Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Reinforcement sensitivity theory”

This thesis explores the extent to which Jeffrey Gray's reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality can predict and explain the job performance of top-level executive leaders. In this study, 189 senior executives underwent a battery of psychometric, biographical and performance measures. The dimensions of approach and avoidance motivation were measured using Carver and White's (1994) 'BIS/BAS Scales', and the predictive power of these dimensions was compared to R. Hogan and Hogan's (1997) ambition and adjustment traits. Overall, a model of senior executive performance prediction was tested using structural equation modelling. The results showed that the 'BIS/BAS Scales' did not predict the selected aspects of executive performance. However, the Hogan ambition and adjustment traits did, but only when certain facets of these traits were used. Most notably, the executives' levels of experience and perceived reward at work were stronger predictors of performance than personality was. The results suggest that reinforcement sensitivity theory does not provide a particularly promising explanation for senior executive job performance, with the chosen measures, but that selected Hogan measures do. However, executive performance prediction is very much a nuanced phenomenon, and these nuances only emerge when the performance and predictor domains are measured and analysed at a facet level.

This thesis aimed to examine the nature of the relations between individual differences in adult attachment patterns and the sensitivity of motivational systems – the Behavioural Approach System (BAS), the Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS), and the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) – proposed by the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (r-RST). In Study 1, psychology undergraduates (N=225) completed self-reported measures of adult attachment and reinforcement sensitivity. Both attachment dimensions were significantly related to BIS sensitivity, which suggests that sensitivity to motivational ambivalence is a central feature of attachment insecurity. In Study 2, psychology undergraduates (N=200) experienced virtual separation and reunion scenarios with a ‘virtual spouse,’ and subsequently completed adult attachment and reinforcement sensitivity questionnaires. Adult attachment, but not reinforcement sensitivity, were predictive of behavioural and emotional responses to separation and reunion. This suggests that adult attachment has unique predictive power to dyadic behaviour. Finally, Study 3 (N=63) examined the links between self-reported adult attachment and reinforcement sensitivity and neurobiological markers of approach and avoidance motivation (8 minutes of resting EEG). Neither adult attachment nor reinforcement sensitivity exhibited robust associations with the resting EEG indices. This may reflect the construct heterogeneity of the attachment dimensions and reinforcement sensitivity, such that they do not neatly map onto neural correlates of approach and avoidance. Together, the studies reported in this thesis suggest modest overlaps between individual differences in adult attachment and reinforcement sensitivities at the self-report level, but the two domains are largely independent in relation to attachment behaviour and neural correlates of approach-avoidance.

Binge eating has become increasingly common in the general population over the last few decades. The behaviour refers to the consumption of an objectively large amount of food in a short time period whilst experiencing a subjective loss of control over one’s intake, and forms part of the diagnostic criteria for several eating disorders (ED; i.e., binge eating disorder [BED)], bulimia nervosa [BN], anorexia nervosa [AN-Binge-eating/Purge subtype]). Binge eating is associated with a range of adverse physical and psychological complications, and has a significant cost economically. Accordingly, research has increasingly focussed on binge eating to further understand the behaviour and guide interventions. The current thesis aimed to investigate binge eating and overconsumption using revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST), a biologically-based theory of personality, which is based on the sensitivity of brain systems that responds to rewarding and punishing stimuli. The broad objective of the thesis was to further understand the individual differences involved in maladaptive eating behaviours and investigate how this information may be useful in guiding intervention strategies. The goal of the thesis was to investigate the mechanisms involved in binge eating and other forms of overconsumption from a RST perspective. The first study investigated similarities and differences in reinforcement sensitivities across ED subtypes and healthy controls, using a measure of revised RST. In the study, 109 adult women with a past or present Anorexia Nervosa-Restrictive subtype (AN-R) diagnosis, 132 with a past or present binge-type ED diagnosis, and 133 non-ED controls, completed a measure of revised RST and measures of disordered eating behaviours and attitudes. Results showed both the AN-R and binge-type group participants scored higher on measures of the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) and the Fight/Flight/Freeze System (FFFS) compared to healthy controls. The binge-type group scored higher on measures of rash impulsivity relative to the AN-R and healthy control group, and lower on measures of goal-drive persistence relative to the healthy controls. The AN-R group demonstrated lower reward interest and reward reactivity than the non-ED controls. Being the first study to use a measure in line with the latest developments in RST, these results provided some clarification about the nature of approach behaviour in eating disorders. The key findings implicated high rash impulsivity and low goal drive persistence in binge eating behaviours, whereas no group differences were found for binge-type groups compared to healthy controls or AN-R on measures of reward sensitivity. Another key finding was the transdiagnostic role of BIS and FFFS across ED subtypes. Following these results, the remainder of the thesis aimed to investigate the pathways and conditions under which RST systems influences maladaptive eating behaviours. Thus, the second study investigated the role of negative affect as a mediator between the RST systems and binge eating symptoms. Undergraduate students (n = 229) completed selfreported measures of revised reinforcement sensitivities, negative affect and binge eating symptoms. Indirect pathways from BIS, FFFS and rash impulsivity and binge eating through negative affect were tested. Results showed that negative affect mediated the pathway from BIS to binge eating and rash impulsivity to binge eating, but not from the FFFS to binge eating. The key findings from Study 2 provided further support that BIS and rash impulsivity are particularly relevant to binge eating and made the novel contribution of implicating negative affect as a mechanism of action in this pathway. The first and second studies implicated rash impulsivity and BIS in binge eating and suggested that an interaction between the two systems may be related to binge eating. Study 3 sought to test this interaction and investigate potential protective factors in the pathway to maladaptive eating behaviours. Specifically, Study 3 investigated the moderating effect of rash impulsivity on the pathway from BIS to both binge eating and grazing behaviours. Further, it tested trait mindfulness as a moderating factor in the BIS/Impulsivity pathway to two types of eating behaviour: binge eating; and grazing. Undergraduate students (n = 245) completed self-report measures of BIS, rash impulsivity, trait mindfulness, binge eating and grazing. Results showed a two-way interaction for binge eating, and a three-way interaction for grazing. For binge eating, the relationship between BIS and binge eating grew stronger as rash impulsivity increased, whereas for increasing levels of mindfulness the relationship between BIS and binge eating was reduced. For grazing, results showed that the conditional effect of the BIS x impulsivity interaction on grazing scores varied according to mindfulness. At moderate to high levels of mindfulness, the conditional effect of the BIS x impulsivity interaction on grazing scores was non-significant. At low levels of mindfulness the conditional effect of the BIS x impulsivity interaction on grazing scores was significant, such that the relationship between BIS and grazing grew stronger as did impulsivity. The findings provided further support for the key role of both BIS and rash impulsivity in maladaptive eating behaviours, with the study being the first to apply an RST framework to grazing behaviour. Another key finding was the role of mindfulness as a potential protective mechanism in the pathway between personality risk factors and maladaptive outcomes. The fourth study aimed to extend upon the existing cross-sectional results, by using experimental methodology to investigate the casual effect of the relationship between personality, affective states, mindfulness and eating behaviour. Undergraduate students (n = 245) participated in a laboratory study, where mood was induced (positive, anxiety, neutral), followed by half the participants completing a brief mindfulness exercise (mindfulness, control) before undertaking a bogus taste test to measure food intake. Participants also completed a measure of rash impulsivity to test the interaction between impulsivity, affective state, and mindfulness on food intake. Results showed a three-way interaction, demonstrating that for those participants in the positive mood condition, increased rash impulsivity predicted reduced food intake in the mindfulness condition, whereas rash impulsivity was associated with increased food intake it the control condition. There was no such interaction in the anxiety condition, which was not consistent with the hypothesis for this condition. The key findings from this study supported recent evidence associating positive mood with food intake and added to the literature by highlighting the role of mindfulness and rash impulsivity when interacting with positive mood. The non-significant findings with respect to the anxiety condition, whilst consistent with previous experimental data, are inconsistent with both naturalistic studies and theories of negative affect and eating, raising concerns about the ecological validity of the laboratory food test. The collective key findings from the thesis make several novel contributions to the literature. The use of a recent measure of RST throughout the studies highlights the utility and advantage of using a measure reflective of the revised theory. For the first time binge eating has been evaluated with results that can be interpreted as per the current conceptualisation of RST, and distinction made between the influence of rash impulsivity and reward sensitivity, and BIS and FFFS. The current results highlight the combination of BIS and rash impulsivity are of influence in binge eating, with negative affect a mediator of this pathway. Additionally, the role of mindfulness as a protective factor in buffering against the maladaptive outputs of RST systems was demonstrated, with differing effects dependent on the specific eating behaviour (e.g., binge eating, grazing, food taste test). Collectively, these results progress the field through a series of novel findings that allow for a deeper understanding of RST and eating behaviour. The findings from this thesis highlight areas in which future research is warranted, and the clinical implications may inform the development and extension of both treatment and prevention approaches.
Thesis (Professional Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy in Clinical Psychology (PhD ClinPsych)
School of Applied Psychology
Griffith Health
Full Text

