Książki na temat „Price decreases”

Money and banking are about money, payment systems, banking and the central bank in an economy. The information on money and banking enables economic agents to make a better financial decision in the economy. Money is an exchange for goods and services and to settle debts. There is a link between the money supply and the monetary base. The money supply will increase or decrease when the monetary base or the money multiplier increases or decreases. The value of money will deteriorate fast when inflation is high. A payment system is an arrangement for exchange, which can be categorised into store-of-value systems and account-based systems. Asymmetric information can lead to adverse selection and moral hazard problems and thus, the asymmetric information problem can trigger the financial crisis problem. Banks can be commercial banks, investment banks and Islamic banks. Banks pool savings, provide safekeeping, accounting services and the payment systems, provide liquidity, diversify risk and provide financial information. Banking development is said to have a vital role in economic growth. Balance sheet management is important for the smooth running of the business of banks. Theory of term structure of interest rate attempts to explain the shape of the yield curve over time. Interest rate risk is a significant risk in the bank as a change in interest rate can affect both sides of the balance sheet of the bank. Financial innovation and bank consolidation are important issues in money and banking. The central bank manages monetary policy and oversees the financial system in an economy. The independence of the central bank can be a goal and operational independence. There are pro and con for the independence of the central bank and for the central bank to prick asset price bubble. This book can be divided into three main parts, namely money and the payment systems, banking and central bank. Chapter 1 to Chapter 2 explains money and the payment systems. Chapter 3 to Chapter 7 are banking. Chapter 8 is the central bank. Chapter 9 is concluding remarks. This book provides some fundamentals in money and banking for the economic agents, namely households, firms, governments and foreigners.

Bride price, a payment from the groom to the bride’s family at the time of marriage, is a common cultural practice in many African societies. We examine the relationship between the bride price amount and a range of outcomes using a sample of 317 couples from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Motivated by common concerns associated with high bride price, we examine whether payment of a higher bride price is associated with earlier marriage and higher fertility; a greater acceptance of domestic violence; decreased ability of the wife to leave her husband; lower-quality marriages; and lower levels of happiness for the wife. We find evidence that women for whom a high bride price was paid are less accepting of domestic violence and are happier.

Chapter 14 introduces the ideas of consumer and producer sovereignty and addresses the questions: Who determines the prices and quantities of food in our food system? Consumers? Producers? Both? The chapter demonstrates that market prices and quantities occur where consumers and producers come together in the market as represented by the market supply and demand curves. The chapter shows how changes in demand and supply will affect prices and quantities in the market. Using the demand and supply framework, the chapter analyzes the expected impact of a proposed tax on sugar sweetened beverages to decrease caloric intake. The chapter ends with a demonstration and discussion of the effects of multiple changes in demand or supply on the market equilibrium prices and quantities.

This study simulates the macro-micro economic impacts of the employment policy, focusing on hysteresis in youth unemployment in South Africa. Specifically, we apply a dynamic computable general equilibrium model to calibrate the 2015 South African Social Accounting Matrix to estimate, compare, and determine the impact of employment policy on youth unemployment as well as on aggregate economic outcomes. We simulate two scenarios where we reduce the import price of fuel by 20 per cent. Then, the total government savings from the reduced transport subsidy are reallocated to the education sector to support the unemployed youth. The research findings indicate that demand for youth labour increases in the long run, resulting in a decline in the unemployment rate. Moreover, the consumer price index decreased more than nominal income, thereby increasing household purchasing power and, potentially, easing poverty.

This case study considers how expanding implementation science in retail tobacco policy can help reduce the availability and accessibility of tobacco products and ultimately decrease the burden of smoking and tobacco use on public health. Tobacco control strategies are increasingly focused on the retail environment, in which policies can be categorized into four domains: place, price, promotion, and product availability. This case study provides a brief overview of retail tobacco policy in the United States and then examples and guidance for (1) assessing tobacco retailers in communities, (2) connecting specific retail tobacco problems with policies, and (3) translating and disseminating evidence to various stakeholders and policymakers. It concludes with a discussion of emerging opportunities for D&I research in tobacco retail policy.

