver RSI, found that young males were less likely than young females to report safer attitudes and intentions after attending the RSI. We considered that this may be due to young males’ behaviour being motivated by a desire to seek rewards (e.g. the thrill of risky driving) rather than a fear of punishment which forms the basis of traditional RSIs. Two subsequent studies were conducted to ascertain whether a heightened sensitivity to reward might underpin the risk-taking behaviour of those most at risk. We found that young males and females scoring high on reward sensitivity reported engaging in more road traffic violations and displayed slower reaction times on a driving game; suggesting that young people may have a heightened sensitivity to reward, in general, and concurrently tend to accept a higher degree of risk than other drivers. We also found that reward sensitive young drivers rated road safety messages framed in terms of financial gains as most effective, suggesting that financial incentives may be a potential route to engage young drivers in the future. The findings from another study provided insight into the precise mechanisms at play in the relationship between young drivers and their peer passengers, and the evaluation of the pilot peer-to-peer RSI showed how it might be possible to improve young drivers’ intentions to drive safely by modifying the norm that risky driving is an appropriate way to attain social prestige within a peer group. The thesis offers a significant contribution to the literature by establishing empirically the effect of reward sensitivity on young drivers’ engagement in risky driving and suggesting multiple ways to better improve young drivers’ safety in the future.

Introducció: Cada any 1.3 milions de persones moren en accidents de trànsit. el 90% de els morts i lesions es produeixdn en els països d’ingresos baixos i mitjos. Africa està documentada com la proporció més altra d’usuaris de carreteres vulnerables amb una tass de mortalitat alarmant, impacte de danys inesgotable i evitable. fins fa poc tems Nigeria ha estat testimoni d’accidents de trànsit horribles i sense precedents al llarg i ample, com es mostra en les fonts documentals i les morts afecten la pèrdua de recursos individuals i la carga econòmica del pais. Això es deu en gran part al fet que Nigeria, com a pais més poblat i heterongeni y amb la segona xarxa de carreteres més gran d’Africa, té el nombre estimat més alt de vehicles comercials, conduits per més usuaris i amb menys consideració per al viabilitat viària que aquells amb l’estricte compliment de les normes de trànsit Objectius: L’estudi examina els detalls de les característiques demogràfiques i cognitives del conductor amb l’historial de maneig i l’efecte de la conducció en l’accidentalitat. Materials i mètodes: investigació comparativa, per evaluar les dues ubicacions de l’enquesta de las capitals nova i antiga de Nigeria, amb diferències i similituds geogràfiques i econòmiques. S’han emprat mètodes quantitatius i qualitatius, amb la tècnica de recollidaobservació particilpant per complementar les quatre fases de la recerca. Autoinforme directe dels factors cognitius i les característiques sociodemogràfiques dels enquestats, a través de l’instrument de meidció del comportament cinc en un recentment adaptat i probat LOMICS-DBQ. Resultats: El resulat de l’eestudi mostra que les caracterísques sociodemográfiques com l’edat, la religió, l’origen ètnic, l’estat salarial i l’estat de la llicència ofereixen una relació més significativa amb el desenvolupament de la tasca del conductor i la probabilitat d’accident. El risc d’accident s’explica conjuntament per les actituds dels seus conductors, com excés de velocitat, us del mòbil, fatiga, visió borrosa i alcohol o sustànciess tòxiques consumides abans de conduir amb nivells estadísticamente significatius entre 1 y 5 %. L’eestudi reocmoana un inici urgent de l’exàmen genuí de la teoria de la conducció a nivell nacional en anglès, i en els idiomes locals i després d’una capacitació pràctica intensiva, intruduir la conducció i la seguretat en els plans d’esstudi de les escoles primària i secundària. També la introducció de campanyes d’aplicació i vigilància i sensibilització amb alta visibilitat sobre les normes i reglaments de trànsit. Conclusions: Aquest estudi ha omplert un buit significatiu llenado un vacío significativo: cap eina de recerca de mesura del comprtament ha tingut en compte les variables de creences socioculturals i religioses com a possibles factors que influeixen en les actituds i comportaments de conducció en paisos de rendes baixes i mitjanes. L’estudi bàsicament posa l’èmfasi en l’aplicació de la llei i el canvi de comportament i la intervenció d’aprenentatge que podria minimitzar el comportament de la conducció de risc.
Introducción: Cada año 1.3 millones de personas mueren por accidentes de tráfico, y el 90% de estas muertes y lesiones se producen en los países de ingresos bajos y medios. África está documentada como proporción más alta de usuarios de carreteras vulnerables con una tasa de mortalidad alarmante, impacto de estos daños es inagotable y evitable. Hasta hace poco, Nigeria ha sido testigo de accidentes de tránsito horribles y sin precedentes a lo largo y ancho, como se muestra en fuentes documentadas, y las muertes afectan la perdida de recursos individuales y la carga económica del país. Esto se debe en parte al hecho de que Nigeria, como el país más poblado, heterogéneo y con la segunda red de carreteras más grande de África, tiene el número estimado más alto de vehículos comerciales, conducidos por más usuarios con menos consideración por la viabilidad vial, que aquellos con estricto cumplimiento de las normas de tráfico. Objetivo/Objetivos: El estudio examina los detalles de las características demográficas, y cognitivas de un conductor con el historial de manejo y el efecto de estos en las muertes por riesgo de accidentes. El estudio también busca una intervención estratégica para reducir la extrema mortalidad en las carreteras. Materiales y métodos: investigación comparativa, para evaluar las dos ubicaciones de la encuesta de las capitales nuevas y antiguas de Nigeria, con diferencias y similitudes geográficas y económicas. Se utilizaron métodos cuantitativos y cualitativos, con la técnica de recolección de datos de observación participante para complementar las cuatro fases de la investigación. Autoinforme directo de los factores cognitivos y las características sociodemográficas de los encuestados, a través del instrumento de medición del comportamiento cinco en uno recientemente adaptado y probado llamado LOMICS-DBQ. Resultados: El resultado del estudio mostró que las características sociodemográficas como la edad, la religión, el origen étnico, el estado salarial y el estado de la licencia, ofrecen una relación más significativa con el desempeño real de la tarea del conductor y la probabilidad de accidente. Además, el 61% de la variación en un accidente (el 50% en Lagos) se explican conjuntamente por las actitudes de sus conductores, como exceso de velocidad, uso móvil, fatiga, visión borrosa y alcohol o sustancias tóxicas tomadas antes de conducir con nivel estadísticamente significativo entre 1 y 5 %. El estudio recomienda, un comienzo urgente de un examen genuino de la teoría de la conducción a nivel nacional en inglés, y en los idiomas locales después de una capacitación práctica intensiva; introducir la conducción y la seguridad en los planes de estudio de las escuelas primarias y secundarias. La introducción de campañas de aplicación, vigilancia y sensibilización de alta visibilidad sobre las normas y reglamentos de tráfico. Conclusiones: Este estudio ha llenado un vacío significativo: ninguna herramienta de investigación de medición de comportamiento ha tenido en cuenta las variables de creencias socioculturales y religiosas como posibles factores que influyen en las actitudes y los comportamientos de conducción en los países de ingresos bajos y medianos. El estudio básicamente hace hincapié en la aplicación de la ley, el cambio de comportamiento y la intervención de aprendizaje que podrían minimizar el comportamiento de conducción riesgo.
Introduction: Every year, 1.3 million people are killed by road accidents, with 90% of these deaths and injuries recorded in low-and middle-income countries. Wherein Africa is documented as the highest proportion of vulnerable road users with an alarming death rate, the impact of these damages is inexhaustible and avoidable. Until lately, Nigeria has witnessed unprecedented, horrible road crashes from its length and breadth as featured in documented sources, and the fatalities affect the loss of individuals resources and economic burden of the nation. This is partly due to the fact that Nigeria as the most populous, heterogeneous, and second-largest road network country in Africa. Aim/Objectives: The study examines the details of a driver's demographic and cognitive characteristics with driving history and its effect on crash risk fatalities. It seeks to analyse strategic interventions in reducing carnage on the roads. This study aims to provide a practical framework for an effective and efficient measuring technique, to assess the individual´s driving description vis description vis-a-vis the differences in accident involvement. Materials and Methods: This study applied a comparative research design to evaluate Nigeria's new and old capital cities; hence, two survey locations with geographical and economic differences was chosen. This study administered quantitative and qualitative methods with the Participant Observation data collecting technique to complement the investigation's four phases. Direct self - report respondent´s cognitive and socio-demographic characteristics via the newly adapted and tested five-in-one behaviour measuring instrument called LOMICS-DBQ with the constructs of Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). Results: The study result showed that socio-demographic characteristics such as age, religion, ethnicity, wages status, and license status offer a more significant relation to driver´s actual task performance and accident likelihood. Besides, 61% of the variation in an accident (and 50% in Lagos) is explained jointly by drivers' attitudes such as over-speeding, mobile use, fatigue driving, blurred vision, and alcohol or intoxicants before driving with statistically significant between 1 and 5 % level. The study recommends an urgent commencement of a genuine nationwide driving theory test in English and local languages followed by intensive practical training, the introduction of driving and safety education in both the primary and secondary schools curriculums, and the introduction of high visibility enforcement, surveillance, and awareness campaigns of traffic rules and regulations. Conclusions: This study has filled a significant gap - no single behaviour measuring research tool has considered socio-cultural and religious beliefs variables as possible factors that influences driving attitudes and behaviours in low-and middle-income countries. The study emphasizes enforcement, behavioural change, and learning intervention to minimize risky driving behaviour.