This thesis details a continuing body of research investigating the contribution of personality to disordered eating and alcohol abuse in young women. There is growing evidence of high levels of reward sensitivity in women with both disorders, and high levels of punishment sensitivity in dysfunctional eating women. However, it is unlikely that personality alone accounts for the development of such dysfunctional behaviour. Two studies were conducted to further examine the contribution of reward and punishment sensitivity to these disorders. In the first study, 443 university women completed self-report measures of alcohol use, dysfunctional eating, reinforcement sensitivity, parental drinking, family environment and maternal eating. Reward and punishment sensitivity were better predictors of disordered behaviour than family factors, although maternal dysfunctional eating significantly increased the risk of daughters' dysfunctional eating. Punishment sensitive daughters of bulimic mothers reported the highest level of bulimic symptoms themselves. Punishment sensitivity also functioned as a partial pathway variable between family risk and disordered eating. Given the stronger contribution of personality to disordered behaviour, a second study was conducted in which 131 women completed behavioural tasks under conditions of reward and punishment. Performance on a computerised measure of punishment sensitivity was associated with greater levels of dysfunctional eating but not drinking. However, performance on a card-sorting task of reward sensitivity failed to correlate with self-reported reward sensitivity or disordered behaviour. It was concluded that an innate sensitivity to reward increases the risk of disorders characterised by strong approach tendencies, whilst high punishment sensitivity, perhaps due to a chaotic family, increases the risk of dysfunctional eating, particularly daughters of eating disordered mothers.

This thesis details a continuing body of research investigating the contribution of personality to disordered eating and alcohol abuse in young women. There is growing evidence of high levels of reward sensitivity in women with both disorders, and high levels of punishment sensitivity in dysfunctional eating women. However, it is unlikely that personality alone accounts for the development of such dysfunctional behaviour. Two studies were conducted to further examine the contribution of reward and punishment sensitivity to these disorders. In the first study, 443 university women completed self-report measures of alcohol use, dysfunctional eating, reinforcement sensitivity, parental drinking, family environment and maternal eating. Reward and punishment sensitivity were better predictors of disordered behaviour than family factors, although maternal dysfunctional eating significantly increased the risk of daughters' dysfunctional eating. Punishment sensitive daughters of bulimic mothers reported the highest level of bulimic symptoms themselves. Punishment sensitivity also functioned as a partial pathway variable between family risk and disordered eating. Given the stronger contribution of personality to disordered behaviour, a second study was conducted in which 131 women completed behavioural tasks under conditions of reward and punishment. Performance on a computerised measure of punishment sensitivity was associated with greater levels of dysfunctional eating but not drinking. However, performance on a card-sorting task of reward sensitivity failed to correlate with self-reported reward sensitivity or disordered behaviour. It was concluded that an innate sensitivity to reward increases the risk of disorders characterised by strong approach tendencies, whilst high punishment sensitivity, perhaps due to a chaotic family, increases the risk of dysfunctional eating, particularly daughters of eating disordered mothers.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Applied Psychology
Full Text

Evidence suggests that both the BIS and the BAS play a role in the individual differences seen in social anxiety disorder; however, findings concerning the role of the BAS have been mixed. To date, the role of RST subsystems underlying social anxiety has been measured with outdated scales. This study addressed this issue by using a measure purpose-built for the revised RST. The current study was able to replicate past findings that the BAS is differentially related to social interaction anxiety and social observation anxiety (Kimbrel et al., 2010; Kimbrel et al., 2012). While using a newer measure based on the revised RST; however, results indicated that BAS sensitivity related to both subdimensions of social anxiety. In addition, findings indicate that the RST systems remain good predictors of social anxiety symptoms even after accounting for the influence of levels of positive and negative affect. Implications and future directions are discussed.

