Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Polymer insulators”

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Silicone rubber, particularly poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS), has been increasingly used in the manufacture of outdoor high voltage insulators in the recent years. PDMS offers several advantages that make it suitable for outdoor use, such as low weight, a hydrophobic surface, stability, and excellent performance in heavily polluted environments. PDMS surfaces can, however, become progressively hydrophilic due to surface oxidation caused by corona discharge, UV radiation and acid rain. In this study, PDMS samples of controlled formulations as well as six commercial insulator materials four PDMS based and two ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) based were exposed to various accelerated weathering conditions for various periods of time in order to track changes in the material over time. The ageing regimes developed and used to simulate the potential surface degradation that may occur during in-service usage included needle corona and French corona ageing, thermal ageing, UV-B irradiation (up to 8000 hours) and acid rain (up to 200 days). Both the chemical and physical changes in the materials were monitored using a wide range of analytical techniques, including: static contact angle measurements (SCA), optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), gas chromatography (GC), gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/MS), size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), Fourier-transform infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy (FTIR-PAS) and slow positron beam techniques (PAS). A low molecular weight (LMW) uncrosslinked PDMS model compound was used to further study the chemical effects of corona exposure on PDMS materials. PDMS showed far better performance than EPDM, in terms of resistance to the various ageing regimes and “hydrophobicity recovery”.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Silikoonrubber, spesifiek polidimetielsiloksaan (PDMS), is gedurende die afgelope paar jaar toenemend gebruik in die vervaardiging van buitelughoogspanningisolators. PDMS het baie voordele vir gebruik in elektriese isolators soos ‘n laer massa, ʼn hidrofobiese oppervlak, stabiliteit en uitstekende werking in hoogsbesoedelde omgewings. Die hidrofobiese oppervlakte kan egter gelydelik hidrofilies word weens oppervlakoksidasie as gevolg van korona-ontlading, UV-bestraling en suurreën. In hierdie studie is PDMS monsters van verskillende samestellings sowel as ses kommersiële isolators (vier PDMS en twee etileenpropileenrubber (EPDM)) blootgestel aan verskillende versnelde weersomstandighede vir verskillende periodes om die veranderinge in die materiale te monitor. Die verskillende materiale is gerangskik volgens hulle werking oor ‘n periode van tyd. Dit het ook ‘n geleentheid gebied om die eienskappe van die verskillende samestellings te bestudeer. Die tegnieke wat ontwikkel is om die moontlike oppervlakdegradasie te simuleer, het naald-korona, “French” korona, UVB-bestraling (tot 8000 uur) en suurreën (tot 200 dae) ingesluit. Beide die chemiese en die fisiese veranderinge in die materiale is gemonitor met behulp van verskeie tegnieke soos statiese kontakhoekbepaling, optiese mikroskopie, skandeerelektronmikroskopie, energieverspreidingsspektroskopie, gaschromatografie, grootte-uitsluitingschromatografie, foto-akoestiese Fouriertransforminfrarooi (PASFTIR) en stadige-positronspektroskopie (PAS). ʼn Lae molekulêre massa PDMS modelverbinding is gebruik om die chemiese effek van korona te bestudeer. Die PDMS materiale het baie beter vertoon teenoor die EPDM materiale in terme van hulle herstel van hidrofobisiteit.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) compounds are utilized in outdoor high voltage insulation due to their low weight, vandalism resistance, better anti-contamination performance and their superior hydrophobic nature. Under severe environmental conditions and over prolonged service time, however, the hydrophobic surface can gradually become hydrophilic and then recover with adequate resting period. In this study, room temperature vulcanized (RTV) PDMS samples were prepared with different formulations and then exposed to corona discharge to evaluate its effect. The influence of different additives, such as different types and amount of fillers and additionally added low molar mass silicone oils, on the hydrophobicity recovery of the material was investigated. The effects of two types of corona treatment were also evaluated. Hydrophobicity recovery of corona and UV-C aged PDMS samples was evaluated by means of static contact angle measurements. Positron annihilation spectroscopy (PAS) gave important information on the micro structural change after corona treatment of RTV PDMS as well as naturally aged high temperature vulcanized (HTV) PDMS samples. The different formulations of the RTV PDMS samples and the effect of the additives were studied with this technique. The formation of a thin, highly crosslinked inorganic silica-like (SiOx) layer was confirmed even at the early stage of degradation. It was also possible to estimate the thickness of the silica-like layer formed during corona exposure that is responsible for the loss and recovery of hydrophobicity. The surface hardness and hydrophilicity change of PDMS samples due to corona treatment were studied simultaneously with force distance measurements by atomic force microscopy (AFM). The adhesive force calculated from the pull-off force-distance curves showed that the adhesive force between the probe and the sample decreased with increasing corona treatment time, indicating hydrophobicity recovery. In addition to this, the increase in hardness after corona exposure provides indirect evidence of the formation of a silica-like layer. In all cases the hydrophilicity and the surface hardness of the PDMS samples increased directly after corona treatment and recovered with time. Two types of FTIR spectroscopy were used to analyse the surface of the polymer.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMINGS: Polidimetielsiloksaan (PDMS) word in buitelug hoogspanninginsulasie gebruik as gevolg van sy lae massa, weerstand teen vandalisme, verbeterde anti-kontaminasie werkverrigting en superieure hidrofobiese karakter. Die hidrofobiese oppervlakte kan egter gelydelik hidrofillies word onder uiterste omgewingsomstandighede en oor langdurige dienstyd. PDMS materiaal herstel egter nadat dit genoeg rustyd toegelaat is. Kamertemperatuur-gevulkaniseerde (KTV) PDMS met verskillende formulasies is in hierdie studie voorberei, aan korona ontlading blootgestel, geëvalueer en vergelyk. Die invloed van bymiddels soos verskillende tipes en hoeveelhede vuiler, asook addisionele lae molekulêre massa silikoonolie, op die herstel van hidrofobisiteit van die materiaal is ondersoek. Twee verskillende metodes van korona behandeling is ook geëvalueer. Die herstel van hidrofobisiteit van korona en UV-C verouderde PDMS monsters is met statiese kontakhoekmeting geëvalueer. Positronvernietigingspektroskopie (PVS) is 'n kragtige tegniek wat belangrike inligting oor die mikrostrukturele verandering van korona behandelde van KTV PDMS sowel as natuurlik-verouderde hoë temperatuur gevulkaniseerde (HTV) PDMS monsters gee. Die verskillende formulasies van die KTV PDMS monsters, sowel as die effek van die vullers, is met behulp van hierdie tegniek ondersoek. Die vorming van 'n dun, hoogskruisgebinde, anorganiese silika-agtige (SiOx) laag op die PDMS oppervlak, selfs tydens die vroeë stadium van degradasie, is bevestig. Dit was ook moontlik om die dikte van die silika-agtige laag wat gedurende die korona blootstelling gevorm het, en wat verantwoordelik is vir die verlies aan hidrofobisiteit, te bepaal. Die oppervlakhardheid en hidrofilisiteit verandering van PDMS monsters as gevolg van korona behandeling, was gelyktydig met krag-afstand metings deur middel van atoomkragmikroskopie (AKM) bestudeer. Die kleefkrag, soos bereken van aftrek kragafstandkurwes, dui daarop dat kleefkragte tussen die taster en die monster afneem met toenemende korona behandelingstyd, wat beduidend is op die herstel van hidrofobisiteit. Daarbenewens is die toename van oppervlakhardheid na korona blootstelling "n indirekte bewys van die formasie van 'n silika-agtige laag. In alle gevalle het die hidrofilisiteit en die oppervlakhardheid van die PDMS monsters toegeneem direk na afloop van korona behandeling en gevolglik herstel met tyd. Twee tipes IR spektroskopie metodes is gebruik vir die chemiese-oppervlak analises

Polymer insulators have been increasingly accepted by industry and utilities to replace porcelain insulators because of well-known advantages that polymer insulators have, such as light weight, ease of handling, reduced installation and maintenance cost. Significant improvement in the quality and performance of polymer insulators has been made in the three decades since their introduction for use in high voltage transmission and distribution systems. However, the industry in general still has questions about the service life of such polymer material used as electrical insulation for various transmission and distribution line equipments.

This thesis investigates the performance and reliability of 15 kV distribution class polymer insulators under accelerated aging test conditions for its onsite use in overhead distribution lines based on the experimental test results.

This thesis is concerned with the investigation of the efficacy of Zinc Oxide microvaristor compound for stress control on polymeric outdoor insulators. The preliminary work has involved a comprehensive literature survey, followed by extensive computational modelling and simulation studies as well as laboratory works covering experimental investigations and fabrication of insulator prototypes. The literature survey reviewed stress-induced degradations as the cause of ageing and insulation failures, the determination of electric field distributions, considerations for outdoor insulator modelling, and field-optimisation techniques for achieving stress relief. An 11 kV polymeric insulator has been modelled and simulated under dry-clean and wet-polluted surface conditions in order to obtain electric field distribution along the insulator creepage path. The critical high field regions on polymeric surfaces were identified. In addition, clean fog solid layer tests were carried out to experimentally examine dry band formation and electric discharges. Experimental investigations confirmed the results previously achieved from theoretical simulations. A non-linear pollution model has been developed for simulating polluted outdoor insulators. The field-dependent conductivity was derived from layer conductance measurements in a non-standard low voltage test. The proposed model was used to simulate insulators under fog and light rain conditions which respectively represent a uniform and non-uniform wetting action in practice. It was demonstrated that the nonlinear pollution model yields a more detailed and realistic field distribution compared with results obtained with models using constant/linear conductivity. Short-length microvaristor coating, having a cone-shaped structure, was introduced at both insulator ends for controlling high field, particularly near the high voltage and ground terminals. The performance of field grading was evaluated through a number of simulation scenarios. The introduction of microvaristor material with an appropriate switching characteristic has led to a substantial improvement in the electric field and heat distributions along the insulator profile. The prototype of an 11kV insulator with microvaristor grading material was fabricated in-house for preliminary tests. Lightning impulse (1.2/50 μs) flashover tests were carried out using the ‘up and down’ method, and the flashover voltage was estimated by the 50% probability breakdown, U50. The results of the lightning impulse test have indicated a considerable increase in the flashover voltage up to 21% when using microvaristor-graded insulator. Favourable field distributions obtained in the simulation study have indicated a strong correlation with the experimental results.

The ageing of polymer insulation occurs under long-term exposure to high electric fields and has attracted research due its relevance to high voltage insulation. In this work, polymers that have been electrically aged via a number of methods have been investigated using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Despite some use in the investigation of outdoor insulation surfaces, XPS has not been used for investigations of polymer bulk electrical ageing before now. The first XPS measurements, using both small spot analysis and XPS imaging, are presented from the exposed inner surfaces of electrically aged artificial voids and electrical breakdown channels, as well as corona discharge aged surfaces and spark discharge by-products. XPS is shown to be a valuable technique for the investigation of polymer electrical ageing. Investigations into breakdown channels are supported by data acquired using X-ray photoemission electron microscopy (XPEEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).Results show that the chemistry present at these surfaces takes the form of significant oxidation over a wide area with localised production of graphitic carbon. C-O-, C=O, and O-C=O species are detected in all cases. It is found that similar ageing products are present regardless of the ageing process or material investigated. However, the level of oxidation and relative ratio of the species seen with XPS is shown to be highly dependant on oxygen availability. Greater intensity of carbon oxides, and a shift towards highly oxidised species, is observed when there is more oxygen in the system. XPS imaging of breakdown channels reveals that high concentrations of oxidised components form on the outer edges of the channel, with graphitic carbon forming in the central regions. In addition, evidence for degradation is seen to extend at least 300 μm from channels in XPS imaging and at least ~650 μm in XPS line scans. Variation with the applied discharge energy was investigated for breakdown channels and spark discharge ageing. Evidence is seen for an energy dependence on the breakdown products, with higher energies producing relatively higher graphitic carbon and reduced oxidation products. Further, the relationship between the applied voltage and graphitic carbon concentration suggests an activated process with an energy barrier before graphitic carbon formation starts. XPS observations are supported by confocal Raman microprobe spectroscopy (CRMS) results from artificial voids and electrical breakdown channels, which identify graphitic carbon on a fluorescent background as the main features. XPS data indicate oxidised species are the origin of the fluorescence seen and provides quantitative information on the levels, chemical states and spatial distribution of these species and of graphitic carbon.