Actor-observer bias är tendensen där människan som aktörer tillskriver sitt beteende till yttre omständigheter medan observatörer tenderar till att tillskriva aktörens beteende till personliga faktorer. Syftet med denna studie var att få en klarare bild av hur människor i sin roll som aktör eller observatör attribuerar ett riskabelt bilkörningsbeteende. Deltagarna bestod av 101 svenska studenter från en högskola i Mellansverige varav 77 stycken var kvinnor och 24 stycken var män. Deltagarna fick svara på en enkät angående actor-observer bias och riskfullt bilkörningsbeteende. Resultaten visade att andras beteende förklaras mer av personliga egenskaper än då personen själv kör riskfullt medan yttre omständigheter inte gav skillnad för vare sig andra eller en själv. Betydelsen av detta och implikationer för framtida forskning diskuterades.

Résumé : Introduction. Les collisions routières représentent un grave problème à travers le monde. Elles causent des dizaines de millions de blessés chaque année et figurent comme l’une des principales causes de décès chez les jeunes adultes. La conduite avec les capacités affaiblies, la vitesse et d’autres comportements routiers à risque (CRR) sont souvent associés à ces accidents. Notre équipe de recherche s’est intéressée à l’étude de marqueurs de risque de l’implication dans les CRR. Les résultats indiquent qu’une faible réponse au stress, mesurable par l’hormone cortisol, est liée à un nombre plus élevé de condamnations passées pour conduite avec les capacités affaiblies chez les contrevenants et à l’implication future dans les accidents et quasi-accidents chez les jeunes conducteurs. Aucune étude n’avait encore étudié le lien direct entre la réponse au stress et la présence de CRR suite à la consommation d’alcool. But et hypothèse. L’étude a pour but principal de mesurer l’association entre la réponse au stress des jeunes conducteurs et la présence de CRR suite à la consommation d’alcool. L’hypothèse principale soutient qu’une faible réponse au stress est liée à la présence de CRR suite à la consommation d’alcool. L’objectif secondaire de cette étude est d’explorer si d’autres variables (c.-à-d., la recherche de sensations, la consommation de cigarettes et la consommation problématique d’alcool), peuvent expliquer la variance de réponse au stress chez les jeunes conducteurs. L’hypothèse secondaire propose que la recherche de sensations, la sévérité de la consommation d’alcool et de cigarettes sont des variables qui expliquent la variance de réponse au stress. Méthode. Quarante conducteurs masculins âgés de 20 à 24 ans ont pris part à l’étude. Les comportements routiers suite à la consommation d’alcool (c.-à-d., vitesse et non-respect de la signalisation lors du premier trajet, décision de conduire un deuxième trajet sous l’effet de l’alcool) ont été observés à l’aide d’un simulateur de conduite. La réponse au stress a été mesurée à l’aide d’une tâche d’induction du stress standardisée et des échantillons de cortisol salivaire ont été recueillis avant et après la tâche. Les variables de l’objectif secondaire ont été mesurées à l’aide de questionnaires. Résultats. Les résultats démontrent qu’une faible réponse au stress est négativement et significativement associée à la présence de CRR lors de la conduite du simulateur sous l’influence de l’alcool (r (38) = -0,30, p = 0,032). La recherche de sensations explique significativement la variance de la réponse au stress (β = -0,33; p = 0,041); la sévérité de la consommation d’alcool et la consommation de cigarettes n’expliquent pas significativement la variance de réponse au stress entre individus. Implications. Les résultats de cette étude ont permis de mettre en lumière le lien existant entre la réponse au stress et l'implication des jeunes conducteurs dans les CRR suite à la consommation d’alcool. L’efficacité d’outils de prévention et d’intervention adaptés aux caractéristiques des individus qui réagissent moins au stress devrait être étudiée dans d’autres études. // Abstract : Introduction. Motor vehicle crashes are a serious problem worldwide. They cause tens of millions of injuries each year and represent one of the leading causes of death in young adults. Impaired driving, speeding and other risky driving behaviours (RDBs) are often associated with these crashes. Examination of risk markers associated with involvement in RDBs by our research team has shown that a low response to a stressful task, measurable by cortisol, is linked to a higher number of past convictions for impaired driving in offenders and to future involvement in crashes and near-crashes in young drivers. No study had yet examined the direct link between stress response and the presence of RDBs following alcohol consumption. Goals and Hypotheses. The primary goal of the study is to measure the association between young drivers’ stress response and the presence of RDBs following alcohol consumption. The main hypothesis is that a low stress response is linked to RDBs following alcohol consumption. The study’s secondary objective is to explore whether other variables (i.e., sensation seeking, cigarette use, and problem drinking) may explain the variance in stress response exhibited by young drivers. Hence, the secondary hypothesis proposes that sensation seeking and the severity of alcohol and cigarette use are variables that explain the variance in stress response. Method. Forty male drivers aged 20 to 24 years old participated in the study. Driving behaviours following alcohol consumption (i.e., speeding and failure to obey traffic signs during the first trip, deciding to drive a second trip under the influence of alcohol) were observed by means of a driving simulator. Stress response was measured using a standardized stress-inducing task, and saliva cortisol samples were collected before and after the task. Questionnaires gathered data used to test the secondary hypothesis. Findings. The findings show that a low stress response is negatively and significantly associated with the RDBs when driving the simulator under the influence of alcohol (r (38) = -0.30, p = 0.032). Sensation seeking significantly explains the variance in stress response (β = -0.33; p = 0.041); the severity of alcohol consumption and cigarette use do not significantly explain the variance in stress response across individuals. Implications. The study findings clarify the link between stress response and the involvement of young drivers in RDBs following alcohol consumption. The efficacy of prevention and intervention tools adapted to the characteristics of individuals who react less to stress should be explored in future studies.

