Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Projects”

Traditionally, projects tend to strive for increased predictability by managing details and attempting to bring all variables under control. However, experience shows that the chance of realising a plan without major amendments decreases with an increasing time horizon, which points to a need for flexible projects. A number of scholars argue that flexibility is necessary to face changes and uncertainty in the business environment. On the other hand, flexible projects are generally not described as desirable in project management literature. These conflicting approaches to flexibility have justified an analysis of the dynamics related to project flexibility, both from a theoretical and an empirical perspective. Such an analysis is presented in this thesis,based on analyses of large engineering projects in Norway. Most of the projects are governmental investments.

This thesis aims at structuring knowledge on project flexibility. Two types of results have emerged; the first related to how to analyse project flexibility, and the second related to how to manage flexible projects. Based on studies of different parts of the life cycle of projects, the research provides indications as to how flexibility can be addressed in the front-end phase of large public investments. A framework for analysing project flexibility is also proposed.

Chapter 1 discusses flexibility in a project management perspective, and raises key research questions. The research presented in this thesis addresses the dynamics between utilising benefits from flexible approaches and avoiding drawbacks. Being flexible is characterised by a capability to adapt to new, different or changing requirements.

Flexibility is used in a rather wide sense in the thesis, but is always related to the managing effects of uncertainty. Project flexibility includes adjustments and preparations in response to both internal and contextual uncertainty, such as for example, scope change management, iterative decision process and adjustments related to uncertain funding. Chapter 1 ends with two key research questions related to how to analyse and manage project flexibility.

Chapter 2 presents the research design. The thesis is based on nine papers. These papers are summarised in part one of the thesis. Three main data sources have been used, along with complementary information. First, project evaluations and summaries of 18 Norwegian investment projects have been analysed. Second, this research has benefited from access to an established database for major governmental investments, including results from 48 front-end assessments of large governmental projects. Third, a wider range of data has been collected in a multi-case study of four Norwegian railway projects.

The research is based on an inductive-deductive approach, using a combination of qualitative and quantitative information. Validity and reliability associated with the data used in this thesis are not sufficient to provide solid answers, taken in isolation. As is common in project management research, the small samples in the studies generally do not support statistical analysis of the data, particularly when subgroups of the material are subject to analysis. However, the research has taken previous studies of related issues into account.The results presented in the thesis support many of the findings from other studies, but also indicate some nuances to common understanding of project flexibility. Further research is needed to clarify to what extent these indications are of a general nature or project-specific.

Chapter 3 discusses project flexibility in different project phases. A distinction is made between three project phases: front-end, planning and execution. Both this thesis and previous research point to a flexible front-end phase as the least controversial aspect of project flexibility. Low flexibility after the front-end phase increases the likelihood of projects being completed on time, within budget and according to specifications. Some models and measures of project flexibility in a time perspective are also presented in this chapter.

Chapter 4 analyses project flexibility from a stakeholder perspective. Project stakeholders are actively involved in a project, or their interests may be positively or negatively affected by the project. Project flexibility is perceived differently by different stakeholders. Flexibility for one project stakeholder can be another stakeholder’s risk.

An analysis of flexibility in stakeholder perspective called for a distinction between internal and external project flexibility. Project internal flexibility relates to flexibility within defined scope – how requirements are to be met. External flexibility refers to adjustments of project scope – what requirements are to be met. Project internal flexibility appears to be particularly desirable to project managers and contractors. Project external flexibility is more likely to be looked upon favourably by users and project owners. Incentives open to stakeholders affect their approaches to project flexibility. In general, flexible projects have a value for stakeholders which benefit from adjustments and come at a cost for those who have to adapt.

Chapter 5 highlights the relevance of efficiency and effectiveness when discussing flexible projects. In general, efficiency is related to producing direct project outputs, often measured in terms of cost, time and quality. Effectiveness is related to added value for owners and users. The case in favour of flexibility emphasises the possibility to increase a project’s effectiveness. The case against project flexibility highlights the negative effects on efficiency due to changes and the possibilities for frustration due to lack of decisions and commitments.

Analyses presented in this thesis indicate challenges in materialising the expected benefits of flexible projects. On the other hand, the expected decrease in efficiency in flexible projects has been frequently observed throughout the analysis. Chapter 5 also addresses redundancy as an enabler for project flexibility. Redundancy is created when more resources than strictly necessary are available. The logic behind redundancy is that a project with redundant resources will be efficient because it can be executed as planned, compared to a project with no redundancy that turns out to be error-prone in reality.

Chapter 6 discusses flexibility related to modularity, flexible decision processes and flexible final products. Flexibility in the decision process means that decisions and commitments in projects are made sequentially over phases. Flexibility in the product is achieved when the final product that a project is to produce is prepared for alternative use. There are indications that flexible projects utilise both flexible products and flexible decision processes, rather than emphasising one of these dimensions at the expense of the other. When analysing flexibility in decision processes, there was a need to make a distinction between planned and actual approaches to flexibility. Actual approaches turn out to be different from planned ones.