The central puzzle of this chapter is the meteoric rise and abrupt fall in the popularity of Ferenc Gyurcsány, the Hungarian prime minister between 2004 and 2009. The chapter applies the LCI to explain this riddle by analyzing his prime-ministerial career. The chapter also aims to contribute to the methodological refinement of the LCI. First, it introduces a milestone approach, which sets the data for six crucial moments in Gyurcsány’s political career to make the LCI a dynamic tool for the analysis. Second, in order to improve the reliability of the method and exclude researcher bias, it replaces researcher judgment with expert judgment in the cases of communicative performance and management skills, and with the fulfillment rate of the legislative program in the case of parliamentary effectiveness. The result of the research diverges from our initial expectations, since the aggregate value of the LCI decreased only rather moderately.

The combination of ongoing U.S. budget stringency and continually increasing prices for food globally means that the size of traditional food aid shipments has been dropping. But so, too, has the number of food-insecure people. Is the need for food aid also declining? The number of refugees and conflict-displaced people is at an all-time high. In absolute numbers the food security situation in Sub-Saharan Africa is not improving. Continued high population growth and a slowing of progress in agricultural yields in that continent may mean that the hunger problem may well increase rather than decrease over the next fifty years. A continuation of global warming trends seems likely to further retard yields of unirrigated food crops and increase food prices in poor countries. Can the experience of the past 220 years of American responses to hunger abroad inform America’s responses in the decades ahead?

This chapter discusses the development and structure of energy cash and futures markets, along with current regulatory issues. It begins by discussing common features of energy markets: energy markets are characterized by inelastic short- and medium-term demand curves in which demand decreases rather slowly as prices increase. It then discusses the energy markets with actively traded benchmark futures contracts as well as the development of over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives that can be used by end users in conjunction with futures contracts to refine their hedges. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the effects of derivatives market regulation, including hedging and speculation in energy markets, position limits, and the “futurization” of OTC derivatives that were formerly structured as swaps.

This paper examines the relationship between monetary policy and wealth inequality in South Africa. We employed a unique database of tax administrative data which allowed us to account for individual heterogeneity. These tax data span from 2011 to 2017 and include over 3 million individual taxpayers in South Africa after data cleaning. Results based on fixed- and random-effects panel model estimates show that monetary policy generally increases wealth Gini inequality while it decreases the wealth 90–10 percentile differential. Increasing asset prices and gross domestic product per capita generally increases wealth inequality, while inflation reduces wealth inequality. The effect of age on wealth distribution varies depending on whether a fixed- or random-effects panel model is considered. Based on the estimates and observed data, being male tends to increase wealth inequality.

Until the mid-twentieth century, opposition to tobacco use was based primarily on moral and social issues rather than specific health effects or strategies to control the problem. Since then, a comprehensive approach has been developed to counter the activities of the tobacco industry. National and international agencies work to protect non-smokers from tobacco smoke, decrease consumption by increasing the price of tobacco products through excise taxes, promote cessation, educate the public about the dangers of tobacco use, prohibit sales to minors, enforce bans on advertising, promotion, and sponsorship, and change social norms about tobacco use. Although this chapter cites mostly examples from the United States, the “Best Practices” for comprehensive tobacco control are now embedded in the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control and the WHO Empower Initiative. These interventions were developed incrementally over decades and continue to be refined and tailored for effectiveness at the national and international level.

This chapter discusses sovereign wealth fund (SWF) governance as a tool to manage domestic political risk. It adds to the literature on the domestic legitimacy of SWFs and theorizes that legitimacy, broadly conceived, serves as a signal of appropriate entity and political risk management. Sovereign fund legitimacy is a question of increasing importance to sponsor countries as decreasing oil and gas prices force some governments to decide whether the role of SWFs should be changed to deal with the loss of revenue resulting from decreased oil and gas exports, or other budget shocks. Policymakers and fund officials must structure and govern sovereign funds in such a way as to adequately and legitimately fulfill their mandate. Threats to legitimacy include issues involving ultimate ownership of the fund, corruption, unclear or shifting purposes and uses of the fund, and misalignment of the fund with societal mores and interests.

This chapter uses analysis of aggregate data, a theoretical model, and a review of the empirical literature to examine the relationship between contraceptive availability and fertility. A correlation analysis shows that as contraceptive use rises, fertility rates fall, thus supporting the main rationale for investments in family-planning programs. These aggregate data on contraception and fertility are consistent with a theoretical model of women’s reproductive health decisions. The model can be used to predict the effects of an increase in the cost of contraceptives as might occur under the global gag rule. Higher prices and decreased availability of contraceptives are predicted to lower the intensity with which women use contraception, which results in a higher risk of unintended pregnancies. Depending on the relative costs of having an abortion and giving birth, more unintended pregnancies will lead to higher abortion rates or birth rates or both.