Kasmet apie pusė milijono žmonių žūsta eismo įvykiuose visame pasaulyje. Dažniausiai į eismo įvykius patenka profesionalūs vairuotojai, nes profesionalus vairavimas sąlygoja daug didesnę riziką nei kitos profesijos. Eismo įvykiai – tai dideli ekonominiai ir socialiniai kaštai visuomenei ir darbdaviams. Tyrimo tikslas – nustatyti profesionalių vairuotojų darbo motyvacijos, asmenybės bruožų ir rizikingo vairavimo elgesio sąsajas. Tyrime dalyvavo Lietuvoje dirbantis 181 profesionalus vairuotojas (vyrai) iš įvairaus dydžio organizacijų. Tiriamiesiems anketos buvo pateikiamos tiesiogiai, darbo vietoje, ir iš karto po užpildymo surenkamos. Tiriamieji atsakė į anketoje pateiktus klausimus, siekiant įvertinti darbo motyvacijos, asmenybės bruožų ir rizikingo vairavimo elgesio sąsajas: a) darbo motyvacijai įvertinti sukurtas klausimynas, remiantis V. Vroomo lūkesčių darbo motyvacijos teorija, b) asmenybės bruožams nustatyti naudotas 44 klausimų Didžiojo penketo modelio klausimynas (John ir kt., 1991), c) rizikingam vairavimo elgesiui įvertinti naudotas 24 teiginių vairavimo elgesio klausimynas (Reason ir Parker, 1990) ir informacija apie eismo įvykius bei baudas už kelių eismo taisyklių pažeidimus. Tyrimo rezultatai atskleidė, kad profesionalūs vilkikų vairuotojai, pasižymintys labiau išreikšta ekstraversija, sutariamumu, sažiningumu ir mažiau išreikštu neurotizmu, mažiau rizikingai vairuoja. Tačiau tik mažiau išreikštu sąžiningumu pasižymintys profesionalūs mažųjų autobusų... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]
Every year, about half a million people are killed in traffic accidents around the world. In most cases, accidents are of concern to professional drivers, as professional driving involves much greater risk than other professions. Traffic accidents mean major economic and social costs to society and employers. The aim of the study was to identify the links between the work motivation, personality traits and risky driving behaviour of professional drivers. The study covered 181 professional driver (male) employed in various size organizations in Lithuania. Trial questionnaires were distributed to the research individuals directly at their workplaces, and collected immediately after the filling. The respondents answered the questions in the questionnaire aiming to assess the relations between the work motivation, personality traits and risky driving behaviour of professional drivers: a) questionnaire for the assessment of work motivation was developed on the basis of V. Vroom expectancy theory of motivation, b) personality traits were determined by using the Big Five model Inventory consisting of 44 questions (John et al., 1991), c) risky driving behaviour was determined according to the questionnaire with 24 statements on driving behaviour (Reason, and Parker, 1990) and information about traffic events and penalties for traffic offences. The results of this study demonstrated those professional truck drivers, during more expressed extroversion, agreeableness... [to full text]

Tyrimo tikslas - įvertinti profesionalių vairuotojų rizikingo vairavimo sąsajas su jų vertybinėmis orientacijomis ir įsipareigojimu organizacijai. Tyrime dalyvavo 160 profesionalių vairuotojų iš Kauno, Klaipėdos, Telšių, Pasvalio, Kaišiadorių, Tauragės, Šilutės, Zarasų, Šilalės ir Kretingos miestų. Rizikingas vairavimas buvo tiriamas „Vairavimo Elgesio Klausimynu“ (DBQ), vertybinės orientacijos - M. M. Rokičiaus „Vertybinių orientacijų tyrimo“ metodika (Rokeach, 1972), įsipareigojimas organizacijai „Organizacinio įsipareigojimo klausimynu“ (Yousef, 2003). Tyrimo rezultatai parodė, kad profesionalių vairuotojų rizikingas vairavimas nepriklauso nuo jų amžiaus, vairavimo stažo, šeimyninės padėties. Tik nustatyta, kad profesionalūs vairuotojai, kurie turi aukštąjį išsilavinimą, vairuodami daro daugiau nedidelių apsirikimų kelyje. Profesionalių vairuotojų vertybinės orientacijos (tiek socialinės, tiek egocentrinės) yra susijusios su jų rizikingu vairavimo elgesiu. Kuo labiau profesionalus vairuotojas vertina socialines vertybes, tuo mažiau yra linkęs rizikingai vairuoti (daro mažiau vairavimo reikšmingų klaidų bei tyčinių pažeidimų). Taip pat kuo labiau profesionalus vairuotojas vertina egocentrines vertybes, tuo mažiau rizikingai vairuoja (daro mažiau nedidelių apsirikimų, vairavimo reikšmingų klaidų bei tyčinių pažeidimų). Profesionalių vairuotojų įsipareigojimas organizacijai nėra susijęs su sociodemografiniais veiksniais (amžiumi, išsilavinimu, šeimynine padėtimi, vairavimo... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]
Purpose of the survey - to assess the professional drivers' risky driving links with their value orientation and commitment to the organization. The study included 160 professional drivers in Kaunas, Klaipėda, Telšiai, Pasvalys, Kaišiadoriai, Tauragė, Šilutė, Zarasai, Šilalė and Kretinga cities. Risky driving has been studied using Driving Conduct Questionnaire (DBQ), value orientations methodology of Value orientations study by M. M. Rokičius (Rokeach, 1972), commitment to the organization using Organizational commitment questionnaire (Yousef, 2003). The results showed that risky driving of professional drivers is irrespective of their age, driving experience and marital status. Only found that professional drivers who have higher education, they are doing more small oversights on the road than others. Professional drivers value orientations (both social and egocentric) are associated with their risky driving behaviour. The more professional driver maximizes the social values the less he is inclined to risky driving (makes less driving significant errors and intentional violations). The more also a professional driver maximizes the egocentric values, the less risky driving he makes (makes less minor oversights, driving significant errors and intentional violations). Professional drivers’ undertaking the organization is not related to socio-demographic factors (age, education, marital status, driving and seniority). However, the less the driver has committed to a... [to full text]