This work describes the fabrication and usability of organic polymeric layers as gate insulators of field effect transistors (reference field effect transistors, REFET) that are dedicated to the determination of pH-reference potentials in electrolytic solutions. Based on the site binding model hydrophobe CF-polymers were investigated. Various techniques are able to generate polymeric layers that are characterized by low selective hydrogen ion sensitivity. Additional results indicate the necessity of reexamination the site binding model´s usability for polymers with low amount of dissociating sites. This work suggests a model assuming ion adsorption onto polymeric surfaces. This model describes results from CV-measurements as well as measurements on REFETs in a qualitative and quantitative way

Due to its applications in high voltage insulation, a thorough understanding of the chemical reactions that occur during electrical ageing in polymers is needed. A confocal Raman microscope has a potential lateral resolution of ~1μm along both the lateral and optic axes and is able to characterise the localised chemical composition of a material; for this reason, it has been applied in the study of electrical ageing in solid dielectrics. Due to inaccurate assumptions about the optical processes involved in confocal Raman microprobe spectroscopy (CRMS), however, the exact characterisation of the processes and chemicals involved has previously proven to be difficult. The objective of this study is to apply the technique of Raman microprobe spectroscopy in the analysis of the chemical structures of electrically aged polymers. It was found that, with the application of immersion oil and by using a refined version of a model of CRMS which is based on a photon scattering approach; CRMS is a valuable tool in the study of polymers. More accurate results can be obtained, however, by revealing the feature in question to the surface and applying non confocal Raman microprobe spectroscopy (RMS). CRMS was applied to a variety of polymeric samples containing electrically aged voids and electrical trees. Results showed that within the electrically aged voids, chemical signatures similar to those previously found in electrical trees in PE can be found. Finally, a variety of polymeric insulators was subjected to spark ageing and corona discharge. The by-products of these ageing mechanisms were then characterized using RMS in an attempt to reproduce in bulk the chemical compounds formed in electrical treeing. The resulting Raman spectra indicated that the same by-products as those formed in voids and trees are indeed formed. Where possible all results were compared to comparative data obtained using Fourier transform infra red (FTIR) spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and discussed in relation to previously published work.

The doctoral thesis concerns the preparation and characterization of silicone polymers using the UV-hydrosilation reaction in order to obtain materials with high electrical insulating properties. This reaction is typically the addition of a silane bond across a double bond to form silicone polymers. This method progressively became the method of choice for the synthesis of organofunctional silanes and is still used today in silicone industry. This process allows to save energy and processing time. In this regards, the potential for UV curable system is increasing quite significantly.

El texto completo de este trabajo no está disponible en el Repositorio Académico UPC por restricciones de la casa editorial donde ha sido publicado.
This study focuses on problems of inadequate production capacity management. The factors that generate this scenario are related to the incorrect distribution of work areas, the absence of standardization of the production process and unorganized workstations in the production line. The application of 5S’s tool, Value Stream Mapping (VSM) and a proposal for plant design are presented to solve the problem. After the application of the design solution, it was identified that 1 h and 23 min can be saved in transfer times, which can be invested in the manufacture of more products, improving the use of the plant’s capacity.

Une des propriétés fondamentales des diélectriques est d'accumuler des charges sous l'effet d'un champ électrique. Si cet effet est exploité dans certaines applications telles que les mémoires il est la plupart du temps la cause de défaillance dans de nombreux systèmes tels que les câbles haute tension ou les microsystèmes. De nombreuses études ont démontré que l'interface entre le diélectrique et l'électrode jouait un rôle prédominant dans le fonctionnement du système complet et en particulier influençait le phénomène d'injection de charge à l'origine des défaillances. Au cours des dernières années le phénomène d'injection de charges à l'interface électrode/diélectrique a largement été étudié. Pour expliquer la différence entre les résultats expérimentaux et les modèles, l'hypothèse la plus plausible est la présence d'états d'interfaces entre l'électrode (métal ou semiconducteur) et le diélectrique. Cette hypothèse permet en particulier d'expliquer l'indépendance de la quantité de charge injectée vis-à-vis du métal servant d'électrode. Toutefois, les propriétés des interfaces restent mal connues en particulier car ces phénomènes nanométriques sont caractérisés à partir de mesures microscopique. L'objectif de cette thèse est de caractériser les propriétés chimiques et électriques de l'interface grâce à un contrôle rigoureux de son procédé de fabrication. L'apport majeur de ces travaux est lié à l'utilisation de la microscopie à force atomique pour déterminer les propriétés de l'interface à l'échelle nanométrique. Nous avons en particulier caractérisé morphologiquement (mesure de propriétés mécaniques par PFQNM - Peak Force Quantitative NanoMechanical) et électriquement (mesure de potentiel de surface par KPFM - Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy). Nous avons ainsi pu montrer que le procédé de fabrication influençait les propriétés chimiques (oxydation de surface...) de l'interface sans que cela ait de conséquences notables sur les propriétés électriques. En effet, la quantité de charges injectées reste du même ordre de grandeur quel que soit le procédé de fabrication. Les mesures AFM ont montré que l'interface morphologique était abrupte alors que l'interface électrique était progressive (plusieurs microns). Grâce à un modèle nous avons pu extraire des mesures de potentiel de surface KPFM la densité de charge d'interface
One of the fundamental properties of dielectrics is to accumulate charges under an electric field. Even if this phenomena is exploited in some applications such as memories, it is the main cause of failure in a large amount of applications such as high voltage cables or microsystems. Numerous studies have demonstrated that dielectric/electrode interface has strong impact on complete system and particularly on charge injection phenomenon which induce failures. During the past decades, charge injection phenomena electrode / dielectric interface has been extensively studied. To explain the difference between experimental and modelling, the most plausible hypothesis is the presence of interface states between the electrode (metal or semiconductor) and the dielectric. This hypothesis explain the independence of injected charge density respect to the electrode meta (work function). However, interfaces properties remain poorly understood mainly because all nanometric phenomena accuring at its localization are characterized thanks to microscopic measurements. The aim of this PhD thesis is to characterize chemical and electrical properties of the interface through a rigorous control of its manufacturing process. The major contribution of this work is related to the use of Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) to determine interface properties at nanoscale. In particular, interfaces are characterized morphologically (mechanical properties measurements by PFQNM - Peak Quantitative Quantum NanoMechanical) and electrically (surface potential measurements by KPFM - Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy). Thus, results demonstrate that the manufacturing process influenced the chemical properties (surface oxidation ...) of the interface without having any significant influence on the electrical properties. Indeed, the amount of injected charges remains quite the same regardless of the manufacturing process. AFM measurements showed that the morphological interface was abrupt whereas the electrical interface was progressive (several microns). A Matlab model permits us to extract interface charge density to KPFM surface potential measurements

O iodeto de mercúrio vermelho (?-HgI2 ou comumente conhecido na literatura como HgI2) vem sendo largamente estudado para utilização em detectores de radiação -X e -? por apresentar alta faixa de energia proibida (gap de energia = 2,13eV), alto número atômico (ZHg = 80; ZI = 53) e alta densidade (6,4 mg/ml), além de outras propriedades que auxiliam na absorção destes tipos de radiação. A obtenção de filmes e cristais usando uma técnica de baixo custo é abordada neste trabalho. A técnica que obtenção de cristais utilizada foi a evaporação de solvente, que consiste na evaporação de um solvente volátil de uma solução preparada com sal de HgI2. Os solventes voláteis utilizados foram etanol, tetrahidrofurano (THF) e algumas misturas de ambos. Duas principais condições de evaporação foram testadas: na presença de luz ambiente (claro) e na ausência desta (escuro) em temperatura ambiente. Somente para o etanol obteve-se cristais com controle de temperatura (temperatura de 40°C) dentro de estufa no escuro. Observou-se, como resultado geral, que os cristais apresentam um aumento da desorganização estrutural quando se adiciona THF. Como esperado, isso se refletiu nas propriedades elétricas, diminuindo a resistividade (?) e energia de ativação (Ea) destes materiais. Além disso, é observado para os cristais obtidos com etanol (claro, escuro e estufa a 40°) diferentes resultados estruturais, ópticos, elétricos e de fotocondutividade. Em relação aos resultados estruturais, as condições influenciaram três orientações distintas que se acredita ser devido a variações energéticas relacionadas a temperatura e excitação eletrônica promovida pela luz. Anisotropia também foi observada pela análise dos resultados do espalhamento Raman. Medidas ópticas destacaram a presença principal de contribuições referentes a transições de elétrons da banda de valência a banda de condução (transição excitônica). Os cristais obtidos no claro e estufa apresentam ainda contribuições de transições de elétrons relacionadas a desorganização estrutural e ligações pendentes. Quanto as medidas elétricas, observou-se que o cristal obtido no escuro com etanol (E100E) apresentou os maiores valores de ? e Ea (2,67x108 ? .cm e 1,13 eV) e resultados de fotocondutividade mostraram baixos valores da relação fotocorrente corrente de escuro. Os filmes híbridos de iodeto de mercúrio foram obtidos usando a mesma técnica com presença de polímeros isolantes que atuaram como matriz de sustentação dos cristais de HgI2. Os polímeros utilizados foram poliamida (PA), policarbonato (PC) e poliestireno (PS). Estes eram dissolvidos em THF e o sal de HgI2 era acrescido a esta solução. Filmes foram confeccionados variando a temperatura de evaporação do THF para todos os polímeros, e para PS (que apresenta maior resistência a radiação na faixa de radiodiagnóstico) foi realizado estudos de variação da concentração de polímero (de 20 a 200mg/ml) e da massa de iodeto de mercúrio (de 0,6 a 2,0g). Com o acréscimo dos polímeros isolantes nos filmes, nota-se que se tem um aumento de ?, ainda maior que o observado para os cristais. Também a relação entre fotocondutividade e corrente de escuro é aumentada. No entanto, não se observa uma formação homogênea no filme quando analisamos morfologicamente, sendo possível ver cristais dispersos. Por fim, estes filmes apresentaram um gap de energia de 2,1 eV, muito próximo do obtido para cristais HgI2 (2,13 eV)
Red mercuric iodide (?-HgI2 or known in literature as HgI2) has been widely studied for X- and ?- radiation detector applications because of the high gap energy (2.13 eV), high atomic number (ZHg = 80, ZI = 53), high density (6.4 mg/ml) and other properties that raise the absorption of these types of radiation. Films and crystals were obtained using a low-cost technique that is discussed in this work. The technique used was solvent evaporation, which is the evaporation of volatile solvent from solution prepared with HgI2 salt. The solvents were ethanol, tetrahydrofuran (THF) and some mixtures of both. Two main evaporation conditions were experimented: in (Light) or without (Dark) ambient light presence at room temperature. Only ethanol was obtained crystals with temperature control (constant temperature of 40o in dark oven. It was observed, as general result, that the crystals show an increase of structural disorder when it was added THF for initial solution. This reflects in electrical properties, decreasing resistivity (?) and activation energy (Ea) from this material. Furthermore, it is observed for ethanol crystals (Light, Dark, and Oven at 40o) different structural, optical, electrical and photoconductivity results. In relation to structure, the conditions influenced three distinct orientations that it is energetic variations related to temperature and light excitation. Anisotropy was also observed by Raman scattering analysis. Optical measurements present main contributions of electron transitions from valence to conduction band (excitonic transitions). The Light and Oven crystals show contributions related to structural disorder and dangling bounds. Electrical studies highlighted higher values of ? and Ea (2.67x10-8 ?.cm e 1.13 eV), and photoconductive curves has lower photocurrent-dark current relation. HgI2 hybrid films were obtained using the same technique (solvent evaporation) with insulator polymers forming a matrix to sustain the crystals. The polymers were polyamide (PA), polycarbonate (PC) and polystyrene (PS). These were dissolved in THF and HgI2 salt was added to this solution. Films were made varying the evaporation temperature, and for PS (whose shows the best resistance for diagnostic radiation) was varying polymer concentration (from 20 to 200mg/ml) and HgI2 mass (from 0.6 to 2.0). It was observed an increase of ? adding the polymers in relation of crystals. The photocurrent-dark current relation is also higher than crystals. However, it was not seen homogeneous surface, where it was seen dispersed crystals by SEM images. Finally, the films show energy gap of 2.1 eV, very close to single crystal of literature.