The current work assesses the relationship between reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) and Personality Traits for the DSM-5 (PID-5), to explore the degree to which they are associated with mood disorder symptoms. Participants (N = 138) from a large public university in the South were administered a semi-structured interview to assess for current mood disorder and anxiety symptoms. They were also administered self-report inventories, including the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and Behavioral Approach System (BAS) scales and the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5). Results indicate that both the BIS/BAS scales and the PID-5 scales were strongly associated with current mood symptoms. However, the maladaptive personality traits demonstrated significantly greater associations with symptoms compared to the BIS/BAS scales. Results also indicated support for using a 2-factor model of BIS as opposed to a single factor model. Personality models (such as the five factor model) are strongly associated with mood symptoms. Results from this study add to the literature by demonstrating credibility of an alternative five-factor model of personality focused on maladaptive traits. Knowledge of individual maladaptive personality profiles can be easily obtained and used to influence case conceptualizations and create treatment plans in clinical settings.

The primary focus of this thesis was to examine the relationship of reward sensitivity and outcome expectancies, variables traditionally associated with alcohol use, to cannabis use behaviour and to explore the relationship of affect and locus of control to alcohol and cannabis use. It was hypothesised that hazardous alcohol and cannabis use would be related to higher levels of reward sensitivity and to the endorsement of more positive outcome expectancies. It was also hypothesised that positive outcome expectancies would mediate the relationship between reward sensitivity and cannabis use, and that the relationship between reward sensitivity and both alcohol and cannabis use would be moderated by punishment sensitivity. No specific hypotheses were formulated for the relationship of negative outcome expectancies, affect and locus of control of reinforcement to substance use. A total of 465 young adults aged between 18 and 35 years completed a questionnaire which assessed substance use patterns, reward and punishment sensitivity, outcome expectancies, locus of control, and affect. Results indicated that higher levels of reward sensitivity reliably distinguished hazardous from non-hazardous alcohol and cannabis users as well as cannabis users from cannabis non-users. The relationship between reward sensitivity and substance use was partially mediated by outcome expectancies, but not moderated by punishment sensitivity. An exploratory factor analysis demonstrated a high rate of concordance between alcohol and cannabis outcome expectancies. Locus of control of reinforcement was found to be unrelated to alcohol and cannabis use behaviour. There was little commonality in the relationship of sensitivity to punishment, negative outcome expectancies, and affect to alcohol and cannabis use. The second focus of this thesis was to pilot an intervention aimed at reducing alcohol use via the challenging of expectations regarding the rewarding outcomes associated with alcohol use in a group of young adult Australian males. A three session intervention was completed by three males aged between 19 and 31 years. The results demonstrated no reduction in hazardous alcohol use or global positive alcohol outcome expectancies at the completion of the intervention program or at a 3-month follow-up. Furthermore, there was no reduction in expectancies of increased sexual interest for any of the participants at the 3-month follow-up compared to baseline, despite a reduction in these expectancies for one of the three participants at the completion of the intervention. A reduction in monthly drinking levels and in expectancies of increased confidence compared to baseline was noted for two of the three participants at the 3-month follow-up. It was concluded overall that there is consistency between the relationships of reward sensitivity and positive outcome expectancies to alcohol and cannabis use and that outcome expectancies may be a proximal mechanism through which reward sensitivity influences alcohol and cannabis use. It was further concluded that whilst causal inferences regarding the effectiveness of the intervention could not be made, the results provide some evidence for the usefulness of this treatment in changing a proportion of the studied outcomes. This potentially provides an incentive for future controlled design research in larger samples and with alternate substances.

The Behavioral Activation System (BAS) has been described as playing a central role in approach motivation and reward sensitivity (Gray, 1970). Self-report measures of BAS (e.g., Carver & White, 1994) have been used to index BAS activity, with higher scores interpreted as indicating greater BAS activity (e.g., Hundt et al., 2008). However, Beauchaine and colleagues (e.g., Brenner, Beauchaine, & Sylvers, 2005) have challenged this view, noting psychophysiological and neuroimaging evidence showing that externalizing behaviors are associated with reduced BAS functioning. Furthermore, global self-reported BAS scores are often used to index approach behavior, despite evidence that two main BAS traits, impulsivity and reward reactivity, are psychometrically distinct (Smillie et al., 2006). The present study tested a measurement model of these proposed components of BAS, as well as relationships between self-report and psychophysiological BAS indices. A large undergraduate student sample completed self-report indices (N=599) and a smaller subsample also completed psychophysiological (N=18) indices of BAS-related constructs. As hypothesized, a two-factor model with impulsivity and reward reactivity as separate, correlated constructs demonstrated better model fit than a one-factor alternative model. Associations between psychophysiological indices of BAS and indices of reward reactivity and impulsivity were mixed. Implications regarding future measurement of BAS and autonomic response to reward are discussed.
Master of Science