Modularity can be an enabler for flexible project management. On a macro level, modularity means that projects are divided into independent sub-units. Decision makers can then make incremental commitments to each sub-unit at a time. In the studied projects, macro modularisation was associated with cost control but also with lower benefit realisation than planned. On a micro level, modularisation means a decomposition of a product into modules with specified interfaces. Such modularisation can reduce the ‘knock-on’ effects of design changes.

Chapter 7 summarises a framework for analysing project flexibility and indicates guidelines for managing flexible projects. The framework for analysis consists of project flexibility categorisations, perspectives of analysis, and flexibility drivers and enablers. Approaches for the management of project flexibility are also suggested in Chapter 7. Successful strategies for project flexibility either aim at avoiding flexibility or at enabling projects to be flexible. Projects can avoid adjustments or live with them. One key to successful flexibility management in projects lies in the transition from an initial open-minded environment to the subsequent focused phases. Based on the results in the thesis, an attempt is made to list approaches to project flexibility management.

Even though the results are based on studies of only a few projects, there are indications that the drawbacks of flexible projects are largest when projects do not prepare for future adjustments. This notion is consistent with previous works on flexibility, which highlight that flexible decisions require a structural framework of strategies and guidelines. The suggested approaches and categorisations related to project flexibility are intended as an input to such a structural framework.

Project success has multiple definitions in the scholarly literature. Research has shown that some scholars and practitioners define project success as the completion of a project within schedule and within budget. Others consider a successful project as one in which the customer is satisfied with the product. This quantitative study was conducted to test the relationship between communications of agile teams and project success. The research also tested the relationship between software process improvement and project success. The researcher presented three different characterizations of project success (time, budget and customer satisfaction). Through correlation testing, the study examined the results of the relationship between communications, software process improvement, and project success. The customer satisfaction definition of project success was more closely correlated with projects in which communications was effective. Projects characterized as having a formal software process improvement process in place were more closely correlated with the cost and schedule definitions of project success. Implications of the study include conducting further research with ordinal data in the regression testing of the independent and dependent variables. Future work should concentrate upon risk and change management in an agile project management project environment. This work furthers the ideas contained in the Project Management Second Order (PM-2) framework.

Crisis are extremely difficult to predict and according to Curtin, Hayman and Husein (2005) this is a problem that worsen by the trend in the 1970s and 80s where companies developed managers to be specialists. One example of this trend could be that a finance

director knows only about finance, likewise for the marketing director, the technology director and operations director who all have their specialist fields. This kind of approach will lead to gaps in the management structure, since a finance director who is

driven by profits and earnings per share would most probably lose sight of the bigger picture which will prevent the chances of predicting any crisis (Curtin et al., 2005). This kind of thinking began to change in the 1990s and a new approach came into vogue

where managers were produced to be far more rounded than they were previously, as a generalist (Curtin et al., 2005). Our purpose is to find out how crisis emerge in projects and investigate the role of emotion in crisis management.

The qualitative method is best suited to fulfil our aim since we are interested in individual’s personal experiences and personal reflections related to crisis management. The reason for us not choosing the quantitative method is that we do not wish to measure or create statistical generalizations about crisis management, it is rather to describe the essence of crisis management and issues related to crisis management, also how crisis is perceived from organizations. We therefore performed interviews with respondents that were of interest for our purpose.

With all the information and knowledge gathered throughout our research we believe that when it comes to the abilities of the project managers to predict and prevent crisis, it is correct that managers have different and perhaps better education than 30 years ago

but when everything comes around it is still next to impossible to completely be able to prevent crisis. We came to this conclusion after done our research and realized that even though every project manager who has been involved in any crisis can not completely

prevent the same crisis to happen again.

In the current global business environment many endeavors are undertaken as projects. Translation, localization and other language services are no exception and must be viewed and studied as services performed in a projectized environment. If they are not, there will continue to be gaps between the way translation is taught and researched (as an isolated activity) and how it is performed in the business world (as part of projects). The existence of these gaps not only prevents translation practitioners from recognizing and communicating the value of the service that they provide, but also diminishes the value of the training that future translators receive. Lack of understanding of the context in which translation is performed limits the opportunities for mutually beneficial cooperation between translation studies and other disciplines in the academic environment, and between organizations and divisions within a given organization in the business environment.

This study proposes to contribute to the research on translation in project contexts by examining risk management, which is an important area of focus for organizations and professionals in many sectors, but which is largely ignored in the language industry.

This study first provides an overview of the language industry, explores key concepts, such as risk, uncertainty, project management, risk management and maturity model, and explains the role and relevance of risk management in the language industry. It then reviews existing risk management frameworks developed by project management and risk management practitioners, including the framework developed by the Project Management Institute (PMI). Next, a model of risk sources developed specifically for application in translation and localization projects is presented and discussed. The theoretical discussion is followed by a case study in which PMI's project risk management framework is implemented and the proposed model of risk sources is applied in a real-world translation company. The description of the case study methodology is followed by observations of how the study was carried out and by a presentation and analysis of the results of the case study. The dissertation concludes by offering recommendations based on the findings of the case study and by examining possible future avenues of research.