Orientador: Nilson Cristino da Cruz
Banca: Maria Lúcia Pereira Antunes
Banca: Rogerio Pinto Mota
O Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência e Tecnologia de Materiais, PosMat, tem caráter institucional e integra as atividades de pesquisa em materiais de diversos campi da Unesp
Resumo: O acúmulo de sais na superfície de isoladores acarreta a formação de arcos sobre os mesmos, aumentando o processo de corrosão por ácido nítrico. Essa corrosão pode iniciar uma falha da cadeia de isoladores. Atualmente o principal método para análise da corrosão em isoladores, baseia-se em câmaras térmicas e não se tem mostrado adequado para a detecção de defeitos por poluição salínica em seus estágios iniciais. Esse projeto propõe, a adoção de câmeras corona que operam em um comprimento de onda variando entre 240 - 280 nm, filtrando totalmente os raios solares UVA e UVB e permitindo a detecção do ponto aonde se encontra presente a anomalia. Embora as câmeras corona tenham sido amplamente utilizadas, principalmente em linhas de 135 kV até 500 kV, poucos experimentos foram realizados com as mesmas em tensões de 69 kV, tensão padrão da empresa patrocinadora do projeto. Nossa proposta é a de apresentar uma nova metodologia de inspeção utilizando esses equipamentos e possibilitando à empresa incrementar as suas atividades de inspeção.
Abstract: The accumulation of salt on the surface of insulators causes the formation of arcs, increasing the corrosion process by nitric acid. This corrosion can start a fault of the insulators chain. Presently the main method for corrosion analysis of insulators is based on thermal cameras and is not adequated to detect defects caused by salt pollution on initial stages. This project proposes the adoption of corona cameras operating in wavelengths ranging from 240 to 280 nm, with filters to block UVA and UVB from sunrays and allowing the detection of anomalous spots. Although the corona cameras have been widely used, especially in lines of 135 kV to 500 kV, few experiments have been performed with such an instrument at 69 kV, that is the standard voltage of the company sponsoring of the project. Our proposal is to present a new methodology for inspection using such instrument that enables the company to improve its inspection activities.
Mestre

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O acúmulo de sais na superfície de isoladores acarreta a formação de arcos sobre os mesmos, aumentando o processo de corrosão por ácido nítrico. Essa corrosão pode iniciar uma falha da cadeia de isoladores. Atualmente o principal método para análise da corrosão em isoladores, baseia-se em câmaras térmicas e não se tem mostrado adequado para a detecção de defeitos por poluição salínica em seus estágios iniciais. Esse projeto propõe, a adoção de câmeras corona que operam em um comprimento de onda variando entre 240 - 280 nm, filtrando totalmente os raios solares UVA e UVB e permitindo a detecção do ponto aonde se encontra presente a anomalia. Embora as câmeras corona tenham sido amplamente utilizadas, principalmente em linhas de 135 kV até 500 kV, poucos experimentos foram realizados com as mesmas em tensões de 69 kV, tensão padrão da empresa patrocinadora do projeto. Nossa proposta é a de apresentar uma nova metodologia de inspeção utilizando esses equipamentos e possibilitando à empresa incrementar as suas atividades de inspeção.
The accumulation of salt on the surface of insulators causes the formation of arcs, increasing the corrosion process by nitric acid. This corrosion can start a fault of the insulators chain. Presently the main method for corrosion analysis of insulators is based on thermal cameras and is not adequated to detect defects caused by salt pollution on initial stages. This project proposes the adoption of corona cameras operating in wavelengths ranging from 240 to 280 nm, with filters to block UVA and UVB from sunrays and allowing the detection of anomalous spots. Although the corona cameras have been widely used, especially in lines of 135 kV to 500 kV, few experiments have been performed with such an instrument at 69 kV, that is the standard voltage of the company sponsoring of the project. Our proposal is to present a new methodology for inspection using such instrument that enables the company to improve its inspection activities.

Orientador: Bernardo Laks
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Fisica Gleb Wataghin
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Resumo: Antes da década de 70, todos os materiais poliméricos eram considerados como isolantes e suas aplicações tecnológicas levavam em conta esta característica. De lá para cá, uma nova classe desses materiais, os polímeros conjugados, determinaram uma nova forma de aplicação de sistemas poliméricos baseados em suas propriedades elétricas e de ótica não-linear. Um maior estímulo surgiu a partir do experimento de Mac Diarmid, Heeger e Shirakawa [1] que, expondo o Poliacetileno a agentes oxidantes, demonstraram ser possível obter um sistema no estado metálico. Atualmente encontramos filmes de Poliacetileno com condutividade elétrica da ordem do cobre (105 S/cm). O Poliacetileno, quando no regime metálico, i.e., sob alta dopagem, apresenta algumas características de metal comum: alta condutividade elétrica (cresce 13 ordens de grandeza), susceptibilidade de Pauli finita e absorção no infravermelho. Já outras propriedades como a presença de modos vibracionais localizados no infravermelho e o não comportamento da condutividade com o inverso da temperatura evidenciam ser este um material não usual. Estes polímeros conjugados que apresentam uma extensiva delocalização de elétrons são considerados semicondutores orgânicos com gap de energia relativamente pequeno, da ordem de 1,5 a 2,0 eV. O comportamento semicondutor e as propriedades decorrentes entre os elétrons e a luz têm originado a construção de vários dispositivos semicondutores e optoeletrônicos [2, 7, 3]. Problemas técnicos como estabilidade ao ambiente, processabilidade e solubilidade destes materiais provocaram a produção de uma nova classe de materiais poliméricos que foi obtida por polimerização eletroquímica [57, 58, 59] cuja estrutura molecular trata-se de sistemas que introduzem grupos vinilas (V) entre anéis de tiofeno (T). Experimentos de voltametria cíclica, espectroscopia de absorção ótica e ressonância eletrônica de spin indicam que esses sistemas possuem potencial de ionização e gap de energia menores que o apresentado pelo Politiofeno. Estudos com oligômeros de tiofeno (T) com vinilenos (V) sugerem a possibilidade de escolha desse material como alternativa ao politiofeno. O objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar teoricamente a influência do grupo vinila (V) sobre as propriedades eletrônicas nestes polímeros, reproduzir os resultados experimentais e determinar qual proporção de vinilenos (V) e tiofenos (T) que provoque o menor gap de energia de forma que quando sobre dopagem possibilite uma transição isolante metal. Desta maneira, primeiramente, determinamos as geometrias dos sistemas de interesse utilizando métodos semi-empíricos. Posteriormente investigamos a estrutura eletrônica dos polímeros de tiofeno (T) com vinilenos (V), sendo que estes polímeros foram estudados para o caso neutro e na presença de defeitos conformacionais do tipo pólaron e bipólaron. Finalizamos o estudo investigando as absorções ópticas UV-vis dos sistemas de interesse através de cálculos semi-empíricos utilizando o código ZINDO/S.
Abstract: Before the 1970s, all polymeric materials were considered insulators; therefore their technological applications would take this trait into account. Since then, a new development on these materials, the conjugated polymers, determined new applications for polymeric systems based in their electrical and nonlinear optical properties. Greater interest arose from the experiment by Mac Diarmid, Heeger and Shirakawa [1] who, by using polyacetylene and oxidizing agents, showed that it is possible to obtain a system in the metallic state. Nowadays it is possible to find polyacetylene films with electrical conductivity of the order of copper (10-5 S/cm). Polyacetylene, when in its metallic behavior, i.e., under high dopage, presents some characteristics of real metal: high electrical conductivity (increased by 13 orders of magnitude), finite Pauli susceptibility and infrared absorption. On the other hand, other properties such as the presence of vibrational modes localized on infrared and the odd behavior of conductivity versus the inverse of temperature make clear that this is a unusual material. These conjugated polymers, presenting an extensive delocalization of electrons, are considered organic semiconductors with relatively low energy gap, of the order of 1.5 to 2.0 eV. The semiconductive behavior and the resulting properties of the interaction between electrons and light have been the drive for the manufacturing of several semiconductor and optoelectronic devices [2, 7, 3]. Technical problems, such as environmental stability, processability and solubility of these materials, gave rise to the production of a new kind of polymeric materials that were obtained by electrochemical polymerization [57, 58, 59], in which the molecular structure is a system that introduces vinylene groups (V) between tiophene rings (T). Experiments involving cyclic voltametry, optical absorption spectrometry and spin electronic ressonance indicate that these systems have ionization potential and energy gap smaller than those presented by Polythiophene. Studies with thiopene oligomers (T) with vinylene (V) suggest this material can be chosen as an alternative to Polytiophene. The goal of this work is to theoretically investigate the in uence of the vinyle group (V) on the electronic properties on these polymers, reproduce experimental results and determine what is the vinylene (V) to thiophene (T) rate that causes the smallest energy gap, such that doping will produce a insulator-metal transition. Therefore, we first determine the target systems' geometry using semi-empirical methods. Then we investigate the electronic structure of the tiophene (T) and vinylene (V) polymers both for neutral systems and in the presence of conformational defects of polaron and bipolaron types. We nalized the study by investigating the UV-vis optical absorption of the target systems through semi-empirical calculations using ZINDO/S code.
Doutorado
Estrutura Eletronica de Atomos e Moleculas ; Teoria
Doutor em Ciências

A novel insulating cross-arm (ICA) has been developed for new and existing overhead transmission lines of up to 400 kV. The cross-arm consists of four insulating members, end fittings, field grading devices and a nose connection for the attachment of the conductor. The two main structural elements of the assembly have a unique non-cylindrical geometry which gives them improved mechanical characteristics compared to conventional overhead line insulators. The profile for the compression insulator has been designed. After examining six profile variations, it was determined that the lateral orientation which would give the best performance would be with the flat face of the core facing upwards and tilted by 6o. Using the results obtained from performing flashover tests on a conventional 145 kV insulator, the elevation angle for the compression insulator was set to 6o. The dimensions of the compression insulator were calculated based on the assumption that the ICA would be used to uprate an OHL with L3 towers from 275 kV to 400 kV. The optimal insulator profile was determined to be an alternating profile with three different shed sizes, an arcing distance of 3083 mm and a creepage distance of 12470 mm. Electric field grading devices for the ICA were designed. For the LV end, a grading device resembling a ring which follows the general shape of the cross-section of the insulator was designed. For the HV end, an iterative process yielded two designs. First, the ‘butterfly’ grading device was a unibody piece of cast aluminium for all four ICA members. FEA simulations and tests in the laboratory showed that it could effectively control the electric field at voltages of up to 132 kV. The design was patented and the device was used on six cross-arms installed on a live line in Scotland in August 2013. Second, the ‘M-W’ grading device, was a solution made out of four components for managing the field at voltages of up to 400 kV. The device was designed to be easy to install and service, easy and cheap to manufacture and to have minimal visual impact. The compression insulator and the cross-arm assembly were subjected to a multitude of tests adapted from international standards and the Technical Specifications of National Grid. The performed tests aimed to test the electrical characteristics of the cross-arm and the quality of the materials and manufacturing process of the compression insulator. All of the tests were completed successfully except from the corona extinction test for which the appropriate equipment was not available at the time. Two trials were commissioned to examine how the cross-arm performs in a service-like environment. The snow and ice accretion patterns recorded at the mechanical trial site were used for optimising the profile of the compression insulator. The results after a year of continuous monitoring of leakage current and weather conditions at the live trial site showed that there were humidity and visibility thresholds, above 93% for the former and below 400 m for the latter, which increased the average leakage current by 15% on the tension insulators and by 20% on the compression insulators. It was found that when the longitudinal axis of the cross-arm was perpendicular to the weather the leakage current was higher because more of its surface was exposed. The performance of the novel compression insulators was found to be as good as that of the industry standard tension insulators, reaffirming the potency of the design. Finally, on-site observations showed that the ‘butterfly’ grading device could not effectively manage the electric field on the cross-arm at 400 kV, confirming the results of the FEA simulations and testing.

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Capes
Em inspeção, com câmara sensível à radiação ultravioleta, são fornecidas apenas informações acerca do local onde estão concentradas as descargas corona e uma estimativa de intensidade dessas decargas em equipamento de alta tensão. Nesse intuito, uma metodologia de extração de atributos das fáculas de imagens ultravioletas de isoladores poliméricos de 230 kV foi desenvolvida. Para isso, foram usados vídeos captados pela câmera de detecção ultravioleta como material. Essas informações, quando adequadamente dispostas, podem servir de entrada a um sistema de auxílio à tomada de decisão que poderá classificar, finalmente, os isoladores em padrões predefinidos. Na metodologia do trabalho, desenvolveram-se várias rotinas de processamento digital de imagens para, inicialmente, adequar as imagens e, posteriormente, quantificar os atributos de interesse extraídos. As rotinas de adequação de imagens buscam segmentar o shape do isolador do plano de fundo, segmentar em uma imagem as fáculas, que representam descargas causadas pelo efeito corona, integralizar as fáculas de vários quadros em apenas uma imagem, eliminar o que vier a ser considerado ruído e segmentar o shape do isolador em partes de interesse. As rotinas de quantificação de atributos são destinadas a calcular a área, o perímetro, o fator de forma e a persistência das fáculas, além de sua distância às partes de interesse do isolador polimérico de 230 kV. Como resultado do desenvolvimento das rotinas, é apresentado um algoritmo para extração de atributos de fáculas. Finalmente, é feita uma análise de sensibilidade dos parâmetros usados no algoritmo no intuito de delimitar suas condições de uso. Dois estudos da aplicação do algoritmo foram realizados, em que, para cada um deles foram processados 64 combinações de número de quadros e de limite de ruído. Foram apresentadas as superfícies dos atributos de área, perímetro, fator de forma e persistência das fáculas em função dos dois parâmetros citados. A fim de determinar qual par ordenado (número de quadros, limite de ruído) seria adequado, adotou-se como métrica buscar o menor valor de gradiente das superfícies dos atributos. Concluiu-se que a metodologia de extração de atributos de fáculas de imagens ultravioletas de isoladores, para aprimoramento da classificação de isoladores foi desenvolvida com sucesso e a contribuição do trabalho se apresenta na metodologia para extração de atributos e na determinação do número de quadros e limite de ruído adequados para vídeos ultravioletas.
On inspection with ultraviolet sensitive camera, it is only supplied information on where the corona discharges are concentrated and an estimative of intensity of these discharges in high voltage equipment. For this purpose, it was developed a methodology of faculae attribute extraction of ultraviolet images from 230 kV polymeric insulators. In order to do this, videos captured by the ultraviolet detection camera were used as work material. The methodology of the work consists of the development of several digital image processing routines, initially, to adapt images and, later, to quantify the attributes of interest extracted. The image adaptation routines seek to segment the shape of the insulator from the background, to segment in an image the faculae that represent discharges caused by corona effect, to integrate faculae from multiple frames in only one image, to eliminate what is to be considered noise and to segment the shape of the insulator into parts of interest. The attribute quantification routines are destined for faculae area, perimeter, form factor and persistence, in addition to their distances of the 230 kV polymeric insulator parts of interest. As a result of the development of these routines an algorithm for attribute extraction is presented. Finally, a sensitivity analysis of the parameters used in the algorithm is made, with the intention to delimit its use conditions. Two case studies of the application of the algorithm were performed, for each of them 64 combinations of number of frames and noise limit were processed. Presenting the surfaces of area, perimeter, shape factor and persistence of the faculae attributes in function of the two cited parameters. In order to determine which number of frames and noise limit would be suitable, it was adopted as metric to look for the lowest gradient value of the attributes surfaces. In conclusion the methodology for extracting attributes from the UV image faculae of insulators to improve the classification of insulators was successfully developed and the contribution of the work is presented in extracting attributes and determining suitable number of frames and noise limits for UV videos.