Tyrimo tikslas buvo nustatyti jaunų vairuotojų alkoholio vartojimo, patiriamos įtampos, pablogėjusios nuotaikos ir polinkio rizikingai vairuoti sąsajas. Tyrime dalyvavo 202 Lietuvoje gyvenantys jauni vairuotojai nuo 18 iki 29 metų amžiaus (82 vyrai ir 120 moterų). Tiriamieji pildė vairuotojų elgesio klausimyną (DBQ) polinkiui į rizikingą vairavimą nustatyti, pablogėjusi nuotaika buvo matuojama Zungo depresijos skale (SDS), o patiriama įtampa - subjektyviai suvokto streso skale (PSS), taip pat pateikti socialiniai - demografiniai klausimai. Tyrimo rezultatai parodė, kad polinkis rizikingai vairuoti siejamas su jaunų vairuotojų lyties skirtumais. Vyrai atlieka daugiau tyčinių vairavimo pažeidimų nei moterys, o moterys atlieka daugiau klaidų vairuodamos, tačiau lyties skirtumai nedaro įtakos patekimų į autoavarijas dažnumui. Kuo dažniau jauni vairuotojai vartoja alkoholį, tuo daugiau jie atlieka tyčinių vairavimo pažeidimų ir tuo dažniau patenka į autoavarijas, tačiau jie nedaro daugiau klaidų vairuodami. Jauni vairuotojai, kurie pasižymi didesne pablogėjusia nuotaika, daro daugiau klaidų vairuodami. Tuo tarpu jauni vairuotojai, pasižymintis pablogėjusia nuotaika, atlieka panašų kiekį tyčinių vairavimo pažeidimų bei autoavarijų kaip ir tie, kurių nuotaika yra geresnė. Taip pat nustatyta, kad kuo didesnė jaunų vairuotojų patiriama įtampa, tuo jie daro daugiau klaidų vairuodami. Tuo tarpu didesnė patiriama įtampa nepaveikia jaunų vairuotojų atlikti daugiau tyčinių vairavimo... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]
The research has been targeted to define the correlations between young drivers alcohol use, bad mood, sustained tension and risky driving. The research involved 202 young Lithuanian drivers from 18 till 29 years (82 men, 120 women). Participants had to fill in a questionnaire made up of Drivers Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) to evaluate risky driving, Zung Self-rating depression scale (SDS) to evaluate bad mood, Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) to evaluate sustained tension and social-demographics questions. The research results showed existing association between risky driving and gender. Men more often than women make driving violations purposely. Driving mistakes are more common for women than for men. Crash involvement has not been associated with gender. The increase of young drivers alcohol use also increases the results of driving violations and involvement in crashes. However, increased alcohol use is not associated with bigger amount of driving mistakes. The greater degree of young drivers bad mood result, more driving mistakes are made. Whereas, greater degree of bad mood does not affect higher scores in driving violations and crash involvement. The greater degree of young drivers sustained tension result, more driving mistakes are made. Whereas, greater degree of sustained tension does not affect higher scores in driving violations and crash involvement. And finally, alcohol use and sustained tension have significant influence on young drivers risky driving, whereas... [to full text]

Tyrimo tikslas: nustatyti lietuvių, airių ir Airijoje gyvenančių lietuvių sveikatą žalojančio elgesio ypatumus. Tyrime dalyvavo 422 (237 moterys ir 185 vyrai) 18- 65 metų tiriamieji: iš jų 147 lietuviai, 133 airiai ir 142 Airijoje gyvenantys lietuviai. Siekiant nustatyti rūkymo vartojimo intensyvumą, naudota dalis klausimų iš A.Goštauto (1999) mokymo medžiagos sveikatos psichologijos kursui; alkoholio vartojimui tirti paimta PSO Alkoholio vartojimo sutrikimų nustatymo testas (AUDIT); narkotinių medžiagų vartojimui tirti paimta PSO alkoholio, rūkymo ir kitų narkotinių medžiagų vartojimo nustatymo testas (ASSIST V3); nepakankamam fiziniam aktyvumui tirti naudota Tarptautinio fizinio aktyvumo klausimyno trumpoji, lietuviška versija, paimta iš oficialaus International Physical Activity Questionnaire; nesveikos mitybos įpročiams įvertinti paimtas G. Turconi, M. Celsa (2003) mitybos klausimynas (A Dietary Questionnaire on food habits, eating behaviour and nutritional knowledge); rizikingam varavimui įvertinti naudotas J. Reason ir D. Parker (1990) Vairuotojų elgesio klausimynas (Drive Behavior Questionaire). Tyrimo rezultatai parodė, kad Airijoje ir Lietuvoje gyvenantys lietuviai rūko daugiau nei airiai; Airijoje ir Lietuvoje gyvenantys lietuviai bei airiai vartoja alkoholį vienodai vyrų grupėje, Airijoje gyvenančios lietuvės vartoja daugiau alkoholio nei Lietuvoje gyvenančios lietuvės bet mažiau nei airės; Airijoje bei Lietuvoje gyvenantys lietuviai ir airiai pagal narkotinių... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]
The Aim of the Survey: determine specific features of health destructive behaviour of Lithuanians, Irish and Lithuanians living in Ireland. 422 subjects (237 females and 185 males), aged 18- 65, participated in the survey: 147 Lithuanians, 133 Irish and 142 Lithuanians living in Ireland. In order to determine cigarette consumption and smoking intensity, a portion of questions, provided in A.Goštautas teaching material (1999), prepared for health psychology course, has been used; to conduct survey on alcohol consumption, The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), developed by WHO, has been applied; to conduct survey on drug consumption, The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST V3), developed by WHO, has been used; to conduct survey on lack of physical activity, a short Lithuanian version of official International Physical Activity Questionnaire has been used; to assess unhealthy nutrition habits, A Dietary Questionnaire on Food Habits, Eating Behaviour and Nutritional Knowledge by G. Turconi, M. Celsa (2003) has been applied; to assess risky driving behaviour, A Drive Behaviour Questionnaire by J. Reason and D. Parker (1990) has been applied. Survey results have demonstrated that Lithuanians living in Ireland and Lithuania smoke more than Irish; Lithuanians living in Ireland and Lithuania and Irish consume alcohol equally in a group of surveyed males, Lithuanian women living in Ireland consume more alcohol than Lithuanian women living... [to full text]

Motor vehicle crashes are one of the leading causes of death in the United States. Traffic safety research targets at understanding the cause of crash, preventing the crash, and mitigating crash severity. This dissertation focuses on the driver-related traffic safety issues, in particular, on developing and implementing contemporary statistical modeling techniques on driving risk research on Naturalistic Driving Study data. The dissertation includes 5 chapters. In Chapter 1, I introduced the backgrounds of traffic safety research and naturalistic driving study. In Chapter 2, the state-of-practice statistical methods were implemented on individual driver risk assessment using NDS data. The study showed that critical-incident events and driver demographic characteristics can serve as good predictors for identifying risky drivers. In Chapter 3, I developed and evaluated a novel Bayesian random exposure method for Poisson regression models to account for situations where the exposure information needs to be estimated. Simulation studies and real data analysis on Cellphone Pilot Analysis study data showed that, random exposure models have significantly better model fitting performances and higher parameter coverage probabilities as compared to traditional fixed exposure models. The advantage is more apparent when the values of Poisson regression coefficients are large. In Chapter 4, I performed comprehensive simulation-based performance analyses to investigate the type-I error, power and coverage probabilities on summary effect size in classical meta-analysis models. The results shed some light for reference on the prospective and retrospective performance analysis in meta-analysis research. In Chapter 5, I implemented classical- and Bayesian-approach multi-group hierarchical models on 100-Car data. Simulation-based retrospective performance analyses were used to investigate the powers and parameter coverage probabilities among different hierarchical models. The results showed that under fixed-effects model context, complex secondary tasks are associated with higher driving risk.
Ph. D.