It is well established that methadone maintenance (MM) reduces but does not eliminate the self-administration of other illicit drugs. For those on MM, there is considerable variation in consumption patterns, route of heroin administration, additional non-opioid substances routinely administered and the clinical disorders associated with these patterns of use. While there is a large literature base documenting these phenomena, studies have been almost exclusively descriptive in nature, with little attempt to develop a theoretical model in which to understand such use. In the following thesis, a model proposed by Gray was tested, the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST). This biopsychosocial model broadly describes two action tendencies; approach (Behavioural Activation System) and avoidance or withdrawal (Flight Fight Freeze System and the Behavioural Inhibition System). The model proposes that a heightened sensitivity to punishment underlies anxiety disorders. Conversely, a heightened sensitivity to rewarding stimuli may predispose some individuals to engage in highly rewarding behaviour and is associated with conduct disorder and antisocial personality disorder. According to the Joint Subsystems Hypothesis, these personality styles are mutually dependent, whereby BIS and BAS interact to influence reward mediated and punishment mediated behaviours. Based on Gray's model, this thesis tests whether opiate dependent individuals with heightened sensitivity to punishment are more likely to use anxiolytic drugs (such as benzodiazepines), and individuals with heightened reward sensitivity will show a preference for substances that have high reward potential (such as stimulants). At time one, the participant sample (N= 120) comprised 71 males (59%) and 49 females who were opioid dependent and recruitment took place over an eight-month period in two city opioid replacement clinics. A range of measures was administered to assess substance use, mood, anxiety and the personality dimensions of reward sensitivity and punishment sensitivity, with substance use again measured at three months. Results of the first study suggested that a large proportion of the variance was accounted for by personality within the models. A total of 98 participants (81%) participated in the 12-week follow-up study. Sensitivity to punishment and reward significantly predicted drug preference. Although psychopathology symptoms were not able to moderate the relationship between personality and drug use, anxiety symptoms negatively mediated the relationship between punishment sensitivity and anxiolytic use, whereby the relationship became non-significant. In contrast, sensitivity to reward remained the strongest predictor of amphetamine use over antisocial characteristics. Individual differences were not able to predict treatment retention nor susceptibility to relapse during a 12-week initiation to a MM programme.

It is well established that methadone maintenance (MM) reduces but does not eliminate the self-administration of other illicit drugs. For those on MM, there is considerable variation in consumption patterns, route of heroin administration, additional non-opioid substances routinely administered and the clinical disorders associated with these patterns of use. While there is a large literature base documenting these phenomena, studies have been almost exclusively descriptive in nature, with little attempt to develop a theoretical model in which to understand such use. In the following thesis, a model proposed by Gray was tested, the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST). This biopsychosocial model broadly describes two action tendencies; approach (Behavioural Activation System) and avoidance or withdrawal (Flight Fight Freeze System and the Behavioural Inhibition System). The model proposes that a heightened sensitivity to punishment underlies anxiety disorders. Conversely, a heightened sensitivity to rewarding stimuli may predispose some individuals to engage in highly rewarding behaviour and is associated with conduct disorder and antisocial personality disorder. According to the Joint Subsystems Hypothesis, these personality styles are mutually dependent, whereby BIS and BAS interact to influence reward mediated and punishment mediated behaviours. Based on Gray's model, this thesis tests whether opiate dependent individuals with heightened sensitivity to punishment are more likely to use anxiolytic drugs (such as benzodiazepines), and individuals with heightened reward sensitivity will show a preference for substances that have high reward potential (such as stimulants). At time one, the participant sample (N= 120) comprised 71 males (59%) and 49 females who were opioid dependent and recruitment took place over an eight-month period in two city opioid replacement clinics. A range of measures was administered to assess substance use, mood, anxiety and the personality dimensions of reward sensitivity and punishment sensitivity, with substance use again measured at three months. Results of the first study suggested that a large proportion of the variance was accounted for by personality within the models. A total of 98 participants (81%) participated in the 12-week follow-up study. Sensitivity to punishment and reward significantly predicted drug preference. Although psychopathology symptoms were not able to moderate the relationship between personality and drug use, anxiety symptoms negatively mediated the relationship between punishment sensitivity and anxiolytic use, whereby the relationship became non-significant. In contrast, sensitivity to reward remained the strongest predictor of amphetamine use over antisocial characteristics. Individual differences were not able to predict treatment retention nor susceptibility to relapse during a 12-week initiation to a MM programme.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Psychology
Full Text

This thesis examined the extent to which individual differences, as conceptualised by the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, influenced young drivers' information processing and subsequent acceptance of anti-speeding messages. Using a multi-method approach, the findings highlighted the utility of combining objective measures (a cognitive response time task and electroencephalography) with self-report measures to assess message processing and message acceptance, respectively. This body of research indicated that responses to anti-speeding messages may differ depending on an individual's personality disposition. Overall, the research provided further insight into the development of message strategies to target high risk drivers.

Features of impulsivity underlie multiple psychological disorders. The body of work examining impulsivity has largely focussed on self-report measurement and has incorporated psychological constructs without reference to the broader biological factors that may influence impulsive behaviour. Two studies were conducted to examine whether environmental stress and genetic status associated with dopaminergic and serotonergic function (DRD2, ANKK1 and 5HT2AR genotypes) were predictive of dimensions of impulsivity and risky behaviour (alcohol use). The two studies used a multi-method approach in a non-clinical community sample of young adults (aged 17-25 years). Dopamine is integral to the two leading theories of impulsive personality, Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and Cloninger's Psychobiological model of personality. Dopamine plays a crucial role in reward reinforcement circuits in the brain. The A1 allele of the ANKK1 gene (also referred to as TaqIA of the DRD2 gene region) and the CC genotype of the C957T polymorphism of the DRD2 gene have both been associated with reduced D2 dopamine receptor density in key structures linked to brain reward. In addition, a strong body of evidence implicates their involvement in a number of clinical disorders associated with impulsivity. Serotonin function has also been associated with impulsivity in Cloninger's theory and there is also evidence of associations of two polymorphisms of the 2A serotonin receptor gene (5HT2AR T102C and -1438A/G SNPs) with impulsivity. Acute and chronic forms of stress are also important correlates of impulsive behaviour and the two studies directly examined the relationship between genotype, stress and impulsivity. Study 1 (N=180) utilised a cross-sectional design and examined interactions between these polymorphisms and chronic stress exposure on key impulsivity dimensions of reward sensitivity, Novelty Seeking and rash impulsiveness. Participants completed psychological questionnaires measuring chronic stress, dimensions of impulsivity, mood and substance use and provided mouth swab samples of buccal mucosal cells for DNA analysis. The study confirmed the association between A1 and CC allelic status and chronic stress being associated with harm avoidance and sensitivity to punishment. This suggests a role for both dopamine and background stress in impulsive behaviour. Study 2 (N=73) built upon this questionnaire research in the laboratory by utilising experimental psychological paradigms of impulsive behaviour and experimentally manipulating acute stress. Study 2 employed a mixed experimental design with a sub-sample of those studied in the cross-sectional sample. These behavioural paradigms included pre- and post- stress induction administration of the Card Arranging Reward Responsiveness Objective Test (capturing behavioural approach in the presence of reward cues, presumed to reflect reward sensitivity) and post-induction delay discounting and response inhibition measures. Study 2 confirmed the role of one of the two dopamine-related polymorphisms, with those with A1+ allelic status demonstrating lower reward responsiveness prior to rest or stress induction, which was overcome in the second administration of this task, independent of environment. A1+ allelic individuals also demonstrated significantly poorer response inhibition independent of stress, further confirming the association between A1+ allelic status and impulsivity. Those with CC allelic status showed an increase in reward responsiveness only in the stress induction condition. Together, results from the two studies inform the development of a multidimensional model of impulsivity that captures gene-environment influences on discrete aspects of impulsive personality and behaviour. Further refinement of this model may lead to the development of more effective customised prevention and treatment interventions for clinically disordered impulsivity. The implications of dopaminergic systems and stress in understanding disorders such as ADHD and substance dependence are discussed.