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Capes
A análise da variação de temperatura ao longo do isolador, por meio da termografia, pode consistir em um dos métodos mais eficazes de avaliação de isoladores em serviço, pois considera o efeito combinado da poluição, do estresse elétrico, defeitos internos e das condições ambientais. No entanto, analisar apenas de modo visual imagens termográficas é difícil e, muitas vezes, apenas os engenheiros especializados são capazes de fazer julgamentos corretos. Neste trabalho foi desenvolvida uma técnica para análise de imagens termográficas baseada em expansão não-linear de sinais, equalização de histogramas e análise de componentes principais com o objetivo de auxiliar no diagnóstico do nível de degradação de isoladores poliméricos. O processamento digital das imagens termográficas permitiu a obtenção dos valores de temperatura que indicam o comportamento térmico dos isoladores sob inspeção. Ensaios em laboratório foram realizados com isoladores poliméricos de 230 kV, com diferentes níveis de degradação, com a finalidade de captar imagens utilizando uma câmera de detecção de radiação infravermelha. Os resultados evidenciam a eficiência da metodologia desenvolvida, atuando de forma semiautomática no processamento digital de imagens termográficas, para obtenção do perfil térmico dos isoladores inspecionados. Com base nos produtos do processamento digital das imagens termográficas, tem-se uma melhor avaliação dos níveis de degradação em que se encontram os isoladores, além de auxiliar de forma eficiente a tomada de decisão para a classificação dos seus estados operacionais.
The analysis of the temperature variation along the insulator through thermography can be one of the most effective methods of evaluating insulators in service, for it considers the combined effect of pollution, electrical stress, internal defects and environmental conditions. However, analyses based only on visual inspection of images are not enough. In fact, only specialized engineers are able to make correct judgments. In this work a computational routine was developed, based on the digital image processing. The routine utilizes the signal nonlinear expansion technique, histogram equalization and principal component analysis. The digital processing of the thermographic images is used to obtain the temperature values that indicate the thermal behavior of the insulators under inspection. Laboratory tests were performed with 230 kV polymeric insulators with different levels of degradation in order to capture images using an infrared radiation detection camera. The results demonstrate the efficiency of the digital thermographic imaging technique to obtain the thermal profile of the insulators inspected. Based on the products of the digital processing of the thermographic images, we have a better evaluation of the degradation levels of the insulators, besides efficiently support to the classification of the operational states of the insulators.

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CNPq
Nesta pesquisa é desenvolvida uma metodologia para aprimoramento da classificação de isoladores poliméricos por medições termográficas e radiação UV utilizando o Processamento Digital de Imagens (PDI) e Redes Neurais Artificiais (RNAs). A metodologia é baseada na análise da ocorrência de descargas corona e nas variações de temperatura ao longo do isolador a fim de classificá-los quanto seu estado de degradação. Cada isolador utilizado foi submetido à tensão de 133 kV fase-terra durante um período de 30 minutos, com o objetivo de ocasionar aquecimento e evidenciar descargas corona nos isoladores. As medições foram realizadas utilizando um detector de corona para medição de UV e os dados de temperatura foram adquiridos utilizando-se um termovisor. As imagens adquiridas pelos instrumentos de monitoramento, durante os ensaios, foram submetidas a um processamento digital de imagem, para extrair informações de densidade de pixels, persistência das descargas e distâncias relativas das áreas de descargas ao isolador. A partir de informações obtidas de imagens de infravermelho (temperatura) foi aplicada a estatística descritiva e o teste discriminante de Fisher, para apresentar ao sistema de classificação, parâmetros objetivos e com alto nível de separabilidade. O sistema de classificação utilizou RNA para determinar o estado de degradação dos isoladores. A classificação foi realizada de forma individual e combinada, com vetores formados pelos atributos UV e infravermelho. O sistema desenvolvido permitiu o auxílio à tomada de decisões quanto à necessidade de intervenção ou não aos isoladores. A classificação dos isoladores, de forma individual, obteve acurácia média para temperatura de 80,00% e UV 74,05%. A classificação dos isoladores, de forma combinada (UV e infravermelho), obteve acurácia média de 92,58%, evidenciando o aprimoramento na classificação.
This research presents a methodology for the improvement of the classification of polymeric insulators by using thermographic measurements and UV radiation in combination with Digital Image Processing (DIP) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs). The methodology is based on the analysis of the occurrence of corona discharges and temperature variations along the insulator in order to classify their stage of degradation. Each insulator was subjected to the 133 kV phase-to-ground voltage over a period of 30 minutes, in order to cause heating and corona discharges in the insulators. The experiments were performed using a corona detector for UV measurement and the temperature data were acquired using a thermal imager. The images acquired by the monitoring instruments during the tests were subjected to digital image processing to extract information of pixel density, persistence of discharges and relative distances from the discharge areas to the insulator. From information obtained through infrared (temperature) images descriptive statistics and Fisher's discriminant test were applied to present objective parameters with high level of separability to the classification system. The classification system used ANN to determine the insulators degradation state. The classification was performed in individual and in combination ways, with vectors formed by UV and infrared attributes. The developed system helped on the decision making, concerning to the necessity of intervention or not to the insulators. The classification of the insulators, in an individual way, obtained accuracy for temperature of 80.00% and UV 74.05%. The classification of the isolators, combined (UV and infrared), obtained an average accuracy of 92.58%, evidencing the improvement in the classification.

Dans le domaine du renforcement et/ou de la réparation des structures en béton armé par des matériaux composites à l'aide de la méthode du collage extérieur au moyen d'un adhésif époxy, une des préoccupations de la communauté scientifique est l'intégrité structurelle de ce système dans le cas d'incendie dans lequel la haute température est une caractéristique essentielle et peut atteindre jusqu'à 1200°C. Ce travail de recherche est axé sur le comportement thermomécanique à très haute température des matériaux composites [un composite à base de polymère carbone/ époxy (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer- CFRP), un composite textile/ mortier cimentaire (Textile Reinforced Concrete- TRC) et un adhésif à base d'époxy]. L'évolution des propriétés mécaniques et d'autres aspects mécaniques de ces matériaux composites avec la température a été caractérisée. Une nouvelle procédure expérimentale concernant la mesure de la déformation de l'éprouvette à l'aide du capteur laser est développée et validée. Une étude numérique et expérimentale a été réalisée dans le but de déterminer principalement la température à la rupture des joints « composite/ adhésif/ composite » sous les sollicitations mécaniques et thermiques. L'efficacité de la protection thermique de deux isolants [PROMASPRAY®T (produit commercial de la société PROMAT] et Isolant A (produit développé par le LGCIE site Tusset) a aussi été étudiée dans cette thèse. Enfin, une approche numérique, à l'aide du logiciel ANSYS, est utilisée afin de déterminer, de façon préliminaire et approximative, à l'échelle matériau, les propriétés thermiques des matériaux (composite textile/ mortier cimentaire -TRC et Isolant A)
In the area of the strengthening and/or the reparation of reinforced concrete structures with composites by means of the external bonding method using an epoxy adhesive, one of the preoccupation of the scientific community is the structural integrity of this system in the event of fire in which the high temperature is the essential feature et can reach up to 1200°C. This research focuses on the thermo-mechanical behavior of composite materials [carbon/epoxy adhesive composite (or carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP), textile/cementitious mortar composite (or textile reinforced concrete (TRC)] and an epoxy-based adhesive. The evolution of mechanical properties and other mechanical aspects of these materials with the temperature has been characterized. A new experimental procedure concerning the measurement of sample strain by the laser sensor is developed and validated. An experimental and numerical study has been realized in order to mainly determine the temperature at the failure of "composite/adhesive/composite" joints under thermal and mechanical loadings. The effectiveness of the thermal protection of two insulators [PROMASPRAY®T (a commercial product of the PROMAT company and the insulator A (product developed by the LGCIE site Tuset)] has also been investigated in this PhD thesis. Finally, a numerical approach, using ANSYS software, is used to determine, in the preliminary and approximate way, at material scale, thermal properties of the materials [the textile reinforced concrete (TRC) and the insulator A]

High Voltage Ceramic and glass Insulators have been widely used by various transmission and distribution utilities for several decades across the globe. Recently composite or silicone rubber insulators have evolved and are now replacing ceramic/glass insulators due to their improved advantages; however, these Insulators suffer from degradation over a period of service. The first few chapters of the thesis deal with the study of silicon rubber/polymer insulators under various climatic conditions. Exhaustive experimental studies were conducted to understand the degradation of insulators under different climatic conditions which prevail in the Country. Studies on polymer insulators under sub-zero and under extremely high-temperature conditions were attempted experimentally to evaluate their performance. During experimentation, the leakage current was continuously monitored. Later, material analysis, which is a very important aspect and essential to correlate with the morphological changes of the insulator surface, was examined. The experimental investigations demonstrate that there is a need to conduct multi-stress experimentation under specific climatic conditions before the Insulators are installed in the field. The next portion of the thesis work deals with the failure mechanism of a Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Rod. Some portion of the work deals with mathematical analysis being extended to condition monitoring of dielectric surfaces and understanding the performance of FRP rods under high AC voltages. Further, experimental investigations are performed on FRP Rods to analyze the behaviour witnessed, as the field failures reported on Silicon rubber Insulators, interesting results are reported. Condition monitoring of dielectric surfaces is very important; hence it was felt necessary to analyze the field performance of transmission/ distribution composite Insulators. To understand further, a mathematical analysis based on Chaos has been evaluated for leakage current data and quantization of comparative degradation for a dielectric surface is presented. Later, Empirical Mode Decomposition is also used for understanding leakage current and implied degradation under minimal data conditions, and the results are analyzed and presented. Subsequently, the Surface electric field of insulators exposed to HVDC is studied considering the temporal boundary conditions which may arise due to the capacitive-resistive transients. The last portion of the thesis deals with a theoretical study of the bulk conductivity of polymer material. The Electric Field dependence of conductivity on the application of voltage and subsequent space charge distribution is attempted, and the results are analyzed and presented. In short, this thesis is a work where both experimental, simulation and theoretical studies pertaining to silicone rubber insulators are presented.