Ce travail a pour objectif d’interroger l’influence de l’identité sexuée sur les comportements à risque au volant des jeunes conducteurs. Il s’organise autour de trois axes. Le premier porte sur la validation des outils de mesure et d’activation de l’identité sexuée (études 1-4). Le deuxième porte sur la validation d’outils de mesure des comportements à risque au volant, de la prise de risque et de la perception du risque et des bénéfices dans différents domaines, et sur la mise en relation de la conformité aux stéréotypes de sexe avec ces différentes variables chez des tout-venants (études 5 & 6). Le troisième axe (étude 7) vise à tester l’effet de l’identité sexuée dans sa multidimensionnalité (i.e., conformité aux stéréotypes de sexe et identification à son groupe de sexe) sur les comportements à risque déclarés et le risque perçu chez les jeunes conducteurs. Les effets de l’identité sexuée dans le domaine routier et dans différents domaines sont comparés et la relation de causalité entre identité sexuée et comportements à risque, testée. Les résultats montrent un lien entre l’identité sexuée et la prise de risque et le risque et les bénéfices perçus qui varie en fonction du domaine et du sexe. Toutefois, ils ne permettent pas de conclure à un effet plus marqué de l’identité sexuée dans le domaine routier, ni de montrer la relation de causalité entre identité sexuée et comportements à risque chez les jeunes conducteurs. Si les liens entre identité sexuée et prise de risque apparaissent complexes, ce travail montre l’intérêt de l’approche psychosociale pour comprendre les différences de sexe et intragroupes de sexe dans les comportements à risque
The objective of this thesis is to study the influence of gender identity on the risk-taking behaviour of young drivers. The work is laid out in three main sections. The first one focuses on the validation of measurement tools and the activation of gender identity (studies 1-4) The second one focuses on the validation of tools designed to measure driver risk-taking behaviour, risk and benefits perception in various fields, and on the link between gender stereotype conformity and the aforementioned variables in a broad range of subjects (studies 5 & 6). The third section of this thesis (study 7) aims to test the effect of gender identity in the multi-dimensional sense (i.e., conformity to gender stereotypes and identification to one’s gender group) on declared risk-taking behaviour and risk perception among young drivers. The effects of gender identity on driving and on various other fields are compared and the causality between gender identity and risk-taking behaviour is tested. The results show a link between gender identity and risk-taking, risk perception and benefits perception, which varies according to the domain and gender. However, the results leave us unable to ascertain the existence of a stronger effect of gender identity on driving behaviour. They also impede the highlighting of a causality effect between gender identity and risky behaviour among young drivers. Even if the link between gender identity and risk-taking seems to be complex, this work demonstrates the importance of a psychosocial approach in understanding gender differences and differences within a gender group in risk-taking behaviour

This thesis explores the relationship between subjective risk when driving and drivers' subsequent memory for everyday driving situations. Relationships are considered in the context of the wider literature on arousal and memory. In the first study subjects drove a set route around Cambridge giving verbal risk ratings; they then performed an unexpected free recall task. Drivers tended to recall situations which they had previously rated as risky. A series of laboratory studies explored this result. In these studies subjects watched films of actual driving situations in a simulator and were given subsequent recognition tests. In the first laboratory study subjective risk was only associated with improved recognition sensitivity for the most potentially dangerous situations. In generally safe situations feelings of risk appeared to impair recognition. These results were replicated in two further laboratory studies using different judgment tasks and stimuli. These results could be explained by subjective risk causing the focusing of attention in driving with a consequent enhancement of memory for central details at the expense of memory for peripheral details. To directly test the attention focusing hypothesis a laboratory study defined central information with respect to risk in driving situations. Then an on-road study found that drivers did indeed recall more central details than would be expected from risky situations. There thus appear to be two relationships between subjective risk and memory in driving. The first is an overall tendency for subjects to recall risky situations. This is assumed to be largely because such events are rare and distinctive. The second is a tendency for subjects to recall central details of risky situations at the expense of peripheral details. This is consistent with recent studies on attention focusing in eyewitness testimony. Some implications of these results for eyewitness testimony and for the psychology of driving are considered.

While driver distraction has been extensively studied in laboratory and empirical field studies, the prevalence of driver distraction on our nation's highways and the relative crash risk is unknown. It has recently become technologically feasible to conduct unobtrusive large-scale naturalistic driving studies as the costs and size of computer equipment and sensor technology have both dramatically decreased. A large-scale naturalistic driving study was conducted using 100 instrumented vehicles (80 privately-owned and 20 leased vehicles). This data collection effort was conducted in the Washington DC metropolitan area on a variety of urban, suburban, and rural roadways over a span of 12-13 months. Five channels of video and kinematic data were collected on 69 crashes and 761 near-crashes during the course of this data collection effort. The analyses conducted here are the first to establish direct relationships between driving inattention and crash and near-crash involvement. Relative crash risk was calculated using both crash and near-crash data as well as normal, baseline driving data, for various sources of inattention. Additional analyses investigated the environmental conditions drivers choose to engage in secondary tasks or drive fatigued, assessed whether questionnaire data were indicative of an individual's propensity to engage in inattentive driving, and examined the impact of driver's eyes off the forward roadway. The results indicated that driving inattention was a contributing factor in 78% of all crashes and 65% of all near-crashes. Odds ratio calculations indicated that fatigued drivers have a 4 times higher crash risk than alert drivers. Drivers engaging in visually and/or manually complex tasks are at 7 times higher crash risk than alert drivers. There are specific environmental conditions in which engaging in secondary tasks or driving fatigued is deemed to be more dangerous, including intersections, wet roadways, undivided highways, curved roadways, and driving at dusk. Short, brief glances away from the forward roadway for the purpose of scanning the roadway environment (e.g., mirrors and blind spots) are safe and decrease crash risk, whereas such glances that total more than 2 seconds away from the forward roadway are dangerous and increase crash risk by 2 times over that of more typical driving.
Ph. D.

While driver distraction has been extensively studied in laboratory and empirical field studies, the prevalence of driver distraction on our nation's highways and the relative crash risk is unknown. It has recently become technologically feasible to conduct unobtrusive large-scale naturalistic driving studies as the costs and size of computer equipment and sensor technology have both dramatically decreased. A large-scale naturalistic driving study was conducted using 100 instrumented vehicles (80 privately-owned and 20 leased vehicles). This data collection effort was conducted in the Washington DC metropolitan area on a variety of urban, suburban, and rural roadways over a span of 12-13 months. Five channels of video and kinematic data were collected on 69 crashes and 761 near-crashes during the course of this data collection effort. The analyses conducted here are the first to establish direct relationships between driving inattention and crash and near-crash involvement. Relative crash risk was calculated using both crash and near-crash data as well as normal, baseline driving data, for various sources of inattention. Additional analyses investigated the environmental conditions drivers choose to engage in secondary tasks or drive fatigued, assessed whether questionnaire data were indicative of an individual's propensity to engage in inattentive driving, and examined the impact of driver's eyes off the forward roadway. The results indicated that driving inattention was a contributing factor in 78% of all crashes and 65% of all near-crashes. Odds ratio calculations indicated that fatigued drivers have a 4 times higher crash risk than alert drivers. Drivers engaging in visually and/or manually complex tasks are at 7 times higher crash risk than alert drivers. There are specific environmental conditions in which engaging in secondary tasks or driving fatigued is deemed to be more dangerous, including intersections, wet roadways, undivided highways, curved roadways, and driving at dusk. Short, brief glances away from the forward roadway for the purpose of scanning the roadway environment (e.g., mirrors and blind spots) are safe and decrease crash risk, whereas such glances that total more than 2 seconds away from the forward roadway are dangerous and increase crash risk by 2 times over that of more typical driving.
Ph. D.

