Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Police Service”

There is a noted discrepancy between police psychological services offered and services utilized. It is important to understand reasons for underutilization when creating services for officers. The purpose of this study was providing empirical evidence from the officers-perspectives to answer this question. The conceptual foundation was officers may refuse participation due to police culture. The conceptual framework was represented in research questions focused on officers- perspectives regarding psychological services provided by psychologists without law enforcement (LE) experience. The participants were employed law enforcement officers (LEOs) from regions across the United States. Officer participation from all 50 states was targeted to assist in ensuring demographic variability. Phenomenological methods were employed. Samples were gathered by contacting 2 police departments (PDs) per state, in arbitrarily chosen cities and rural areas. One questionnaire with pre-addressed, stamped envelopes was sent to each department indicating the research post office box. Data were analyzed by applying qualitative research data software, open coding, in-margin notetaking procedures, and individual recognition of themes. Ten to 25 participants were required and 10 were achieved. Two categories, 6 subcategories, 2 themes, and 3 subthemes emerged from the data analyses. Data analyses aligned with previous findings in 2 aspects and did not support others. Positive social change will be affected through identifying reasons for low service utilization. Agencies may begin restructuring program policies, developing more effective training, and other psychological protocols for LEOs and providers.

Background In order for the South African Police Service to fulfil its mandate of creating a safe and secure environment, various human, financial, and technological resources are required. Hence, the availability of adequately trained human resources is considered critical in ensuring that the South African Police Service is able to fulfil its roles and responsibilities. Without the efforts, knowledge, capabilities, and committed behaviour of its police officers, the organisation would not be able to achieve its objectives and deliver on its mandated duties. However, recent data published by the South African Police Service revealed an increase in employee turnover, particularly at senior levels within the organisation and among highly skilled/specialist staff. Due to the stringent requirements of law-enforcement positions, the recruitment and selection of police officers is a lengthy, costly and often complex process. This is even more applicable to those in senior and highly skilled and/or specialist positions. It is, therefore, of paramount importance that an effective retention strategy is put in place to curb voluntary employee turnover and thus ensure the retention of scarce skills within the police force. Aim of the Study Being able to retain and engage police officers, a scarce resource, is vital for the South African Police Service in ensuring that it is able to fulfil its legislated mandate. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to identify the push and pull factors and/or the reasons that are most commonly related to voluntary turnover among the employees of the organisation. Identification of these factors would make it possible to present recommendations and/or to propose strategies, policies and practices that could be implemented to increase the retention of skilled senior staff. Method A descriptive research design was utilised. To address the research question, copies of archived exit-interview questionnaires were obtained from the South African Police Service. When an employee tenders his/her resignation, an exit interview is conducted by a trained interviewer (typically a social worker, psychologist or chaplain). During this meeting, an exit-interview questionnaire is completed and archived. This questionnaire consists of both closed-ended and open-ended semi-structured questions. A sample of exit-interview questionnaires (n=91) that comprised questionnaires from employees who held the rank of Sergeant, Warrant Officer or Captain and who had voluntarily resigned from the Western Cape South African Police Service during the 2016/17 fiscal year was obtained. Both qualitative and quantitative data obtained from the exit-interview questionnaires were analysed. Findings The findings suggested that overall, the South African Police Service was considered a good employer. The most prevalent reason for employee turnover was found to be related to the perceived safety of individuals and the risk to employees’ lives in carrying out their duties. The reasons given for resigning from the organisation were divided into two categories, namely individual factors (i.e., related to the person) and organisational factors (i.e., related to the organisation). Individual factor variables provided by respondents as reasons to leave included health, relocation, further studies, family time, rest, long service, and age. Organisational factors included better career opportunities; business opportunities; unfair treatment; lack of recognition, promotion or advancement opportunities; undesirable working hours; and issues with leadership/management. Recommendations Based on the findings, it is recommended that an effective retention strategy is implemented within the South African Police Service that includes career development, health and wellness, reward and recognition, work-life balance, and leadership. This recommended retention strategy should value transparency and empowerment and should aim to create a workplace that is conducive to good working conditions through enhancing team cohesion; creating opportunities for learning; and improving service delivery, the quality of work life, and work-life balance.