Outdoor electrical insulator is one of the important components of a power system which directly influences the system reliability. Traditionally ceramic insulators have been used for close to a century in both transmission and distribution lines. In the last few decades, polymer based outdoor insulators are being increasingly used in the above application. Polymeric insulators offer attractive advantages such as light weight, resistance to vandalism and they also outperform conventional ceramic insulators under contaminated wet conditions at least in the initial stages of their usage. However, there are certain disadvantages with polymeric insulators which have made the utilities hesitant to replace readily the ceramic insulators with polymeric insulators. One of the major concerns with the polymeric insulators is the aging w.r.t time due to the presence of multiple environmental stresses (fog, humidity, temperature, rain as well as contamination due to industrial, sea and agricultural pollution) along with electrical stress. The manifestations of the aging of insulators include tracking or/and erosion of the weathersheds. Polymers in pure form (unfilled) can not perform satisfactorily all the required functions (electrical, mechanical, thermal etc.) of an insulator used in such high voltage transmission lines. Polymers have inherently poor thermal stability. Thermal stability directly influences the tracking and erosion resistance of the weathershed. Without adequate tracking and erosion resistance, polymeric insulators can not perform satisfactorily under contaminated wet conditions. Hence the common practice to improve the tracking and erosion resistance (and other properties such as mechanical, thermal) is by filling the base polymer with large loadings (> 30 wt %) of micron sized fillers. This makes the processing of the polymer composite difficult as the viscosity of the material rises substantially at such large loadings. Due to the large filler loadings beyond a certain limit, the flexibility of the end product also suffers. Though tracking and erosion resistance of the polymer has been improved substantially at these large filler loadings, the recent failures in the field suggest the need for an alternate material with higher tracking and erosion resistance than what is achieved at these large loadings of micron sized fillers. Of late nanocomposites are emerging as promising alternatives which can offer the above mentioned functionalities at low filler loadings itself without sacrificing the flexibility in the end product as well as ease of processing. There are even indications suggesting that the tracking and erosion resistance performance is better than what is obtained using micronsized fillers. As the development of nanocomposite dielectrics/insulation is still at its infancy, it is required to investigate their specific properties needed for outdoor applications and to understand the various mechanisms responsible for the interesting behaviour of the nanocomposites. Also, it is known that dc pollution performance of ceramic insulators is much inferior to the performance under ac stress. With the introduction of higher ac/dc transmission voltages in many countries including India, it is required to design insulators with better performing materials so as to get a reliable performance under polluted wet conditions. Due to the hydrophobic nature of the polymers, it is believed that polymers especially silicone rubber insulators can perform better as compared to the ceramic insulators under polluted conditions under ac and dc. As the dc tracking and erosion (T&E) resistance of polymer is poor compared to the ac tracking and erosion resistance, it is required to investigate the T&E resistance characteristics of the nanocomposites under dc stress. In addition, due to the enhanced electric fields at the line end of the insulators in extra and ultra high voltage transmission lines, there is always a possibility of corona generation on the hardware at the metal-sheath junction and at the water droplet tips on the weathersheds of the polymeric insulators especially under foul weather conditions. It is reported that the long-term exposure to such corona has the potential to degrade the polymeric material. The effects include reduction of the hydrophobicity, surface oxidation of the weathersheds and development of microcracks on the surface of the polymeric material. These cracks (corona cutting) can worsen the wet pollution performance of the insulator. If the cracks grow deeper, then FRP rod would get exposed to the atmospheric conditions leading to brittle fracture of the FRP rod and finally resulting in the line drop. Hence, the corona aging resistance of nanocomposites has also been studied especially at low filler concentrations to see its performance under the above mentioned adverse conditions. Therefore, the research work presented here deals with three aspects of the aging (1) Study the ac and dc tracking and erosion resistance performance of silicone rubber nanocomposites with low concentrations of fillers and their suitability for outdoor applications (2) Study the corona aging performance of silicone rubber nanocomposites with low concentrations of fillers and (3) To develop a model to explain the unusual behaviour of nanocomposites observed in the above studies. The thesis also reports results of the accelerated multistress weathering studies conducted on normal polymeric outdoor insulators under prolonged dry conditions. The major challenge in case of the polymer nanocomposite processing is getting uniform distribution of the fillers. A protocol has been standardised for the processing which comprises high shear mechanical mixing followed by sonication to get good dispersion of the fillers. Room Temperature Vulcanised (RTV) silicone rubber was successfully processed with different micron and nanosized fillers and with different weight (wt.) percentages in the present work. For carrying out the T & E resistance, corona aging and multistress aging studies, facilities (such as Inclined Plane T & E Resistance Test Apparatus in line with IEC/ASTM standards and aging chambers) have been designed and developed in house as a part of the thesis work. The ac tracking and erosion resistance performance of the unfilled, microcomposite (filled with alumina trihydrate filler of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 % by wt) and nanocomposite (filled with alumina, silica and magnesium hydroxide fillers of 2.5 and 4 % by wt) have been compared in inclined plane (IP) tracking and erosion resistance test facility specifically developed for the work. It was very interesting to observe that nanocomposites at 4 % performed on par with the microcomposites at 30 % filler loadings. Leakage current was also measured during the IP test and it was found that the form factor (ratio of r.m.s to average leakage current) was in good agreement with the variation in the erosion resistance of the silicone rubber composites and hence it can be used as a diagnostic tool for assessing the aging state of the polymeric materials. It was also observed that the performance under positive dc stress was much inferior to the performance under ac stress. The dissipation of power under dc stress was estimated by measuring the leakage current through the sample and is found to be about four times (towards the end of the test) higher as compared to the power dissipation under ac stress. Intense electrolytic corrosion has been observed (under positive dc) on the grounded electrode and on the sample and chemical studies of the same have been carried out. The poor performance under dc is due to the absence of the voltage zero crossing, more accumulation of the contaminant (scaling) and electrolytic corrosion. It was also observed that to get the same tracking and erosion resistance under dc as in the case of ac during IP test, dc stress levels have to be reduced to about 60 % of the ac stress. This information would be helpful to the design engineer of the outdoor insulators for the HVDC transmission lines. To understand the different mechanisms responsible in improving the tracking and erosion resistance of the micro and nanocomposites, thermal, SEM and FTIR studies have been carried out. Thermal stability of the samples was measured using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential thermo gravimetric (DTG) studies. It was observed that thermal stability of nanocomposites even at low filler loadings (4 wt %) was comparable with the microcomposites at higher filler loadings (30 wt %). SEM studies indicate that the barrier resistance (against discharges) offered by the fillers in the nanocomposites even at low filler loadings (4 %) could be comparable with the microcomposites at higher filler loadings (30 %). The interaction between the fillers and the host matrix has been studied using various techniques. SEM studies done on the eroded regions of the composites revealed that a honey comb type formation had taken place on the nanocomposites during the IP test which was believed to be due to the interaction of the filler and the polymer. This honey comb structure formation at the eroded site in the nanocomposites greatly helps to protect the sample from further damage due to the discharges. The interaction at the interface between the polymer and fillers could also lead to further improvement in the thermal stability of the nanocomposite. A model was proposed which considers barrier resistance and a single-layer interaction around the fillers to explain the improvements offered by the nanocomposites. Corona aging studies have been carried out on unfilled silicone rubber, micro and nanocomposites for 25 h and 50 h of aging using a needle-plane electrode arrangement. Different parameters such as hydrophobicity, surface roughness, microcracks width on the aged surface, FTIR and SEM studies were carried out to study the corona aging resistance of the new and aged samples. The studies indicate that silicone rubber samples containing nanofillers at 3 wt % are able to impart significantly enough corona resistance compared to the unfilled and microcomposite samples. It is known that the discharge resistance offered by the fillers and the interaction/bonding between the fillers and polymers directly influences the corona aging resistance. Hence, the model proposed (discussed above) is valid for understanding the corona aging performance of the nanocomposites which is better than the unfilled and ATH filled silicone rubber. In addition to the tracking and erosion resistance and corona aging studies, multistress aging of commercially available polymeric insulators containing micron sized fillers has been carried out. The aging behaviour of the polymeric insulators under tropical and subtropical conditions (in the absence of discharges under wet conditions) has not been explored. Further, the long-term influence of the UV radiation on silicone rubber in the presence of temperature and electric stress is also not explored. Hence, to understand the aging phenomena (weathering characteristics) under multistress (electric, thermal and UV), distribution class composite polymeric insulators were aged for 30,000 h in a multistress aging chamber developed specifically for the studies. Insulators were continuously subjected to the accelerated electric and thermal stresses as well as UV radiation. Different studies like leakage current, SEM, hydrophobicity, surface roughness and low molecular weight (LMW) molecules content in the samples before and after the aging have been investigated. It is interesting to observe that even in the absence of electrical discharges on the surface of the material, significant monotonous reduction in LMW molecules has been observed w.r.t weathering time. Appreciable increase in the surface roughness (at least 200 % as that of the new material) as well as increased oxygen levels on the surface has also been observed. The results indicate that surface hydrophobicity is dynamic in nature and may not reflect the slow and permanent changes taking place in the bulk of the material. The results obtained for the nanocomposites enable us to design a better material with improved tracking, erosion and corona resistance without sacrificing the flexibility in the end product as well as ease of processing. The silicone rubber nanocomposites also open up the possibility for economically designing a smart material possibly with a higher reliability for outdoor insulator application.

Outdoor electrical insulator is one of the important components of a power system which directly influences the system reliability. Traditionally ceramic insulators have been used for close to a century in both transmission and distribution lines. In the last few decades, polymer based outdoor insulators are being increasingly used in the above application. Polymeric insulators offer attractive advantages such as light weight, resistance to vandalism and they also outperform conventional ceramic insulators under contaminated wet conditions at least in the initial stages of their usage. However, there are certain disadvantages with polymeric insulators which have made the utilities hesitant to replace readily the ceramic insulators with polymeric insulators. One of the major concerns with the polymeric insulators is the aging w.r.t time due to the presence of multiple environmental stresses (fog, humidity, temperature, rain as well as contamination due to industrial, sea and agricultural pollution) along with electrical stress. The manifestations of the aging of insulators include tracking or/and erosion of the weathersheds. Polymers in pure form (unfilled) can not perform satisfactorily all the required functions (electrical, mechanical, thermal etc.) of an insulator used in such high voltage transmission lines. Polymers have inherently poor thermal stability. Thermal stability directly influences the tracking and erosion resistance of the weathershed. Without adequate tracking and erosion resistance, polymeric insulators can not perform satisfactorily under contaminated wet conditions. Hence the common practice to improve the tracking and erosion resistance (and other properties such as mechanical, thermal) is by filling the base polymer with large loadings (> 30 wt %) of micron sized fillers. This makes the processing of the polymer composite difficult as the viscosity of the material rises substantially at such large loadings. Due to the large filler loadings beyond a certain limit, the flexibility of the end product also suffers. Though tracking and erosion resistance of the polymer has been improved substantially at these large filler loadings, the recent failures in the field suggest the need for an alternate material with higher tracking and erosion resistance than what is achieved at these large loadings of micron sized fillers. Of late nanocomposites are emerging as promising alternatives which can offer the above mentioned functionalities at low filler loadings itself without sacrificing the flexibility in the end product as well as ease of processing. There are even indications suggesting that the tracking and erosion resistance performance is better than what is obtained using micronsized fillers. As the development of nanocomposite dielectrics/insulation is still at its infancy, it is required to investigate their specific properties needed for outdoor applications and to understand the various mechanisms responsible for the interesting behaviour of the nanocomposites. Also, it is known that dc pollution performance of ceramic insulators is much inferior to the performance under ac stress. With the introduction of higher ac/dc transmission voltages in many countries including India, it is required to design insulators with better performing materials so as to get a reliable performance under polluted wet conditions. Due to the hydrophobic nature of the polymers, it is believed that polymers especially silicone rubber insulators can perform better as compared to the ceramic insulators under polluted conditions under ac and dc. As the dc tracking and erosion (T&E) resistance of polymer is poor compared to the ac tracking and erosion resistance, it is required to investigate the T&E resistance characteristics of the nanocomposites under dc stress. In addition, due to the enhanced electric fields at the line end of the insulators in extra and ultra high voltage transmission lines, there is always a possibility of corona generation on the hardware at the metal-sheath junction and at the water droplet tips on the weathersheds of the polymeric insulators especially under foul weather conditions. It is reported that the long-term exposure to such corona has the potential to degrade the polymeric material. The effects include reduction of the hydrophobicity, surface oxidation of the weathersheds and development of microcracks on the surface of the polymeric material. These cracks (corona cutting) can worsen the wet pollution performance of the insulator. If the cracks grow deeper, then FRP rod would get exposed to the atmospheric conditions leading to brittle fracture of the FRP rod and finally resulting in the line drop. Hence, the corona aging resistance of nanocomposites has also been studied especially at low filler concentrations to see its performance under the above mentioned adverse conditions. Therefore, the research work presented here deals with three aspects of the aging (1) Study the ac and dc tracking and erosion resistance performance of silicone rubber nanocomposites with low concentrations of fillers and their suitability for outdoor applications (2) Study the corona aging performance of silicone rubber nanocomposites with low concentrations of fillers and (3) To develop a model to explain the unusual behaviour of nanocomposites observed in the above studies. The thesis also reports results of the accelerated multistress weathering studies conducted on normal polymeric outdoor insulators under prolonged dry conditions. The major challenge in case of the polymer nanocomposite processing is getting uniform distribution of the fillers. A protocol has been standardised for the processing which comprises high shear mechanical mixing followed by sonication to get good dispersion of the fillers. Room Temperature Vulcanised (RTV) silicone rubber was successfully processed with different micron and nanosized fillers and with different weight (wt.) percentages in the present work. For carrying out the T & E resistance, corona aging and multistress aging studies, facilities (such as Inclined Plane T & E Resistance Test Apparatus in line with IEC/ASTM standards and aging chambers) have been designed and developed in house as a part of the thesis work. The ac tracking and erosion resistance performance of the unfilled, microcomposite (filled with alumina trihydrate filler of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 % by wt) and nanocomposite (filled with alumina, silica and magnesium hydroxide fillers of 2.5 and 4 % by wt) have been compared in inclined plane (IP) tracking and erosion resistance test facility specifically developed for the work. It was very interesting to observe that nanocomposites at 4 % performed on par with the microcomposites at 30 % filler loadings. Leakage current was also measured during the IP test and it was found that the form factor (ratio of r.m.s to average leakage current) was in good agreement with the variation in the erosion resistance of the silicone rubber composites and hence it can be used as a diagnostic tool for assessing the aging state of the polymeric materials. It was also observed that the performance under positive dc stress was much inferior to the performance under ac stress. The dissipation of power under dc stress was estimated by measuring the leakage current through the sample and is found to be about four times (towards the end of the test) higher as compared to the power dissipation under ac stress. Intense electrolytic corrosion has been observed (under positive dc) on the grounded electrode and on the sample and chemical studies of the same have been carried out. The poor performance under dc is due to the absence of the voltage zero crossing, more accumulation of the contaminant (scaling) and electrolytic corrosion. It was also observed that to get the same tracking and erosion resistance under dc as in the case of ac during IP test, dc stress levels have to be reduced to about 60 % of the ac stress. This information would be helpful to the design engineer of the outdoor insulators for the HVDC transmission lines. To understand the different mechanisms responsible in improving the tracking and erosion resistance of the micro and nanocomposites, thermal, SEM and FTIR studies have been carried out. Thermal stability of the samples was measured using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential thermo gravimetric (DTG) studies. It was observed that thermal stability of nanocomposites even at low filler loadings (4 wt %) was comparable with the microcomposites at higher filler loadings (30 wt %). SEM studies indicate that the barrier resistance (against discharges) offered by the fillers in the nanocomposites even at low filler loadings (4 %) could be comparable with the microcomposites at higher filler loadings (30 %). The interaction between the fillers and the host matrix has been studied using various techniques. SEM studies done on the eroded regions of the composites revealed that a honey comb type formation had taken place on the nanocomposites during the IP test which was believed to be due to the interaction of the filler and the polymer. This honey comb structure formation at the eroded site in the nanocomposites greatly helps to protect the sample from further damage due to the discharges. The interaction at the interface between the polymer and fillers could also lead to further improvement in the thermal stability of the nanocomposite. A model was proposed which considers barrier resistance and a single-layer interaction around the fillers to explain the improvements offered by the nanocomposites. Corona aging studies have been carried out on unfilled silicone rubber, micro and nanocomposites for 25 h and 50 h of aging using a needle-plane electrode arrangement. Different parameters such as hydrophobicity, surface roughness, microcracks width on the aged surface, FTIR and SEM studies were carried out to study the corona aging resistance of the new and aged samples. The studies indicate that silicone rubber samples containing nanofillers at 3 wt % are able to impart significantly enough corona resistance compared to the unfilled and microcomposite samples. It is known that the discharge resistance offered by the fillers and the interaction/bonding between the fillers and polymers directly influences the corona aging resistance. Hence, the model proposed (discussed above) is valid for understanding the corona aging performance of the nanocomposites which is better than the unfilled and ATH filled silicone rubber. In addition to the tracking and erosion resistance and corona aging studies, multistress aging of commercially available polymeric insulators containing micron sized fillers has been carried out. The aging behaviour of the polymeric insulators under tropical and subtropical conditions (in the absence of discharges under wet conditions) has not been explored. Further, the long-term influence of the UV radiation on silicone rubber in the presence of temperature and electric stress is also not explored. Hence, to understand the aging phenomena (weathering characteristics) under multistress (electric, thermal and UV), distribution class composite polymeric insulators were aged for 30,000 h in a multistress aging chamber developed specifically for the studies. Insulators were continuously subjected to the accelerated electric and thermal stresses as well as UV radiation. Different studies like leakage current, SEM, hydrophobicity, surface roughness and low molecular weight (LMW) molecules content in the samples before and after the aging have been investigated. It is interesting to observe that even in the absence of electrical discharges on the surface of the material, significant monotonous reduction in LMW molecules has been observed w.r.t weathering time. Appreciable increase in the surface roughness (at least 200 % as that of the new material) as well as increased oxygen levels on the surface has also been observed. The results indicate that surface hydrophobicity is dynamic in nature and may not reflect the slow and permanent changes taking place in the bulk of the material. The results obtained for the nanocomposites enable us to design a better material with improved tracking, erosion and corona resistance without sacrificing the flexibility in the end product as well as ease of processing. The silicone rubber nanocomposites also open up the possibility for economically designing a smart material possibly with a higher reliability for outdoor insulator application.