Road traffic injuries are a major global public health problem but continue to receive inadequate attention. Alcohol influences both risk and consequence of road traffic injury but the scale of the problem is not well understood in many countries. In Vietnam, economic development has brought a substantial increase in the number of registered motorcycles as well as alcohol consumption. Traffic injury is among the leading causes of death in Vietnam but there is little local information regarding alcohol related traffic injuries. The primary goal of this study is to explore the drinking and driving patterns of males and their perceptions towards drink-driving and to determine the relationship between alcohol consumption and road traffic injuries. Furthermore, this thesis aims to present the situation analysis for choosing priority actions to reduce drinking and driving in Vietnam. The study is a combination of two cross-sectional surveys and a pilot study. The pilot study, involving 224 traffic injured patients, was conducted to test the tools and the feasibility of approach methods. In the first survey, male patrons (n=464) were randomly selected at seven restaurants. Face-to-face interviews were conducted when patrons just arrived and breath tests were collected when they were about to leave the restaurant. In the second survey, male patients admitted to hospital following a traffic injury (n=480, of which 414 were motorcycle or bicycle riders) were interviewed and their blood alcohol concentration (BAC) measured by breathalyzer. The results show broadly similar patterns of drinking and driving among male patrons and male traffic injured patients with a high frequency of drinking and drink-driving reported among the majority of the two groups. A high proportion of male patrons were leaving restaurants with a BAC over the legal limit. Factors that significantly associate with the number of drinks and BAC were age, hazardous drinking, frequency of drink-driving in the past year, self-estimated number of drinks consumed to drive legally, perceived family’s disapproval of drink-driving, and perceived legal risk and physical risk. The proportion of patrons and patients with BAC above the legal limit of 0.05 were 86.7% and 60.4% respectively, which was much higher than found in previous studies. In addition, both groups had a high prevalence of BAC over 0.15g/100ml (39.7% of patrons and 45.6% patients), a level that can seriously affect driving capacity. Results from the case-crossover analysis for patients indicate a dose-response relationship between alcohol consumption and the risk of traffic injury. The risk of traffic injury increased when alcohol was consumed before driving and there was a more than 13 fold increase when six or more drinks were consumed. Regarding perceptions towards drinking and driving, findings corroborate the low awareness among males in Vietnam, with a majority of respondents holding a low knowledge of safe and legally permissible alcohol use, and a low perceived risk of drinking and driving. The results also indicate a huge gap in prevention skills in terms of planning ahead or using alternative transport to avoid drink-driving and a perception by patrons and patients of a low rate of disapproval of drink-driving from peers and family. Findings in this study have considerable implications for national policy, injury prevention, clinical practice, reporting systems, and for further research. The low rate of compliance with existing laws and a generally low perceived legal risk toward drink-driving in this study call for the strengthening of enforcement along with mass media campaigns and news coverage in order to decrease the widespread perception of impunity and thereby, to reduce the level of drink-driving. In addition, no significant difference was found in this study on risk of traffic injuries between car drivers and motorcycle drivers. The current inconsistency between legal BAC for drivers of motorcycles, compared to cars, thus needs addressing. Furthermore, as drinking was found to be very common, rather than solely targeting drink-driving, it is important to call for a more strategic and comprehensive approach to alcohol policy in Viet Nam. This study also has considerable implications for clinical practice in terms of screening and brief interventions. Our study suggests that the short form of the AUDIT (AUDIT-C) screening tool is appropriate for use in busy emergency departments. The high proportion of traffic injured patients with evidence of alcohol abuse or hazardous drinking suggests that brief interventions by alcohol and drug counselors in emergency departments are a sensible option to addressing this important problem. The significance of this study is in the combination of the systematic collection of breath test and use of case-crossover design to estimate the risk of traffic injuries after alcohol consumption. The results provide convincing evidence to policy makers, health authorities and the media to help raise community awareness and policy advocacy toward the drinkdriving problem in Vietnam. The findings suggest an urgent need for a multi-sectoral approach to curtail drink-driving in Vietnam, especially programs to raise community awareness and effective legal enforcement. Furthermore, serving as a situation analysis, the thesis should inform the formulation of interventions designed to curtail drinking and driving in Vietnam and other developing countries.

Thesis: S.M., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2018.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 89-91).
Driving is often stressful and dangerous due to uncertainty in the actions of nearby vehicles. Having the ability to model driving maneuvers qualitatively and guarantee safety bounds in uncertain traffic scenarios are two steps towards building trust in vehicle autonomy. In this thesis, we present an approach to the problem of Qualitative Autonomous Driving (QAD) using risk-bounded conditional planning. First, we present Incremental Risk-aware AO* (iRAO*), an online conditional planning algorithm that builds off of RAO* for use in larger dynamic systems like driving. An illustrative example is included to better explain the behavior and performance of the algorithm. Second, we present a Chance-Constrained Hybrid Multi-Agent MDP as a framework for modeling our autonomous vehicle in traffic scenarios using qualitative driving maneuvers. Third, we extend our driving model by adding variable duration to maneuvers and develop two approaches to the resulting complexity. We present planning results from various driving scenarios, as well as from scaled instances of the illustrative example, that show the potential for further applications. Finally, we propose a QAD system, using the different tools developed in the context of this thesis, and show how it would fit within an autonomous driving architecture.
by Matthew Quinn Deyo.
S.M.

This work focuses on the type-3 self-driving cars, partially autonomous vehicles which can control themselves for most of the time and may ask the driver to take control of the car in case of specific situations. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the perception of the simulated risk faced by the participants in a low fidelity simulation in relation with their background: the gaming and driving experience. The participants of the study drove in the simulator and answered a questionnaire about both the driving session and the background information. The simulated risk was assessed and compared with the information from the questionnaire. It was evaluated both the performance of each participant represented by the level of risk experienced while driving the simulation and the correct identification of the risk faced. The result data highlighted a positive correlation between the driving performance and the videogame experience.