Features of impulsivity underlie multiple psychological disorders. The body of work examining impulsivity has largely focussed on self-report measurement and has incorporated psychological constructs without reference to the broader biological factors that may influence impulsive behaviour. Two studies were conducted to examine whether environmental stress and genetic status associated with dopaminergic and serotonergic function (DRD2, ANKK1 and 5HT2AR genotypes) were predictive of dimensions of impulsivity and risky behaviour (alcohol use). The two studies used a multi-method approach in a non-clinical community sample of young adults (aged 17-25 years). Dopamine is integral to the two leading theories of impulsive personality, Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and Cloninger's Psychobiological model of personality. Dopamine plays a crucial role in reward reinforcement circuits in the brain. The A1 allele of the ANKK1 gene (also referred to as TaqIA of the DRD2 gene region) and the CC genotype of the C957T polymorphism of the DRD2 gene have both been associated with reduced D2 dopamine receptor density in key structures linked to brain reward. In addition, a strong body of evidence implicates their involvement in a number of clinical disorders associated with impulsivity. Serotonin function has also been associated with impulsivity in Cloninger's theory and there is also evidence of associations of two polymorphisms of the 2A serotonin receptor gene (5HT2AR T102C and -1438A/G SNPs) with impulsivity. Acute and chronic forms of stress are also important correlates of impulsive behaviour and the two studies directly examined the relationship between genotype, stress and impulsivity. Study 1 (N=180) utilised a cross-sectional design and examined interactions between these polymorphisms and chronic stress exposure on key impulsivity dimensions of reward sensitivity, Novelty Seeking and rash impulsiveness. Participants completed psychological questionnaires measuring chronic stress, dimensions of impulsivity, mood and substance use and provided mouth swab samples of buccal mucosal cells for DNA analysis. The study confirmed the association between A1 and CC allelic status and chronic stress being associated with harm avoidance and sensitivity to punishment. This suggests a role for both dopamine and background stress in impulsive behaviour. Study 2 (N=73) built upon this questionnaire research in the laboratory by utilising experimental psychological paradigms of impulsive behaviour and experimentally manipulating acute stress. Study 2 employed a mixed experimental design with a sub-sample of those studied in the cross-sectional sample. These behavioural paradigms included pre- and post- stress induction administration of the Card Arranging Reward Responsiveness Objective Test (capturing behavioural approach in the presence of reward cues, presumed to reflect reward sensitivity) and post-induction delay discounting and response inhibition measures. Study 2 confirmed the role of one of the two dopamine-related polymorphisms, with those with A1+ allelic status demonstrating lower reward responsiveness prior to rest or stress induction, which was overcome in the second administration of this task, independent of environment. A1+ allelic individuals also demonstrated significantly poorer response inhibition independent of stress, further confirming the association between A1+ allelic status and impulsivity. Those with CC allelic status showed an increase in reward responsiveness only in the stress induction condition. Together, results from the two studies inform the development of a multidimensional model of impulsivity that captures gene-environment influences on discrete aspects of impulsive personality and behaviour. Further refinement of this model may lead to the development of more effective customised prevention and treatment interventions for clinically disordered impulsivity. The implications of dopaminergic systems and stress in understanding disorders such as ADHD and substance dependence are discussed.

Social ångeststörning (SAD) är ett ångestsyndrom som orsakar stor funktionsnedsättning och försämrad livskvalitet. I föreliggande studie presenteras förklaringsmodeller till SAD med fokus på temperamentsforskning och reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST). Syftet var att genom explorativ faktoranalys identifiera latenta variabler i frågeformuläret ”Hur man var som barn” (HMVSB), som administrerats i en klinisk population (n= 100) och i en kontrollgrupp (n= 246). Faktoranalysen extraherade två faktorer som döptes till beteendeinhibering (BI) respektive beteendeaktivering (BA). Ett andra syfte var att jämföra den kliniska populationen med kontrollgruppen avseende de extraherade faktorerna. Resultaten visade att HMVSB uppvisade god intern konsistens och tillfredsställande instrumentell reliabilitet. Vissa signifikanta korrelationer mellan HMVSB och jämförda skattningsformulär vid SAD erhölls. Gruppjämförelserna visade att den kliniska gruppen var signifikant mer beteendeinhiberad och mer beteendeaktiverad som barn. En subgrupp med generaliserad SAD var både signifikant mer beteendeaktiverad och beteendeinhiberad som barn. Subgruppen med specifik SAD skilde sig ej signifikant från kontrollgruppen. Studien manar till att beakta temperamentala faktorer vid SAD där kombinationen hög BI och hög BA skulle kunna korrelera med allvarligare klinisk bild.