Today, nanotechnology has added a new dimension to materials technology by creating opportunities to significantly enhance the properties of existing conventional materials. Polymer nanocomposites belong to one such class of materials and even though they show tremendous promise for dielectric/electrical insulation applications (“nanodielectrics” being the buzzword), the understanding related to these systems is very premature. Considering the desired research needs with respect to some of the dielectric properties of polymer nanocomposites, this study attempts to generate an understanding on some of the existing issues through a systematic and detailed experimental investigation coupled with a critical analysis of the data. An epoxy based nanocomposite system is chosen for this study along with four different choices of nano-fillers, viz. TiO2, Al2O3, ZnO and SiO2. The focus of this study is on the properties of nanocomposites at low filler loadings in the range of 0.1 - 5% by weight and the properties under investigation are the permittivity/tan delta behaviors, DC volume resistivity, AC dielectric strength and electrical discharge resistant characteristics. Significant efforts have also been directed towards addressing the interface interaction phenomena in epoxy nanocomposites and their subsequent influence on the dielectric properties of the material. The accurate characterization of the dielectric properties for polymer nanocomposites depends on the dispersion of nanoparticles in the polymer matrix and to achieve a good dispersion of nanoparticles in the epoxy matrix for the present study, a systematic design of experiments (DOE) is carried out involving two different processing methods. Consequently, a laboratory based epoxy nanocomposite processing methodology is proposed in this thesis and this process is found to be successful in dispersing nanoparticles effectively in the epoxy matrix, especially at filler concentrations lower than 5% by weight. Nanocomposite samples for the study are prepared using this method and a rigorous conditioning is performed before the dielectric measurements. The dielectric properties of epoxy nanocomposites obtained in the present study show interesting and intriguing characteristics when compared to those of unfilled epoxy and microcomposite systems and few of the results are unique and advantageous. In an unexpected observation, the addition of nanoparticles to epoxy is found to reduce the value of nanocomposite real permittivity below that of unfilled epoxy over a wide range of frequencies. Similarly, it has been observed that irrespective of the filler type, tan delta values in the case of nanocomposites are either same or lower than the value of unfilled epoxy up to a filler loading of 5% by weight, depending on the frequency and filler concentration. In fact, the nanocomposite real permittivities and tan delta values are also observed to be lower as compared to the corresponding microcomposites of the same constituent materials at the same filler loading. In another significant result, enhancements in the electrical discharge resistant characteristics of epoxy nanocomposites (with SiO2/Al2O3 nanoparticles) are observed when compared to unfilled epoxy, especially at longer durations of discharge exposures. Contrary to these encouragements observed for few of the dielectric properties, the trends of DC volume resistivity and AC dielectric breakdown strength characteristics in epoxy nanocomposites are found to be different. Irrespective of the type of filler in the epoxy matrix, it has been observed that the values of both AC dielectric strengths and DC volume resistivities are lower than that of unfilled epoxy for the filler loadings investigated. The results mentioned above seem to suggest that there has to be an interaction between the nanoparticles and the epoxy chains in the nanocomposite and therefore, glass transition temperature (Tg) measurements are performed to characterize the interaction phenomena, if any. The results of Tg for all the investigated nanocomposites also show interesting trends and they are observed to be lower than that of unfilled epoxy up to certain nanoparticle loadings. This lowering of the Tg in epoxy nanocomposites was not observed in the case of unfilled and microcomposite systems thereby strongly confirming the fact that there exists an interaction between the epoxy chains and nanoparticles in the nanocomposite. Considering the variations obtained for the nanocomposite real permittivity and Tg with respect to filler loading, a dual nanolayer interface model is utilized to explain the interaction dynamics and according to the model, interactions between epoxy chains and nanoparticles lead to the formation of two epoxy nanolayers around the nanoparticle. Analysis shows that the characteristics of the interface region have a strong influence on the dielectric behaviors of the nanocomposites and the suggested interface model seems to fit the characteristics obtained for the different dielectric/electrical insulation properties rather well. Further investigations are performed to understand the nature of interaction between nanoparticles and epoxy chains through FTIR studies and results show that there is probably an occurrence of hydrogen bonding between the epoxide groups of the epoxy resin and the free hydroxyl (OH) groups present on the nanoparticle surfaces. The results obtained for the dielectric properties of epoxy nanocomposites in this study have widened the scope of applications of these functional materials in the electrical sector. The occurrence of lower values of real permittivity for nanocomposites is definitely unique and unexpected and this result has huge potential in electronic component packaging applications. Further, the advantages related to tan delta and electrical discharge resistance for these materials carry lot of significance since, electrical insulating materials with enhanced electrical aging properties can be designed using nanocomposite technology. Although the characteristics of AC dielectric strengths and DC volume resistivities are not found to be strictly advantageous for epoxy nanocomposites at the investigated filler loadings, these properties can be optimized when designing insulation systems for practical applications. In spite of all these advantages, serious and systematic research efforts are still desired before these materials can be successfully utilized in electrical equipment.

Today, nanotechnology has added a new dimension to materials technology by creating opportunities to significantly enhance the properties of existing conventional materials. Polymer nanocomposites belong to one such class of materials and even though they show tremendous promise for dielectric/electrical insulation applications (“nanodielectrics” being the buzzword), the understanding related to these systems is very premature. Considering the desired research needs with respect to some of the dielectric properties of polymer nanocomposites, this study attempts to generate an understanding on some of the existing issues through a systematic and detailed experimental investigation coupled with a critical analysis of the data. An epoxy based nanocomposite system is chosen for this study along with four different choices of nano-fillers, viz. TiO2, Al2O3, ZnO and SiO2. The focus of this study is on the properties of nanocomposites at low filler loadings in the range of 0.1 - 5% by weight and the properties under investigation are the permittivity/tan delta behaviors, DC volume resistivity, AC dielectric strength and electrical discharge resistant characteristics. Significant efforts have also been directed towards addressing the interface interaction phenomena in epoxy nanocomposites and their subsequent influence on the dielectric properties of the material. The accurate characterization of the dielectric properties for polymer nanocomposites depends on the dispersion of nanoparticles in the polymer matrix and to achieve a good dispersion of nanoparticles in the epoxy matrix for the present study, a systematic design of experiments (DOE) is carried out involving two different processing methods. Consequently, a laboratory based epoxy nanocomposite processing methodology is proposed in this thesis and this process is found to be successful in dispersing nanoparticles effectively in the epoxy matrix, especially at filler concentrations lower than 5% by weight. Nanocomposite samples for the study are prepared using this method and a rigorous conditioning is performed before the dielectric measurements. The dielectric properties of epoxy nanocomposites obtained in the present study show interesting and intriguing characteristics when compared to those of unfilled epoxy and microcomposite systems and few of the results are unique and advantageous. In an unexpected observation, the addition of nanoparticles to epoxy is found to reduce the value of nanocomposite real permittivity below that of unfilled epoxy over a wide range of frequencies. Similarly, it has been observed that irrespective of the filler type, tan delta values in the case of nanocomposites are either same or lower than the value of unfilled epoxy up to a filler loading of 5% by weight, depending on the frequency and filler concentration. In fact, the nanocomposite real permittivities and tan delta values are also observed to be lower as compared to the corresponding microcomposites of the same constituent materials at the same filler loading. In another significant result, enhancements in the electrical discharge resistant characteristics of epoxy nanocomposites (with SiO2/Al2O3 nanoparticles) are observed when compared to unfilled epoxy, especially at longer durations of discharge exposures. Contrary to these encouragements observed for few of the dielectric properties, the trends of DC volume resistivity and AC dielectric breakdown strength characteristics in epoxy nanocomposites are found to be different. Irrespective of the type of filler in the epoxy matrix, it has been observed that the values of both AC dielectric strengths and DC volume resistivities are lower than that of unfilled epoxy for the filler loadings investigated. The results mentioned above seem to suggest that there has to be an interaction between the nanoparticles and the epoxy chains in the nanocomposite and therefore, glass transition temperature (Tg) measurements are performed to characterize the interaction phenomena, if any. The results of Tg for all the investigated nanocomposites also show interesting trends and they are observed to be lower than that of unfilled epoxy up to certain nanoparticle loadings. This lowering of the Tg in epoxy nanocomposites was not observed in the case of unfilled and microcomposite systems thereby strongly confirming the fact that there exists an interaction between the epoxy chains and nanoparticles in the nanocomposite. Considering the variations obtained for the nanocomposite real permittivity and Tg with respect to filler loading, a dual nanolayer interface model is utilized to explain the interaction dynamics and according to the model, interactions between epoxy chains and nanoparticles lead to the formation of two epoxy nanolayers around the nanoparticle. Analysis shows that the characteristics of the interface region have a strong influence on the dielectric behaviors of the nanocomposites and the suggested interface model seems to fit the characteristics obtained for the different dielectric/electrical insulation properties rather well. Further investigations are performed to understand the nature of interaction between nanoparticles and epoxy chains through FTIR studies and results show that there is probably an occurrence of hydrogen bonding between the epoxide groups of the epoxy resin and the free hydroxyl (OH) groups present on the nanoparticle surfaces. The results obtained for the dielectric properties of epoxy nanocomposites in this study have widened the scope of applications of these functional materials in the electrical sector. The occurrence of lower values of real permittivity for nanocomposites is definitely unique and unexpected and this result has huge potential in electronic component packaging applications. Further, the advantages related to tan delta and electrical discharge resistance for these materials carry lot of significance since, electrical insulating materials with enhanced electrical aging properties can be designed using nanocomposite technology. Although the characteristics of AC dielectric strengths and DC volume resistivities are not found to be strictly advantageous for epoxy nanocomposites at the investigated filler loadings, these properties can be optimized when designing insulation systems for practical applications. In spite of all these advantages, serious and systematic research efforts are still desired before these materials can be successfully utilized in electrical equipment.