Autonomous vehicles have the potential to offer efficient ways of moving and improvethe safety of driving. For this to occur, it must be ensured that the autonomousvehicles have a safe and reliable behaviour in nearly all situations andunder nearly all circumstances. The system that enables autonomy relies on astack of complex software functionalities, where the response and execution timesare hard to predict. It is therefore essential to create effective tools and frameworksfor evaluating the performance of the autonomous driving system in a riskyscenario. The aim of this thesis is to create and evaluate a framework for analysingthe risks of an autonomous driving system. The approach is based on an abstractmodel of the main components and interactions of the autonomous system. It providesa manner for systematically analysing the system’s behaviour through simulationswithout requiring timely and costly testing, or a very detailed and complexmodel. Specifically, the use of the method for analysing the autonomous vehicle’stiming behaviour in a risky scenario is investigated.The developed framework is used to evaluate the ability of a vehicle to stop beforecolliding with a static obstacle. In such scenario, the model-based approach foranalysing the risks for an autonomous system is feasible and effective and canprovide useful information during the development process.
Autonoma fordon kan potentiellt erbjuda både säkrare och effektivare transportmöjligheter.Men om det ska bli möjligt måste man kunna verifiera att det autonomafordonet har ett pålitligt och säkert beteende i nästan alla situationer ochunder nästan alla förhållanden. Systemet som möjliggör autonom körning byggerpå en komplex mjukvarustack, där utfallet och exekveringstiden är svåra attutsäga. Det är därför är det väsentligt att man utvecklar verktyg och strukturersom kan förutsäga säkerheten hos ett autonomt system. Syftet med detta arbeteär att utveckla och utvärdera ett verktyg för att analysera riskerna hos ett systemför autonom körning. Tillvägagångssättet är baserat på en abstrakt modellöver de huvudsakliga komponenterna och interaktionerna hos det autonoma systemet.Genom enkla simulationer istället för tidskrävande och kostsamma tester,eller mycket detaljerade och komplexa modeller, kan metoden förse användarenmed ett sätt att systematiskt analysera systemets beteende. Specifikt undersökshuruvida metoden kan användas för att analysera det autonoma systemets tidsegenskapervid ett riskfyllt scenario.Den utvecklade strukturen används för att utvärdera om fordonet hinner stannainnan det kolliderar med ett statiskt hinder. I ett sådant scenario kan man dra slutsatsenatt det modellbaserade tillvägagångssättet för att analysera riskerna hos ettautonomt system är görbart och effektivt, och kan ge värdefull information underutvecklingsarbetet.

Autonomous vehicles promise to play an important role aiming at increased efficiency and safety in road transportation. Although we have seen several examples of autonomous vehicles out on the road over the past years, how to ensure the safety of autonomous vehicle in the uncertain and dynamic environment is still a challenging problem. This thesis studies this problem by developing a risk-aware decision making framework. The system that integrates the dynamics of an autonomous vehicle and the uncertain environment is modelled as a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process (POMDP). A risk measure is proposed based on the Responsibility-Sensitive Safety (RSS) distance, which quantifying the minimum distance to other vehicles for ensuring safety. This risk measure is incorporated into the reward function of POMDP for achieving a risk-aware decision making. The proposed risk-aware POMDP framework is evaluated in two case studies. In a single-lane car following scenario, it is shown that the ego vehicle is able to successfully avoid a collision in an emergency event where a vehicle in front of it makes a full stop. In the merge scenario, the ego vehicle successfully enters the main road from a ramp with a satisfactory distance to other vehicles. As a conclusion, the risk-aware POMDP framework is able to realize a trade-off between safety and usability by keeping a reasonable distance and adapting to other vehicles behaviours.
Autonoma fordon förutspås spela en stor roll i framtiden med målen att förbättra effektivitet och säkerhet för vägtransporter. Men även om vi sett flera exempel av autonoma fordon ute på vägarna de senaste åren är frågan om hur säkerhet ska kunna garanteras ett utmanande problem. Det här examensarbetet har studerat denna fråga genom att utveckla ett ramverk för riskmedvetet beslutsfattande. Det autonoma fordonets dynamik och den oförutsägbara omgivningen modelleras med en partiellt observerbar Markov-beslutsprocess (POMDP från engelskans “Partially Observable Markov Decision Process”). Ett riskmått föreslås baserat på ett säkerhetsavstånd förkortat RSS (från engelskans “Responsibility-Sensitive Safety”) som kvantifierar det minsta avståndet till andra fordon för garanterad säkerhet. Riskmåttet integreras i POMDP-modellens belöningsfunktion för att åstadkomma riskmedvetna beteenden. Den föreslagna riskmedvetna POMDP-modellen utvärderas i två fallstudier. I ett scenario där det egna fordonet följer ett annat fordon på en enfilig väg visar vi att det egna fordonet kan undvika en kollision då det framförvarande fordonet bromsar till stillastående. I ett scenario där det egna fordonet ansluter till en huvudled från en ramp visar vi att detta görs med ett tillfredställande avstånd till andra fordon. Slutsatsen är att den riskmedvetna POMDP-modellen lyckas realisera en avvägning mellan säkerhet och användbarhet genom att hålla ett rimligt säkerhetsavstånd och anpassa sig till andra fordons beteenden.

The number of motor vehicle accidents that occur as a result of driving while talking on mobile devices increases each year. Distracted driving is dangerous; however, policy researchers have not focused on adults who talk on mobile devices as they drive children to and from daily events. This study focused on the experiences of soccer parents, an important focus because of soccer's year-long duration that requires a large amount of driving in addition to the other daily tasks of parenting. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to investigate the perceptions of parents of child soccer players regarding the motivations for and risks of talking on mobile devices while driving. The theoretical framework for this phenomenological study was the self-determination theory. Data were collected by electronic surveys using a convenience sample of 10 couples and 4 single parents of children who play soccer for a team in a southern state. Data were analyzed using the constant comparative method in which patterns were identified and coded into themes. The key findings were that the parents had different perceptions of the risks and motivations for talking on mobile devices while driving. There were participants who viewed talking on mobile devices as risky while others did not perceive talking on mobile devices while driving as a risk. Recommendations include conducting further research on parents who drive children to and from soccer practices, while talking on mobile devices, in order to gain better understanding of what motivates people to choose to talk on mobile devices while driving. The implications for positive social change include informing policy makers about the importance of increasing awareness and educating the public about the risks of talking on mobile devices while driving.

The importance of traffic safety has prompted considerable research on predicting driver risk and evaluating the impact of risk factors. Driver risk modeling is challenging due to the rarity of motor vehicle crashes and heterogeneity in individual driver risk. Statistical modeling and analysis of such driver data are often associated with Big Data, considerable noise, and lacking informative predictors. This dissertation aims to develop several systematic techniques for traffic safety modeling, including finite sample bias correction, decision-adjusted modeling, and effective risk factor construction. Poisson and negative binomial regression models are primary statistical analysis tools for traffic safety evaluation. The regression parameter estimation could suffer from the finite sample bias when the event frequency (e.g., the total number of crashes) is low, which is commonly observed in safety research. Through comprehensive simulation and two case studies, it is found that bias adjustment can provide more accurate estimation when evaluating the impacts of crash risk factors. I also propose a decision-adjusted approach to construct an optimal kinematic-based driver risk prediction model. Decision-adjusted modeling fills the gap between conventional modeling methods and the decision-making perspective, i.e., on how the estimated model will be used. The key of the proposed method is to enable a decision-oriented objective function to properly adjust model estimation by selecting the optimal threshold for kinematic signatures and other model parameters. The decision-adjusted driver-risk prediction framework can outperform a general model selection rule such as the area under the curve (AUC), especially when predicting a small percentage of high-risk drivers. For the third part, I develop a Multi-stratum Iterative Central Composite Design (miCCD) approach to effectively search for the optimal solution of any "black box" function in high dimensional space. Here the "black box" means that the specific formulation of the objective function is unknown or is complicated. The miCCD approach has two major parts: a multi-start scheme and local optimization. The multi-start scheme finds multiple adequate points to start with using space-filling designs (e.g. Latin hypercube sampling). For each adequate starting point, iterative CCD converges to the local optimum. The miCCD is able to determine the optimal threshold of the kinematic signature as a function of the driving speed.
Doctor of Philosophy
When riding in a vehicle, it is common to have personal judgement about whether the driver is safe or risky. The drivers’ behavior may affect your opinion, for example, you may think a driver who frequently hard brakes during one trip is a risky driver, or perhaps a driver who almost took a turn too tightly may be deemed unsafe, but you do not know how much riskier these drivers are compared to an experienced driver. The goal of this dissertation is to show that it is possible to quantify driver risk using data and statistical methods. Risk quantification is not an easy task as crashes are rare and random events. The wildest driver may have no crashes involved in his/her driving history. The rareness and randomness of crash occurrence pose great challenges for driver risk modeling. The second chapter of this dissertation deals with the rare-event issue and provides more accurate estimation. Hard braking, rapid starts, and sharp turns are signs of risky driving behavior. How often these signals occur in a driver’s day-to-day driving reflects their driving habits, which is helpful in modeling driver risk. What magnitude of deceleration would be counted as a hard brake? How hard of a corner would be useful in predicting high-risk drivers? The third and fourth chapter of this dissertation attempt to find the optimal threshold and quantify how much these signals contribute to the assessment of the driver risk. In Chapter 3, I propose to choose the threshold based on the specific application scenario. In Chapter 4, I consider the threshold under different speed limit conditions. The modeling and results of this dissertation will be beneficial for driver fleet safety management, insurance services, and driver education programs.