With the general reader in mind, Clean Energy, Climate and Carbon outlines the global challenge of decreasing greenhouse gas emissions. It covers the changing concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide through time and its causes, before considering the promise and the limitations of a wide range of energy technologies for decreasing carbon dioxide emissions. Despite the need to decrease carbon dioxide, the fact is that the global use of fossil fuels is increasing and is likely to continue to do so for some decades to come. With this in mind, the book considers in detail, what for many people is the unfamiliar clean energy technology of carbon capture and storage (CCS). How can we capture carbon dioxide from flue gases? How do we transport it? How do we store it in suitable rocks? What are suitable rocks and where do we find them? How do we know the carbon dioxide will remain trapped once it is injected underground? What does CCS cost and how do those costs compare with other technology options? The book also explores the political environment in which the discussion on clean energy technology options is occurring. What will a price on carbon do for technology uptake and what are the prospects of cutting our emissions by 2020 and of making even deeper cuts by 2050? What will the technology mix look like by that time? For people who are concerned about climate change, or who want to learn more about clean energy technologies, including CCS, this is the definitive view of the opportunities and the challenges we face in decreasing emissions despite a seemingly inexorable global increase in energy demand.

Economy and mankind are inextricably interlinked. Just as the economy or the production of material wealth is unimaginable without a man, so human existence and development are impossible without the wealth created in the economy. Shortly, both the goal and the means of achieving and realization of the economy are still the human resources. People have long ago noticed that it was the economy that created livelihoods, and the delays in their production led to the catastrophic events such as hunger, poverty, civil wars, social upheavals, revolutions, moral degeneration, and more. Therefore, the special interest of people in understanding the regulatory framework of the functioning of the economy has existed and exists in all historical epochs [A. Sisvadze. Economic theory. Part One. 2006y. p. 22]. The system of economic disciplines studies economy or economic activities of a society. All of them are based on science, which is currently called economic theory in the post-socialist space (the science of economics, the principles of economics or modern economics), and in most countries of the world - predominantly in the Greek-Latin manner - economics. The title of the present book is also Modern Economics. Economics (economic theory) is the science that studies the efficient use of limited resources to produce and distribute goods and services in order to satisfy as much as possible the unlimited needs and demands of the society. More simply, economics is the science of choice and how society manages its limited resources. Moreover, it should be emphasized that economics (economic theory) studies only the distribution, exchange and consumption of the economic wealth (food, beverages, clothing, housing, machine tools, computers, services, etc.), the production of which is possible and limited. And the wealth that exists indefinitely: no economic relations are formed in the production and distribution of solar energy, air, and the like. This current book is the second complete updated edition of the challenges of the modern global economy in the context of the coronary crisis, taking into account some of the priority directions of the country's development. Its purpose is to help students and interested readers gain a thorough knowledge of economics and show them how this knowledge can be applied pragmatically (professionally) in professional activities or in everyday life. To achieve this goal, this textbook, which consists of two parts and tests, discusses in simple and clear language issues such as: the essence of economics as a science, reasons for origin, purpose, tasks, usefulness and functions; Basic principles, problems and peculiarities of economics in different economic systems; Needs and demand, the essence of economic resources, types and limitations; Interaction, mobility, interchangeability and efficient use of economic resources. The essence and types of wealth; The essence, types and models of the economic system; The interaction of households and firms in the market of resources and products; Market mechanism and its elements - demand, supply and price; Demand and supply elasticity; Production costs and the ways to reduce them; Forms of the market - perfect and incomplete competition markets and their peculiarities; Markets for Production Factors and factor incomes; The essence of macroeconomics, causes and importance of origin; The essence and calculation of key macroeconomic indicators (gross national product, gross domestic product, net national product, national income, etc.); Macroeconomic stability and instability, unemployment, inflation and anti-inflationary policies; State regulation of the economy and economic policy; Monetary and fiscal policy; Income and standard of living; Economic Growth; The Corona Pandemic as a Defect and Effect of Globalization; National Economic Problems and New Opportunities for Development in the conditions of the Coronary Crisis; The Socio-economic problems of moral obsolescence in digital technologies; Education and creativity are the main solution way to overcome the economic crisis caused by the coronavirus; Positive and negative effects of tourism in Georgia; Formation of the middle class as a contributing factor to the development of tourism in Georgia; Corporate culture in Georgian travel companies, etc. The axiomatic truth is that economics is the union of people in constant interaction. Given that the behavior of the economy