Outdoor insulators are one of the most important parts of a power system. The reliability of a power system depends also on the reliability of the insulators. The main functions of an insulator used for outdoor applications are to give the necessary insulation, provide the necessary mechanical support to the transmission line conductor and also to resist the various environmental stresses like pollution, ultra violet rays etc. Traditionally porcelain and glass insulators have been used for outdoor insulator applications. They are good insulators under normal conditions and the cap and pin arrangement allows them to take up the mechanical load of the line. But owing to their large weight and brittle nature they are susceptible to vandalism and also they have increased cost of installation and commissioning. But the main problem of porcelain and glass insulators is its performance under polluted environmental condition. Under wet and polluted conditions, the porcelain insulators allow the formation of a conducting layer on the surface which results in setting up of leakage current, dry band arcing and power loss. This problem is further augmented under dc voltages where the stress is unidirectional and the contaminant deposition is higher as compared to ac. Polymeric insulators are a good alternative for porcelain and ceramic insulators for use especially under dc voltages because of their good pollution performance. The property of surface hydrophobicity resists the setting up of leakage currents and hence polymeric insulators help in reducing power loss. They are also light in weight and vandalism resistant and hence easier to install. But being polymeric, they form conductive tracks and erode when exposed to high temperatures which occur at the surface during dry band arcs and when exposed to corona discharges. The surface hydrophobicity is also temporarily lost when exposed to different electrical stresses. Silicone rubber is the most popular among the various choices of polymers for outdoor insulator applications. They have good surface hydrophobicity and tracking performance. But polymers in their pure form cannot be used as insulators because of their poor mechanical strength. Adding inorganic fillers into the polymer matrix not only improves its mechanical properties but also its erosion resistance. Micron sized Alumina Trihydrate (ATH) is used traditionally to improve the tracking and erosion resistance of polymeric insulators. A very high loading (up to 60%) is used. Adding such a high filler loading to the base polymer hampers its flexibility and the material processing. With the advent of nanotechnology, nano fillers have come into vogue. Studies conducted on nano filled polymers showed exciting results. A small amount of nano fillers in the polymer matrix showed significant improvement in the mechanical strength without hampering its flexibility. The electrical properties like tracking and erosion also improved with filler loading. Hence the use of nano filled silicone rubber is a good alternative for use as a high voltage insulator especially under dc voltages. Reports suggest that adding nano fillers into the silicone rubber matrix improves the tracking and erosion resistance and the corona degradation as compared to the unfilled samples under ac voltages. The literature on the dc performance of silicone rubber nano composites is scarce. So the present study aims to evaluate the performance of silicone rubber nano composites for tracking and erosion resistance and corona degradation under dc voltages. The tracking and erosion resistance under dc voltages was measured using the Inclined Plane Tracking and Erosion Resistance set up as per ASTM D2303 which was modified for dc voltage studies. The performance of nano Alumina and nano Silica fillers were evaluated under negative dc and the performance was compared with micron sized Alumina Trihydrate filled samples. The effect of filler loading was also studied. It was seen that the performance of the silicone rubber improved with filler loading. A small loading percentage of nano fillers were enough to give performance similar to silicone rubber filled with micron sized ATH filler. The silicone rubber performed better under negative dc as compared to ac and positive dc. The positive dc tests showed a migration of ions from the electrodes onto the sample surface. The increased surface conductivity resulted in very heavy erosion in the case of positive dc tested samples. The corona aging studies were also conducted on silicone rubber nano composites. Nano silica was used as filler in this case. Different filler loadings were employed to understand the effect of filler loading. The corona was generated using a needle plane electrode and samples were exposed to both positive and negative dc corona. The samples were exposed to corona for different time intervals – 25 and 50 hours to study the effect of exposure time. The hydrophobicity, crack width and surface roughness were measured after the tests. Adding nano fillers into the polymer matrix improved the corona performance. With filler loading, the performance improved. The samples exposed to positive dc corona performed better than those under negative dc corona. The loss of hydrophobicity, surface cracks and the surface roughness was less in the case of positive dc corona tested samples. With exposure time, the performance of silicone rubber became poorer for positive dc corona tested samples. For the negative dc corona tested samples, the performance seemed to improve with exposure time. The tracking and erosion resistance and the corona aging studies conducted showed that the performance of silicone rubber is improved by adding nano fillers into the polymer matrix. A small amount of nano filler loading was enough to perform similar to a heavily loaded micron filled sample. Hence nano fillers can be used as a good functional material to improve the performance of silicone rubber insulators especially under wet and polluted conditions.

Outdoor insulators are one of the most important parts of a power system. The reliability of a power system depends also on the reliability of the insulators. The main functions of an insulator used for outdoor applications are to give the necessary insulation, provide the necessary mechanical support to the transmission line conductor and also to resist the various environmental stresses like pollution, ultra violet rays etc. Traditionally porcelain and glass insulators have been used for outdoor insulator applications. They are good insulators under normal conditions and the cap and pin arrangement allows them to take up the mechanical load of the line. But owing to their large weight and brittle nature they are susceptible to vandalism and also they have increased cost of installation and commissioning. But the main problem of porcelain and glass insulators is its performance under polluted environmental condition. Under wet and polluted conditions, the porcelain insulators allow the formation of a conducting layer on the surface which results in setting up of leakage current, dry band arcing and power loss. This problem is further augmented under dc voltages where the stress is unidirectional and the contaminant deposition is higher as compared to ac. Polymeric insulators are a good alternative for porcelain and ceramic insulators for use especially under dc voltages because of their good pollution performance. The property of surface hydrophobicity resists the setting up of leakage currents and hence polymeric insulators help in reducing power loss. They are also light in weight and vandalism resistant and hence easier to install. But being polymeric, they form conductive tracks and erode when exposed to high temperatures which occur at the surface during dry band arcs and when exposed to corona discharges. The surface hydrophobicity is also temporarily lost when exposed to different electrical stresses. Silicone rubber is the most popular among the various choices of polymers for outdoor insulator applications. They have good surface hydrophobicity and tracking performance. But polymers in their pure form cannot be used as insulators because of their poor mechanical strength. Adding inorganic fillers into the polymer matrix not only improves its mechanical properties but also its erosion resistance. Micron sized Alumina Trihydrate (ATH) is used traditionally to improve the tracking and erosion resistance of polymeric insulators. A very high loading (up to 60%) is used. Adding such a high filler loading to the base polymer hampers its flexibility and the material processing. With the advent of nanotechnology, nano fillers have come into vogue. Studies conducted on nano filled polymers showed exciting results. A small amount of nano fillers in the polymer matrix showed significant improvement in the mechanical strength without hampering its flexibility. The electrical properties like tracking and erosion also improved with filler loading. Hence the use of nano filled silicone rubber is a good alternative for use as a high voltage insulator especially under dc voltages. Reports suggest that adding nano fillers into the silicone rubber matrix improves the tracking and erosion resistance and the corona degradation as compared to the unfilled samples under ac voltages. The literature on the dc performance of silicone rubber nano composites is scarce. So the present study aims to evaluate the performance of silicone rubber nano composites for tracking and erosion resistance and corona degradation under dc voltages. The tracking and erosion resistance under dc voltages was measured using the Inclined Plane Tracking and Erosion Resistance set up as per ASTM D2303 which was modified for dc voltage studies. The performance of nano Alumina and nano Silica fillers were evaluated under negative dc and the performance was compared with micron sized Alumina Trihydrate filled samples. The effect of filler loading was also studied. It was seen that the performance of the silicone rubber improved with filler loading. A small loading percentage of nano fillers were enough to give performance similar to silicone rubber filled with micron sized ATH filler. The silicone rubber performed better under negative dc as compared to ac and positive dc. The positive dc tests showed a migration of ions from the electrodes onto the sample surface. The increased surface conductivity resulted in very heavy erosion in the case of positive dc tested samples. The corona aging studies were also conducted on silicone rubber nano composites. Nano silica was used as filler in this case. Different filler loadings were employed to understand the effect of filler loading. The corona was generated using a needle plane electrode and samples were exposed to both positive and negative dc corona. The samples were exposed to corona for different time intervals – 25 and 50 hours to study the effect of exposure time. The hydrophobicity, crack width and surface roughness were measured after the tests. Adding nano fillers into the polymer matrix improved the corona performance. With filler loading, the performance improved. The samples exposed to positive dc corona performed better than those under negative dc corona. The loss of hydrophobicity, surface cracks and the surface roughness was less in the case of positive dc corona tested samples. With exposure time, the performance of silicone rubber became poorer for positive dc corona tested samples. For the negative dc corona tested samples, the performance seemed to improve with exposure time. The tracking and erosion resistance and the corona aging studies conducted showed that the performance of silicone rubber is improved by adding nano fillers into the polymer matrix. A small amount of nano filler loading was enough to perform similar to a heavily loaded micron filled sample. Hence nano fillers can be used as a good functional material to improve the performance of silicone rubber insulators especially under wet and polluted conditions.

Recently high temperature vulcanized (HTV) silicone rubber (SIR) / polymeric/composite insulators are gaining wider acceptance as overhead transmission line insulators for extra high voltage (EHV) and ultra-high voltage (UHV) systems due to some promising features like hydrophobicity recovery, light weight, ease of handling and installation, better pollution ashover performance, admirable resistance against vandalism etc. Since polymeric insula-tors are of recent origin, their long-term eld performance is yet to be understood. Owing to their organic nature, and exposure to environmental stresses like pollution, temperature, UV radiation, humidity, fog, rain etc., the insulator performance degrades over a period. The sheds/petticoats of the insulators become wettable leading to frequent ashover in humid and contaminated environment. Hence, long term reliability of the composite insulators is of foremost concern to the power utilities. The available literature on the long term eld performance of these insulators for di erent climatic conditions and under multiple environ-mental stresses for both the HTV SIR and Liquid Silicone Rubber (LSR) is scant. Also there is no reference standard for evaluation of these insulators for pollution/contamination test methods in the laboratory. However currently, CIGRE Work Group is working towards the standardization of the test methods for arti cial pollution tests for polymeric insulators. The thesis addresses some of the issues in detail. In the first part of the thesis, a new and simple pre-treatment methodology to achieve uniform contamination layer on inherently hydrophobic HTV SIR Insulator samples is presented for laboratory pollution performance evaluation. The surface water level di usion in the dipping period is found to make the insulator surface temporarily hydrophilic. Then the uniform contamination layer is applied by dipping the sample immediately in the pollution slurry. Exhaustive experiments were conducted on full scale SIR insulators as well as SIR slabs to investigate the hydrophilicity appearance on the SIR surface. A specially fabricated arrangement for assessment of Wettability Class (WC) is made as per IEC stds. The results of WC measurement and wet ashover studies support the temporary reduction in hydrophobicity of SIR due to dipping phase in the proposed pre-treatment methodology. The next part of the thesis presents the results for the effeect of long term thermal aging experimentation conducted on HTV SIR with difffeerent degrees of pollution (medium, heavy), the effeect of arid desert climate on polymeric insulators is studied. The experimental set-up consists of controlled HVAC source, temperature controlled furnace with a provision for high voltage (HV) and Leakage Current (LC) monitoring, a Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO), compact DAQ-9201 of National Instruments operated in LabVIEW platform etc. Two types of HTV SIR Insulators are considered for the study. Flat slabs as well as full-scale insulator samples of creepage length 725 mm are stressed simultaneously to simulate the in-service condition. The experimentation is conducted for about 575 hours with application of 21.0 kVrms at 60oC. The results of the hydrophobicity recovery for thermally aged contaminated polymeric insulators are reported. Besides, monitoring electrical and mechanical proper-ties, changes in material properties of SIR are also analyzed using Physiochemical analysis techniques like Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Thermo-Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). Some of the key findings of the study are increased surface oxidation, surface roughness and mechanical stress due to thermal aging of polymeric insulators. Experimental investigations show that the characteristics of power frequency component of leakage current can be linked with thermal aging of SIR. Further, a unique climatic aging experimental facility is established to evaluate the long-term reliability of SIR under environmental stresses like UV, Humidity, temperature and applied electric stress. The investigations are conducted on two different types of HTV SIR and LSR at samples as well as full-scale insulator samples. The experimentation is conducted for 500 hours with 10.0 kVrms at 50oC, with 85% humidity and 1 W/m2 UV ir-radiation which is in accordance with the aging cycle specified in IEC standard. The results of the comparative studies conducted for the electrical, mechanical and material properties indicate leakage current pulses, brittleness, Salt deposition for multistress aged samples. In summary, an attempt has been made to contribute a pollution methodology with sim-ple pre-treatment technique for inherently hydrophobic HTV SIR surface to achieve better uniformity of contamination layer. Also, electro-thermal and multiple stresses investigations were conducted for long term performance on polymeric insulators.