One of the riskiest activities in the course of a person's work is driving. By developing and testing a new work driving risk assessment measurement tool for use by organisations this research will contribute to the safety of those who drive for work purposes. The research results highlighted limitations associated with current self-report measures and provided evidence that the work driving environment is extremely complex and involves constant interactions between humans, vehicles, the road environment, and the organisational context.

Vehicle crashes remain the leading cause of accidental death and injuries in the United States, claiming tens of thousands of lives and injuring millions of people each year. Many of these crashes occur during nighttime, where a variety of modifiers affect the risk of a crash, primarily through the reduction of object visibility. Furthermore, many of these modifiers also affect the nighttime mobility of older drivers, who avoid driving during the nighttime. Thus, a two-fold need exists for new technologies that enhance night visibility. Two separate studies were completed as part of this research. Study 1 served as a baseline by evaluating visual performance during nighttime driving under clear weather conditions. Visual performance was evaluated in terms of the detection and recognition distances obtained when different vision enhancement systems were used at the Smart Road testing facility. Study 2, also using detection and recognition distances, compared the visual performance of drivers during low visibility conditions (i.e., due to rain) to the risk perception of driving during nighttime under low visibility conditions. These comparisons were made as a function of various vision enhancement systems. The age of the driver and the characteristics of the object presented (e.g., contrast, motion) were variables of interest in both studies. The pivotal contribution of this investigation is the generation of a model describing the relationships between driver characteristics, risk perception, and visual performance in nighttime driving in the context of a variety of standard and prototype vision enhancement systems. Improvement of mobility, especially for older individuals, can be achieved through better understanding of the factors that increase risk perception, identification of systems that improve detection and recognition distances, and consideration of drivers' opinions on possible solutions that improve nighttime driving safety. In addition, this research effort empirically described the night vision enhancement capabilities of 12 different vision enhancement systems during clear and adverse weather environments.
Ph. D.

Magister Public Health - MPH
Background: Road Traffic Accidents (RTAs) are an important cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, especially in low and middle-income countries. Traffic police reports indicate that RTAs are amongst the commonest health challenges Swaziland faces. Assessing the magnitude of the challenge, understanding the impact on public health and gaining more insight into the actual risk factors involved in RTAs, and especially RTAs that result in serious injuries and fatalities, is important for the road transport authority, the traffic police and for public health planners, in order to improve road safety, to develop effective countermeasures and to improve preparedness for effective health care, respectively. There is an insufficiency of studies on risk factors associated with RTAs, and particularly those associated with serious and fatal RTAs, in Sub-Saharan countries in general and Swaziland specifically. Manzini, a busy small city in Swaziland with a population of 61000 and an estimate of approximately 12000 vehicles on its roads daily is the setting for this study. RTAs in Manzini, are considered as a major public health problem with many people either seriously injured or killed on the roads annually. Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the human (e.g. age, gender, speeding and drunk driving), vehicle (e.g. vehicle types and vehicle defects), infrastructural (e.g. type of roads, road surface defects and road lighting) and environmental risk factors (e.g. rain and darkness) associated with serious and fatal RTAs in Manzini city and surrounding suburbs in Swaziland. Methodology: A case control study, based on data collected from RTA records at Manzini Traffic Police Station, was conducted. The study population was all RTAs in Manzini, with cases being RTAs that resulted in serious or fatal injuries, while RTAs with no injuries (vehicle and property damage only) and minor injuries were categorised as controls. A sample size of 294 consisting of all 143 RTAs with fatal and serious injury that occurred from July 2013 to June 2015 in Manzini city as cases and a random sample of 151 controls from amongst the minor injury and property damage only RTAs, was selected. A standardised data extraction tool was used to collect data from routine traffic police records on all RTAs. Frequencies were calculated for categorical variables. Numerical variables were summarised mathematically, via their central tendencies and distribution as well as collapsed into meaningful categories. Bivariate analysis to ascertain odds ratios was undertaken and all risk factors that showed a significant association with severe and fatal RTAs were further assessed via multivariate logistic regression analysis. Ethical approval for the study was secured from the Swaziland National Ethics Committee and the University of the Western Cape Research and Ethics committee. Results: Factors that had an unconfounded association on multivariate analysis with serious/fatal RTAs, compared to minor RTAs, were: male drivers (AOR = 5.48; 95% CI = 1.63 – 18.43); drivers not wearing a seatbelt (AOR = 5.07; 95% CI = 2.39 – 10.74); pedestrian error (AOR = 2.66; 95% CI = 1.46 – 4.86); accidents occurring on weekends (AOR 3.62; 95% CI = 2.07- 6.33); and accidents occurring between 18:00 – 23:59 time of the day (AOR = 11.68; 95% CI = 4.49 - 30.39). Other factors such as: age of driver, no driver's license at the accident scene, drunk-driving, seasons of the year, driver error, vehicle type, vehicle defect, road surface type, road surface condition, weather condition, street light condition and urban/rural location were not found to be associated with serious/fatal RTAs in our study. Limitations Limitations of the study were that some data collected at the scene of the accident were incomplete and not collected in a standardised manner (alcohol use, speeding, vehicle defects, road defects and environmental factors) and that there was probable misclassification of some serious/fatal RTAs as minor ones and under-reporting of minor RTAs. Also several variables which may affect the severity of RTAs, such as educational level, socioeconomic status, medical illness, marital status and emotional status of the driver, were not routinely collected by the traffic police department and hence were not assessed. Conclusions and Recommendations: Modifiable risk factors that had an unconfounded positive association with serious/fatal RTAs were not using a seatbelt, night-time driving, weekend driving and pedestrian error, while male gender might be a proxy for reckless driving. Hence, education programmes for drivers and the public on behavioural change encouragement, improving pedestrians' road safety by provision of pedestrian sidewalks and crossing sites, coupled with increased traffic law enforcement at critical days and times, may result in reduction of serious/fatal RTAs.