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Studies have shown that Behavioural Inhibition and Behavioural Activation Systems map onto an individual’s personality traits and are sensitive to punishment and reward. Further, studies of punishment and reward have been linked to dopamine pathways in the Basal Ganglia. However, these models have been criticised for being overly simplistic and rooted in animal experimentation. Consequently, little is known about the influence on meta-cognitive processes, such as confidence judgments, on personality and reinforcement learning in humans. By pairing a Go / No-Go reinforcement learning task, used to measure learning from positive and negative feedback, with a confidence rating scale to assess metacognition and comparing these results to self-report measures of reward and punishment sensitivity we hoped to uncover a link between personality and confidence in reinforcement learning. Using multiple linear regression our research found that there is a link between sensitivity to reward and confidence in learning from positive feedback, but no link was found between confidence and sensitivity to punishment. The contribution of metacognition is generally ignored but our results show that it plays an important role in sensitivity to reward which has implication for disorders that involve the Basal Ganglia such as substance abuse. Keywords: [BIS/BAS, Basal Ganglia, Confidence, Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory]
Thesis (B.PsychSc(Hons)) -- University of Adelaide, School of Psychology, 2019

The main purpose of the present work was to evaluate individual differences in the perception of threatening stimuli at different distances. Under the approach of the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, we analysed how the different traits of personality react to angry and neutral faces in an Augmented Reality environment using a Visual Oddball paradigm. We found that the N2 component is the most prone to point out the differences especially for Fight and Freeze subjects, showing how they use more frontal processes in the differentiation between near and far stimuli. This results could be explained by the neuroanatomical differentiation proposed by McNaughton and Corr in the 2004.

Gray’s revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) posits that the behavioural inhibition system (BIS) resolves motivational conflict by allocating resources for approach (behavioural activation system [BAS]) or avoidance (Fight/Flight/Freeze System [FFFS]). Persons with a strong BIS over-attend to threat, leading to elevated anxiety and behavioural ambivalence. The role of elevated BIS in alcohol use is complex, as anxiety may promote self-medication drinking, while attention to threat may be a protective factor. Theory and recent data suggests that a concurrent strong BAS makes the anxiolytic effects of alcohol more salient, biasing BIS conflict towards drinking. Existing laboratory tasks do not measure BIS as a conflict system and therefore, examinations of the complex interplay between the BIS and BAS for understanding alcohol use are limited. This study tested a new laboratory task [Motivational Flanker Task (MFT)] that better reflects the revised BIS and FFFS and used this new measure to test BAS as a moderator of the BIS-alcohol misuse relation. Undergraduates (N=150) completed self-reports of BAS/BIS/FFFS, and alcohol misuse, and completed the MFT and the Point Scoring Reaction Time Task (PSRTT). Results indicated that MFT measurement of BIS motivational conflict was consistent with self-report and PSRTT measures. MFT measurement of BAS (reward responsivity), but not FFFS (punishment sensitivity) was consistent with self-report measures. An elevated BIS was linked to alcohol misuse, but only at high BAS. These results demonstrate that the MFT is a promising measure of the revised BIS. Further, considering the joint effects of BIS and BAS clarified risk for alcohol misuse.

碩士
中原大學
心理學研究所
99
Background and purpose During last decades, juvenile delinquency has become violent and a higher occurrence of delinquency behavior in younger age groups. Such youth are at risk of developing more serious criminal careers, and are more likely to experience mental health problems. One of delinquency behavior is aggressive behavior, so we need to understand the factors that are related to the development and maintenance of aggressive behavior. On the basis of available research, the researcher found the relationship between personality of the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and aggressive behavior is not clear yet. The researcher would like to use revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory to assess personality differences and related to reactive and proactive aggression in adolescents, and hope we can better understand the personality of different aggressors and serve as a reference to prevention and intervention for aggressive behavior. Method A group of 417 senior high school and vocational high school students were selected from northern Taiwan. The criterion-related validity of the Chinese Jackson-5 scales of revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory(Chinese Jackson-5) was assessed by the BAS/BIS scale and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. The researcher use the Chinese Jackson-5, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule and Chinese aggressive scale to examine the relationship between personality, affect, reactive aggression and proactive aggression in high school students. Results The result indicated that Chinese Jackson-5 had adequate reliability and validity. Reactive aggression, especially reactive relational aggression, is correlated to low r-BAS, high r-BIS, Fight, Flight and Freeze. Proactive/instrumental and overt aggression is correlated to high Fight. Relational aggression is correlated to high r-BIS, Fight and Freeze. Discussion The finding suggested that if we consider the form and function of aggression, reactive aggression is correlated to low r-BAS, high r-BIS, Fight, Flight and Freeze. Proactive/instrumental aggression is correlated to high Fight. Nevertheless, more researches are needed to clear the interaction effect between r-RST systems and affect to predict to aggressive behavior.

The overall aim of this thesis was to investigate the relevance of Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) to social anxiety (SA) in the community and response to cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) outcome for social anxiety disorder (SAD). Three studies were conducted to realise this objective. Study 1 investigated the relationships between RST traits (and similar personality variables) and observation anxiety (OA) and interaction anxiety (IA). Participants in the community (N=200; Age M=26.84) completed questionnaires. The original Behavioural Inhibition System (o-BIS), revised BIS (r-BIS), Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS), Sensitivity to Punishment (SP; a measure of BIS), neuroticism, negative affectivity (NA), and a composite score of all of these personality variables, were all positive predictors of OA. Fun-Seeking (Fun-S), positive affectivity (PA) and extraversion were negative predictors. For IA, the same pattern of results was found except that FFFS was not a significant predictor. Study 2 used an experimental mood-induction procedure to investigate the effects of RST traits on cognitive, affective and avoidance responses to induced SA with a community sample (N = 103; Age M=30.22). For affective responses, SP positively and independently predicted post-induction fear and SP interacted with Sensitivity to Reward (SR; a measure of BAS) to predict post-induction anxiety. For cognitive responses, SP positively predicted cognitions I want to leave/exit/escape this situation and People can see that I feel anxious. I am being judged/evaluated negatively by these people was positively predicted by FFFS and Fun-S, and negatively predicted by Drive. For avoidance responses, SP positively predicted desire to avoid but active avoidance was not significantly predicted by any RST trait. Study 3 investigated how RST traits influenced responses to CBT outcome for SAD. Sixteen participants (Age M=41.82) attended treatment and completed various pre- and post-treatment outcome measures. For IA: r-BIS, o-BIS and SR each moderated relationships between pre- and post-treatment IA, with high personality scores being associated with higher post-treatment IA. For OA: Reward-Responsiveness (RR), Drive, and SR each moderated the relationship between pre- and post-treatment OA with high personality scores resulting in higher post-treatment OA. For the Cognitive Checklist Anxiety (CCL Anx; general anxiety cognitions); Drive and FFFS each moderated the relationship between pre- and post-treatment CCL Anx with low personality scores being associated with higher post-treatment CCL Anx. Overall, results suggest that RST traits and SA share dimensional relationships; that RST traits affect cognitive, affective and avoidance responses to SA; and that high BIS and BAS scores relate to higher post-CBT outcome scores for SAD.