Recently high temperature vulcanized (HTV) silicone rubber (SIR) / polymeric/composite insulators are gaining wider acceptance as overhead transmission line insulators for extra high voltage (EHV) and ultra-high voltage (UHV) systems due to some promising features like hydrophobicity recovery, light weight, ease of handling and installation, better pollution ashover performance, admirable resistance against vandalism etc. Since polymeric insula-tors are of recent origin, their long-term eld performance is yet to be understood. Owing to their organic nature, and exposure to environmental stresses like pollution, temperature, UV radiation, humidity, fog, rain etc., the insulator performance degrades over a period. The sheds/petticoats of the insulators become wettable leading to frequent ashover in humid and contaminated environment. Hence, long term reliability of the composite insulators is of foremost concern to the power utilities. The available literature on the long term eld performance of these insulators for di erent climatic conditions and under multiple environ-mental stresses for both the HTV SIR and Liquid Silicone Rubber (LSR) is scant. Also there is no reference standard for evaluation of these insulators for pollution/contamination test methods in the laboratory. However currently, CIGRE Work Group is working towards the standardization of the test methods for arti cial pollution tests for polymeric insulators. The thesis addresses some of the issues in detail. In the first part of the thesis, a new and simple pre-treatment methodology to achieve uniform contamination layer on inherently hydrophobic HTV SIR Insulator samples is presented for laboratory pollution performance evaluation. The surface water level di usion in the dipping period is found to make the insulator surface temporarily hydrophilic. Then the uniform contamination layer is applied by dipping the sample immediately in the pollution slurry. Exhaustive experiments were conducted on full scale SIR insulators as well as SIR slabs to investigate the hydrophilicity appearance on the SIR surface. A specially fabricated arrangement for assessment of Wettability Class (WC) is made as per IEC stds. The results of WC measurement and wet ashover studies support the temporary reduction in hydrophobicity of SIR due to dipping phase in the proposed pre-treatment methodology. The next part of the thesis presents the results for the effeect of long term thermal aging experimentation conducted on HTV SIR with difffeerent degrees of pollution (medium, heavy), the effeect of arid desert climate on polymeric insulators is studied. The experimental set-up consists of controlled HVAC source, temperature controlled furnace with a provision for high voltage (HV) and Leakage Current (LC) monitoring, a Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO), compact DAQ-9201 of National Instruments operated in LabVIEW platform etc. Two types of HTV SIR Insulators are considered for the study. Flat slabs as well as full-scale insulator samples of creepage length 725 mm are stressed simultaneously to simulate the in-service condition. The experimentation is conducted for about 575 hours with application of 21.0 kVrms at 60oC. The results of the hydrophobicity recovery for thermally aged contaminated polymeric insulators are reported. Besides, monitoring electrical and mechanical proper-ties, changes in material properties of SIR are also analyzed using Physiochemical analysis techniques like Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Thermo-Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). Some of the key findings of the study are increased surface oxidation, surface roughness and mechanical stress due to thermal aging of polymeric insulators. Experimental investigations show that the characteristics of power frequency component of leakage current can be linked with thermal aging of SIR. Further, a unique climatic aging experimental facility is established to evaluate the long-term reliability of SIR under environmental stresses like UV, Humidity, temperature and applied electric stress. The investigations are conducted on two different types of HTV SIR and LSR at samples as well as full-scale insulator samples. The experimentation is conducted for 500 hours with 10.0 kVrms at 50oC, with 85% humidity and 1 W/m2 UV ir-radiation which is in accordance with the aging cycle specified in IEC standard. The results of the comparative studies conducted for the electrical, mechanical and material properties indicate leakage current pulses, brittleness, Salt deposition for multistress aged samples. In summary, an attempt has been made to contribute a pollution methodology with sim-ple pre-treatment technique for inherently hydrophobic HTV SIR surface to achieve better uniformity of contamination layer. Also, electro-thermal and multiple stresses investigations were conducted for long term performance on polymeric insulators.

High voltage insulators used in overhead power transmission systems are of key im- portance for safe, reliable, and effcient operation of transmission line in transferring huge amount of electrical power. Conventionally, ceramic/ glass insulators were used in electri- cal power transmission, recently composite/ polymeric insulators are being used in over- head transmission lines. The polymeric insulators offer numerous promising advantages over conventional insulators such as light weight, higher impact strength, better pollution performance, resistance to vandalism due to its slim design etc. Moreover, the inherent property of polymeric insulators of being hydrophobic make it more advantageous over conventional insulators. However, the polymeric material being organic in nature, un- dergo degradation due to different stresses such as environmental stresses (thermal, UV, moisture, fog etc,), and electrical stresses. Further, the presence of electrical discharges such as corona, surface scintillations, occurrence of dry band arcing, operation in adverse conditions, etc., are recognized as the major accelerating factors for material degrada- tion. Presence of heavy ionic deposition over the surface leads to surface discharges and localized temperature rise leads to material erosion which results in electrical tracking formation and eventually leads to ash-over/ line outage of power transmission. In the present work, silicone rubber based polymeric insulators are experimentally in- vestigated for their material properties and long-term service performance. The available literature show that polymeric insulators are quite sensitive to their local environmental conditions and their long-term performance depends on field service environment. The material properties get affected in adverse environment and foul weather condition. The unavoidable service conditions such as moisture, fog, acidic rain, snow, pollution etc., alter their service life by accelerating their aging which directly affect their long-term performance. The evaluation of material properties such as surface electrical resistance and long-term performance of these composite insulators are still under consideration. The present thesis work focuses on the study of majorly two aspects of polymeric insulators which governs its performance in service life. One of them is the material prop- erty, which provides the surface electrical resistance; important role in avoiding the surface electrical tracking in the polymeric insulators under polluted/ contaminated conditions. The second aspect is the long-term performance analysis. In the first part of the thesis work, the experimental investigation are conducted using indigenously developed experi- mental arrangements. The investigation pertaining to surface resistance of silicone rubber insulating material investigations, Inclined plane tracking and erosion (IPT) method is utilized. The evaluation of the material property is conducted under different environ- mental condition simulating as per standard (normal condition) and acid rain condition under AC and DC voltage application. The acidity value and salt contents of artifi cial acid rain is simulated based on the physically observed acid rain information. In summary, the main contribution of present work is to understand the effect of different environmental condition on the degradation of silicone rubber insulators and its effect on material properties and long-term performance. Recurrence plot analysis performed on measured leakage current present the visual pattern that provide clear discrimination between fresh and degraded sample. It is proposed that this method could be used as an important tool to detect and diagnosis the loss of material property of polymeric insulators. The investigation presents more realistic contribution towards the surface degradation studies on Polymeric Insulators used for EHV and UHV Transmission.

Insulators play an important role in the reliability and safe operation of EHV/UHV transmission lines. Recently several utilities in the country and elsewhere are using polymeric insulators for the high voltage transmission and distribution systems due to their advantages. Since, polymeric insulators are of recent origin and organic in nature, their long-term field performance is not yet fully understood. International standard organizations like CIGRE, IEC, IEEE etc, are currently working towards the development of methods for long term performance; some include resistance to corona, ozone, chemical attack, hydrophobicity etc, for the polymeric insulating samples. The present investigation focuses on two important aspects: (1) Investigations on the corona induced degradation on different polymeric samples under normal and due to different fog conditions. (2) Application of digital imaging techniques for the detection of corona discharges and its analysis. An experimental facility along with a new methodology is proposed and adopted for the corona induced degradation studies on polymer insulator examples. The investigations are conducted on different polymer samples for the normal and the effect of different fog environments, some interesting results are obtained, further the treated samples are analyzed using physicochemical analysis, it was found that corona treated samples present higher hydroxylation, detection of nitric acid on sample surface which cause brittle fracture of fiberglass rod of the insulator, loss of Alumina trihydrate (ATH) filler, decrease in tensile strength on theinsulator samples.It was observed from experimental investigations that corona activity isone of the important phenomena responsible for the degradation of polymeric insulators. Hence, periodic inspection of polymeric insulators and the detection of corona discharges are important in condition monitoring. Hence an attempt is made to analyze and quantify the corona discharges using image processing techniques. A color threshold based corona plasma extraction algorithm is adopted. A luminance component ‘Y’parameter is computed from the processed corona images and is shown to correlate well with the corona released power. A physical model is proposed to explain the phenomenon and is quantified by adopting the line‐detection based image processing algorithm to compute the corona spread angle. It is observed that material degradation caused by the corona with less spread angle is higher in comparison to the wide spread corona. To overcome the limitation of conventional images,high dynamic range imaging technique is employed to accurately identify the location of corona stress on the polymeric samples. Interestingly, it is observed that the correlation between the degradation patterns estimated by the corona images and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy(FTIR) show that HDR image provides the true correlation, whereas the conventional images resulted in pseudo‐correlation.

碩士
國立雲林科技大學
光學電子工程研究所
95
In this research, our purpose is to fabricate high performance flexible organic thin film transistors（flexible OTFT）.The organic polymer PHEMA insulator is fabricated by spin coating technique and different manufacturing is used to improve thin films surface and quality in order to grow large Pentacene grains and increase the mobility of devices. The first experiment is the making of the organic polymer PHEMA insulator of MIM capacitor. First, we deposit the Al electrode on the plastic substrates which are already cleaned. Then, the organic insulator is formed on samples by using spin coating technique, which is made at root temperature as well as at 100 ℃ followed by baking for 10 Min, 20 Min and 30 Min. Finally, we deposit the Al electrode by using the mask. The results show that the capacitance per unit area of the insulator is Ci（RT）=12.99 nF, Ci（100 ℃、10 Min）=14.62 nF, Ci（100 ℃、20 Min）=15.46 nF and Ci（100 ℃、30 Min）=16.82 nF and we can get the best result of the dielectric constant K = 4.88 which is made at 100 ℃, baking for 20 Min. From AFM thin film surface measurement, we know that the insulator can eliminate the solvent and moisture by baking it at high temperature then can decrease the roughness of the thin film surface. For the following fabrications, the smooth surface can increase the performance of the devices. The second experiment is to apply the results of the first experiment in the flexible OTFT devices. The devices have four major layers: gate electrode, organic gate insulator layer, organic active layer and source/drain electrode. We use evaporator and different masks to grow the thin films except the organic gate insulator layer, which is fabricated by spin coating technique. The devices have different processes of insulator and different channel ratio. We find that the electronic characters of devices are related to the processes of insulator. The best mobility is 3.69 cm2/Vs and the On/Off current ratio is 102 order in the organic insulator which is made at 100 ℃, baking for 10 Min. From AFM measurements Pentacene surface, the results show that we can get larger Pentacene grains in the suitable surface to increase the mobility of the devices.

碩士
國立交通大學
工學院影像顯示科技產業專班
96
The use of organic materials to build electronics is most attractive for low cost devices fabricated by printing techniques on large area, flexible substrates. Novel printable polymeric gate insulators were proposed and developed in this thesis. Those insulators were synthesized with high dielectric constant and strong hydrophobic ability to replace commercial polymeric gate insulators. The bottom contact structures of OTFTs with novel printable insulators were demonstrated. Moreover, the printable potential was fulfilled in demonstrating OTFTs by ink-jet printing technology with printed insulator layer. From the experimental results, the OTFT with printable polymeric gate insulator presented mobility of 0.10 cm2/Vs and on/off current ratio of five orders of magnitude with stable and no hysteresis performances. Considering the strong dipole effect of novel insulator materials, the improved layer can reduce the effect and the turn-on voltage shift to zero voltage. Even more, the mobility of improved device was 0.70 cm¬2/Vs.

碩士
長庚大學
電子工程研究所
95
Abstract The device, based on an organic semiconductor, has the potential to change the display industry and develop one of the technological mainstreams in the future. It has particular possibilities in large area deposition or simple fabrication, mechanical flexibility, low temperature process and especially, and ultra low-cost application. However, the disadvantage of high operation voltage still exists in the practical application of this novel device. In this paper, an organic thin film transistor based on Poly (3-hexlthiophene) (P3HT) with high dielectric constant materials (HfO2) has an advantage in terms of low temperature process and low operation voltage and has successfully been fabricated. In Chapter 2, we find the low carrier mobility in organic thin film transistor with Au/Al as contact metal. Moreover, the on current is always about 2μA. We begin to notice the junction between the metal and semiconductor and choose high work function metal (Au/Cr) as the contact metal. The experimental results support the improvement of the device characteristic, but the crowding effect can still exist. However, we fabricate the device base on purification P3HT with Au/Cr as contact metal. The crowding effect can be improved substantially and promote the device characteristic. In Chapter 3, we investigate the origin of ID off current in our devices. When the quality of oxide is normal, the horizontal direction dominates the leakage current. By patterning the P3HT film, the device performance can be improved. In addition, in the condition wherein the vertical direction dominates the leakage current, the major origin of leakage current is the oxide itself.