reflects the behavior of the people who make up the economy, after clarifying the essence of the economy, we move on to the analysis of the four principles of individual decision-making. Furtermore, the book describes how people make independent decisions. The key to making an individual decision is that people have to choose from alternative options, that the value of any action is measured by the value of what must be given or what must be given up to get something, that the rational, smart people make decisions based on the comparison of the marginal costs and marginal returns (benefits), and that people behave accordingly to stimuli. Afterwards, the need for human interaction is then analyzed and substantiated. If a person is isolated, he will have to take care of his own food, clothes, shoes, his own house and so on. In the case of such a closed economy and universalization of labor, firstly, its productivity will be low and, secondly, it will be able to consume only what it produces. It is clear that human productivity will be higher and more profitable as a result of labor specialization and the opportunity to trade with others. Indeed, trade allows each person to specialize, to engage in the activities that are most successful, be it agriculture, sewing or construction, and to buy more diverse goods and services from others at a relatively lower price. The key to such human interactions is that trade is mutually beneficial; That markets are usually the good means of coordination between people and that the government can improve the results of market functioning if the market reveals weakness or the results of market functioning are not fair. Moroever, it also shows how the economy works as a whole. In particular, it is argued that productivity is a key determinant of living standards, that an increase in the money supply is a major source of inflation, and that one of the main impediments to avoiding inflation is the existence of an alternative between inflation and unemployment in the short term, that the inflation decrease causes the temporary decline in unemployement and vice versa. The Understanding creatively of all above mentioned issues, we think, will help the reader to develop market economy-appropriate thinking and rational economic-commercial-financial behaviors, to be more competitive in the domestic and international labor markets, and thus to ensure both their own prosperity and the functioning of the country's economy. How he/she copes with the tasks, it is up to the individual reader to decide. At the same time, we will receive all the smart useful advices with a sense of gratitude and will take it into account in the further work. We also would like to thank the editor and reviewers of the books. Finally, there are many things changing, so it is very important to realize that the XXI century has come: 1. The century of the new economy; 2. Age of Knowledge; 3. Age of Information and economic activities are changing in term of innovations. 1. Why is the 21st century the century of the new economy? Because for this period the economic resources, especially non-productive, non-recoverable ones (oil, natural gas, coal, etc.) are becoming increasingly limited. According to the World Energy Council, there are currently 43 years of gas and oil reserves left in the world (see “New Commersant 2007 # 2, p. 16). Under such conditions, sustainable growth of real gross domestic product (GDP) and maximum satisfaction of uncertain needs should be achieved not through the use of more land, labor and capital (extensification), but through more efficient use of available resources (intensification) or innovative economy. And economics, as it was said, is the science of finding the ways about the more effective usage of the limited resources. At the same time, with the sustainable growth and development of the economy, the present needs must be met in a way that does not deprive future generations of the opportunity to meet their needs; 2. Why is the 21st century the age of knowledge? Because in a modern economy, it is not land (natural resources), labor and capital that is crucial, but knowledge. Modern production, its factors and products are not time-consuming and capital-intensive, but science-intensive, knowledge-intensive. The good example of this is a Japanese enterprise (firm) where the production process is going on but people are almost invisible, also, the result of such production (Japanese product) is a miniature or a sample of how to get the maximum result at the lowest cost; 3. Why is the 21st century the age of information? Because the efficient functioning of the modern economy, the effective organization of the material and personal factors of production largely depend on the right governance decision. The right governance decision requires prompt and accurate information. Gone are the days when the main means of transport was a sailing ship, the main form of data processing was pencil and paper, and the main means of transmitting information was sending letters through a postman on horseback. By the modern transport infrastructure (highways, railways, ships, regular domestic and international flights, oil and gas pipelines, etc.), the movement of goods, services and labor resoucres has been significantly accelerated, while through the modern means of communication (mobile phone, internet, other) the information is spreading rapidly globally, which seems to have "shrunk" the world and made it a single large country. The Authors of the book: Ushangi Samadashvili, Doctor of Economic Sciences, Associate Professor of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University - Introduction, Chapters - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11,12, 15,16, 17.1,18 , Tests, Revaz Shengelia, Doctor of Economics, Professor of Georgian Technical University, Chapters_7, 8, 13. 14, 17.2, 17.4; Zhuzhuna Tsiklauri - Doctor of Economics, Professor of Georgian Technical University - Chapters 13.6, 13.7,17.2, 17.3, 18. We also thank the editor and reviewers of the book.