碩士
中原大學
心理學研究所
105
This study aimed to explore the relationships between personality, coping and psychological adjustment. Previous research on coping which used a single-axis model of coping based on the action dimension (active vs. passive) have shown the associations between coping strategies and psychological adjustment. However, the effcts of coping on psychological health have only limited explanatory power. An alternative model, the dual-axis model of coping which included both the action (active vs. passive) and social (prosocial vs antisocial) dimensions has been shown to improve the explanatory power of a model while explaining the effects of coping strategies on psychological health. To date, few studies examine the relationships between personality, coping strategies, and psychological health. The main purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of coping strategies as mediators on the relationships between Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST) and psychological adjustment. Three hundrend and seventy-four undergraduates completed the Jackson-5 scales of revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (Jackson-5), dual-axis model of coping scales, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), and State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI). The main findings include: 1. Active-prosocial, active-antisocial and passive-antisocial coping mediated the relationships between r-BAS/r-BIS and positive affects. Individual with high r-BAS/r-BIS arousal tended to use more active-prosocial and active-antisocial and to use less passive-antisocial coping strategies, and thus resulted in higher level of positive affect. 2. Active-antisocial and passive-antisocial coping mediated the relationships between Freeze and positive affect. Individual with high Freeze arousal tended to use less active-antisocial and more passive-antisocial coping, and thus resulted in lower level of positive affect. Passive-antisocial coping mediated the relationships between Freeze and negative affect. Individual with high Freeze arousal tended to use more passive-antisocial coping and this was associated with higher level of negative affect. 3. Passive-prosocial and passive-antisocial coping mediated the relationship between Freeze and anger-in expression. Individual with high Freeze arousal tended to use more passive-prosocial and passive-antisocial coping, and thus resulted in more anger-in expression. Active-antisocial coping mediated the relationship between Fight and anger-out expression. Individual with high Fight arousal tended to use more active-antisocial coping, and thus resulted in more anger-out expression.Passive-prosocial coping mediated the relationship between r-BAS/Fight and anger control. Individual with high r-BAS arousal tended to use more passive-prosocial coping, and thus resulted in more anger control expression. In contrast, individual with high Fight arousal tended to use less passive-prosocial coping strategies, and thus resulted in diminished anger control expression.

碩士
中原大學
心理學研究所
101
Background: Juvenile delinquency issues have always been the focus of concern in the community. Youth protection event execution can be divided into reprimand sanction, probation and correctional education execution. In this paper, the researchers choose students taken correctional education in Cheng-Jheng High School as a sample group of juvenile delinquents, in order to study juvenile reformatory education in Taiwan to understand the juvenile probation department in case of educational institutions, content and features. The researchers applied the revised concept of reward-sensitive theories to explore juvenile delinquents in character, angry emotional journey, and differences in occurring violations. Method: In this study, the participants were recruited deliberately from juvenile correction school students (more than six months at the school) in Cheng-Jheng High school, a total of 233, after the circumstances of the violation by entering the school, the district number of violations divided into three groups. Research tools include basic information questionnaire, the Chinese version "Jackson-5 Revision reward sensitivity theory Scale" and the State-Trait Scale express anger, anger rumination scale, structural equation modeling, differential analysis, regression conduct statistical analysis. Results: The results show that "Chinese version of Jackson-5 revised Reinforcement Sensitivity theory Scale" has good reliability and validity. Bullying melee group, the group of discipline violations, and no violation group have significant differences in Fight, trait anger and anger control. Two or more violations groups and no illegal group have significant differences in Fight but in other variables like angry mood were not up significantly. Conclusions: In this study, reward-sensitive personality variables and angry emotional journey violations of standards of performance prediction results show reward-sensitive personality variables (r-BIS, Fight) for violations most predictive power. Study confirmed that when individuals with high Fight sensitivity, it may easily lead to more violations. But r-RST various systems interacting with angry emotions predict violations relationships need further validation studies.

Il lavoro di tesi esamina in maniera approfondita i meccanismi di elaborazione dell’informazione studiando sia le prime fasi di selezione e processamento dell’ informazioni in entrata (sensorimotor gating) che della conseguente emissione di una risposta motoria o della sua inibizione, in relazione i tratti temperamentali. Tale indagine ha previsto lo studio dei correlati neurali e dei segnali bioelettrici delle risposte. Nella prima ricerca viene approfondita la relazione tra il sistemi di approccio (BAS), di inibizione (BIS) e di attacco/fuga (FFFS), postulati dalla teoria di J. Gray, e la modulazione della risposta di startle mediante l’utilizzo del paradigma di Prepulse Inhibition. Particolare attenzione è stata data allo studio della relazione tra questa risposta e il sistema difensivo modulato dalle dimensioni temperamentali dell’ansia e della paura. Nella seconda ricerca i suddetti sistemi comportamentali vengono messi in relazione questa volta all’abilità di inibire una risposta motoria precedentemente programma mediante l’utilizzo di un compito di Stop-Signal con compenso monetario. Inoltre è stata valutata l’influenza che tratti temperamentali quali l’impulsività e l’ansia possono avere sulle capacità di inibizione. A completamento di entrambi gli studi l’utilizzo del software sLORETA, per la localizzazione dei generatori neurali delle componenti dei potenziali evento-correlati, ha permesso un confronto con quelle ricerche che hanno approfondito lo studio dei substrati neurali dei meccanismi di sensorimotor gating. I risultati hanno evidenziato come alcuni stili comportamentali possano influenzare disfunzionalmente i processi di gating sensorio e motorio. In conclusione, sia la risposta di startle che il compito di Stop-Signal, producendo indici comportamentali manifesti potrebbero quindi rivelarsi degli ottimi strumenti per valutare fattori predisponenti e precipitanti nell’insorgere di condizioni patologiche, affiancati alla comune diagnostica psicometrica.

L’obiettivo di questo lavoro di ricerca è stato lo studio dei sistemi biologico-motivazionali postulati nella Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (Gray 1970, 1981, 1982; Gray & MacNaughton 2000; MacNaughton & Corr 2004; Corr 2008), e dei correlati fisiologici cerebrali e cardiaci, relati ai processi sensoriali e cognitivi associati all’elaborazione e alla modulazione del dolore, di tipo fisico ed empatico, indotta da placebo. Pertanto, è stata condotta una revisione della letteratura per poi studiare sperimentalmente i fenomeni di interesse. Quindi, nel primo esperimento, è stata valutata l’influenza dei tratti di personalità di approccio ed evitamento sulla modulazione del dolore fasico e dell’empatia per il dolore, indotta da effetto placebo in relazione ai correlati fisiologici associati (potenziali evento-correlati, oscillazioni di frequenza, variabilità interbattito cardiaca), in un campione di 63 partecipanti. I risultati comportamentali hanno evidenziato che il trattamento con placebo ha prodotto una riduzione del dolore e della spiacevolezza percepiti, e dell’empatia per la spiacevolezza altrui. In riferimento allo studio dei correlati elettrocorticali, è stato osservato che il sistema fight-flight-freeze (FFFS) è un moderatore della relazione che intercorre tra i cambiamenti di ampiezza delle componenti P2 e P3 e la riduzione del dolore percepito. In particolare, queste osservazioni sono coerenti con l’idea che bassi punteggi di evitamento attivo (FFFS) predicono la riduzione del dolore indotta dal placebo. Invece, in relazione allo studio delle oscillazioni di frequenza, EEG e cardiaca, evocate dagli stimoli di dolore e di empatia per il dolore durante i trattamenti placebo e controllo, è stato dimostrato che il rallentamento della frequenza cardiaca insieme alla diminuzione della potenza della banda ϑ mediana (4-8 Hz) ha influenzato sia direttamente la riduzione del dolore percepito che indirettamente, attraverso la mediazione del FFFS, e del sistema di inibizione comportamentale. In particolare, nella condizione di empatia per il dolore, è stata osservata un’influenza sia diretta tra la riduzione di potenza per la banda β2 (22-30 Hz) e l’empatia per il dolore altrui, che indiretta, attraverso la mediazione positiva del tratto Total Empathy Ability. In linea con questi risultati, suggeriamo che la modulazione del dolore fasico rispetto al dolore di tipo empatico si basa su processi fisiologici funzionalmente diversi che coinvolgono tratti di personalità differenti. Infine, nel secondo esperimento abbiamo approfondito lo studio della risposta di empatia per il dolore e la relativa modulazione degli ERP, in un campione di 60 partecipanti. Questo per capire se la risposta empatica sia meglio concettualizzabile in termini di processi cognitivi o come un tratto di personalità. I nostri risultati sostengono la tesi secondo cui durante il processo di identificazione della valenza emotiva di uno stimolo, il contenuto emotivo è in grado di modulare fin dalle prime fasi di elaborazione dello stimolo il riorientamento dell’attenzione e il successivo processo di aggiornamento in memoria associato alla modulazione della risposta empatica (Delplanque, Silvert, Hot, Rigoulot & Sequeira, 2006). A questo proposito, siamo d’accordo con la proposta alternativa di Coll e colleghi (2017), che definisce la risposta empatica in termini di differenze individuali nell’identificazione delle emozioni e nel grado in cui il riconoscimento dello stato emotivo e l’attivazione del proprio sistema provocano una condivisione affettiva nel Sé.
The aim of this Ph.D. was the study of biological-motivational systems postulated in the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (Gray 1970, 1981, 1982; Gray & MacNaughton 2000; MacNaughton & Corr 2004; Corr 2008) and the physiological cerebral and cardiac correlates, related to the sensory and cognitive processes associated with the modulation of phasic and empathic pain, induced by placebo. Therefore, a literature review was conducted to theoretically study the phenomena of interest that later were investigated experimentally. In the first experiment, we have evaluated the modulation of phasic pain and empathy for pain induced by placebo analgesia to test whether this can reduce both the empathy for pain and the perceived pain by studying the physiological correlates (Evoked Related Potentials components, EEG band power oscillations, and Heart Rate Variability), in a sample of 63 participants. The behavioral results showed that the placebo treatment reduced perceived pain and unpleasantness and empathy unpleasantness. Concerning the study of the ERPs, the results highlighted a moderator effect of the fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS) in the relationships linking P2 and P3 amplitude changes with pain reduction were both significant among low to moderate FFFS values. These observations are consistent with the idea that lower active avoidance (FFFS) scores predict placebo-induced pain reduction. Further, regarding the study of the EEG oscillations and the HRV changes evoked by pain and empathy pain modulation induced by placebo, we found that relative HR-slowing together with decreased midline ϑ-band (4-8 Hz) power directly influenced self-pain reduction and, indirectly, through a mediating effect of the Behavioral Inhibition System and Fight-Flight-Freezing System. In the empathy pain condition, we detected a direct influence of the midline β2-band (22-30 Hz) power reduction on the other-pain decline with a positive mediating role of Total Empathic Ability. In line with these findings, we suggest that the placebo analgesia modulation of first-hand versus other pain relies on different physiological processes involving different personality traits. In this regard, we agree with the alternative proposal by Coll and colleagues (2017), which defines the empathic response in terms of individual differences in two cognitive processes, the identification of emotions, and affective sharing, related to the recognition of the emotional state of the other, in the Self.