Thesis (MPA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This research study explores the impact of organisational culture with specific reference to the South African Police Service (SAPS) culture on service delivery. The two interrelated concepts "organisational culture and service delivery are discussed broadly in terms of their challenges for the contemporary policing function which put emphasis on the provision of police service and accounatbility to the broader community. The premise of the study is based on literature research evidence that organisational culture is an important factor to influence employee behaviour towards organisational effectiveness and also determine how they respond to its external environment. At the same time a strong organisational culture can be rigid and become a hindrance to change. Service delivery is a critical challenge to the government's ongoing efforts to ensure that its delivery process is efficient and responsive, particularly to the needs of the previously disadvantaged communities. In recent years, this challenge reinforced the government to embark on broad transformation mechanisms in order to position public institutions in an environment where service delivery meets the public needs and expectations. Some of these mechanisms include the promulgation of legislation, regulations and a series of policy frameworks notably, The White Paper on Reconstruction and Development (ROP), 1994, The White Paper on the Transformation of the Public Service of 1995, Public Service Regulation of 1999 etc. However, the provision of efficient service delivery in public institutions is usually constrained by various factors such as lack of capacity and shortage of competency skills, financial and technological resources as opposed to the private sector which normally have these resources in abundance. Since lack of sufficient financial resources will always be a challenge for public service delivery enhancement, this study suggests that public institutions can incorporate some private sector strategies in order to be innovative and improve efficiency. Apart from a lack of the above mentioned resources as contributing factor to inefficient service delivery, available theory on organisational culture state that it is an all encompassing factor that influences employee behaviour in public institutions. Chapter 3 provides a theoretical framework on the concept of organisational culture, its formation, and its sources, how it is sustained in the organisation. Various models and examples of organisational culture as found in small and big organisations such as those associated with government agencies are analysed and distinguish in terms of why the size of the organisation can determine its prevailing culture. Small organisations with flat structures are considered to be flexible, autonomous, innovative and responsive to customer needs. On the other hand the traditional bureaucratic organisations such as government agencies like police organisations tend to be characterised by highly formal hierarchical structure with too many layers, operational rules and regulations which are intended to enforce control measures. However, type of structures are criticised for rigid systems, autocratic, and slow. Models for changing organisational culture in order to increase its effectiveness are suggested. After a theoretical discussion on both the concepts organisational culture and service delivery, the SAPS was used as a case study to establish the applicability and the extent to which organisational culture impact on service delivery. The first stage consist of analytical perspective of the SAPS historical military culture since its inception in 1913 and giving critical accounts of its operational phases that it had undergone until the new dispensation. Since the early 1990s until after April 1994 elections, marked a new era in the SAPS which embarked on broad transformation initiatives in order to change policing function from that of a narrow law and order maintenance to a fully integrated community policing which makes police officers to be accountable to the broader community by rendering police service and problem solving within a human rights culture. However, police culture has been widely criticised as a source of resistance to change and reform, and is often misunderstood. The prevailing police culture which was inherited from the previous paramilitary legacy such as the autocratic leadership style, traditional bureaucratic structure, corruption, secrecy, mistrust are some of the dominant indicators which are identifiable and commonalities among the different police agencies. These dominant features cause any resistance to any change initiative and are perceived with negative image. After contextualising the description of the SAPS, the study describes the methods and procedures used to conduct an empirical research project in the form of a pilot study conducted in two police stations in Cape Town. Data collection methods include the following: 1) literature review, 2) open-ended one-an-one interviews with the station commissioners from the selected stations, 3) distributing survey questionnaires which consist of close ended questionnaires to junior officers at police stations to determine their attitudes towards the organisations they work in, and 4) by means of observation. Theoretical evidence proves that police culture which is characterised by paramilitary, bureaucracy, rigid systems and procedures, inflexible structure still prevail in the SAPS and contributes significantly to lack of coordination, slow response and results inefficient service delivery. It is concluded that police stations are the primary centres where the public gets first hand experience when reporting their cases or need the help of police officers to solve problems in the community. In order to provide efficient police service, units which provide interrelated functions need to be fully integrated under one unit commander in order to improve coordination and prompt response. Policing crime is still the primary function of the police and police officers need to be fully equipped with competency skills and other capacity building programs that are consistent with the contemporary policing function.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie navorsingstudie stelondersoek in na die impak van organisasiekultuur met spesifieke verwysing na die Suid-Afrikaanse Polisiediens (SAPD) se kultuur op dienslewering. Die twee verwante konsepte "organisasiekultuur"en "dienslewering"word breedvoerig bespreek teen die agtergrond van die agtergrond van die uitdagings wat dit stel vir die hedendaagse polisieringsfunsie wat dit beklemtoon dat die polisie 'n diens moet lewer en aanspeeklik moet wees teenoor die breer gemeenskap. Die studie se aanname is gebasseer op literatuurnavorsing wat toon dat organisasiekultuur 'n faktor is wat werknemersgedrag beinvloed ten opsigte van organisasie-effektiwiteit asook hoe werknemers reageer teenoor die eksterne omgewing. 'n Sterk organisasiekultuur word beskou as 'n bindende faktor tussen werkers en die organisasie en dit skep kosekwentheid en rigting. 'n Sterk organisisasiekultuur kan terselfdetyd rigied wees en 'n struikelblok word in die weg van voorgestelde verandering aangesien verandering beskou kan word as inmenging in die normale gang van die organisasie. Hierteenoor het 'n meer buigsame kultuur die voordeel van aanpasbaarheid ten opsigte van verandering. Dienslewering is 'n volgehoue uitdaging vir die regering se se volgehoue pogings om te verseker dat sy leweringsproses effektief is en die behoeftes van spesifiek die voorheen benadeelde groepe aanspreek. Hierdie uitdaging het die regering genoop om transformasie-meganismes daar te stel ten einde openbare instellings in staat te stelom leweringsagente te word wat die behoeftes en uitkomste-verwagtinge van almal aanspreek. Van die meganismes sluit in die promulgering van wetgewing en beleid soos die Heropbou-en Ontwikkelingsprogram (HOP) Witskrif, 1994, die Transformasie van Openbare Dienste Witskrif, 1995, die Openbare Diens Reguleringswet van 1999 ensomeer. Die lewering van effektiewe dienste word gewoonlik beperk deur deur veskeie faktore soos 'n gebrek aan kapasiteit en vaardighede, asook finasiele en tegnologiese hulpbronne wat normaalweg tot die beskiking van die private sektor is. Gegewe dat 'n tekort aan finansiele hulpbronne altyd 'n uitdaging vir effektiewe openbare sektor dienslewering sal wees, stel hierdie studie voor dat openbare instellings sekere privaatsektor strategiee kan inkorporeer ten einde innovasie en effektiwiteit te verbeter. Behalwe bogenoemde beperkende faktore, stel beskikbare organisasiekultuur-teorie dit dat dit ook organisasiekultuur is wat openbare sektor amptenare se gedrag is wat die kwaliteit en vlak van dienslewering beinvloed. Hoofstuk drie bied 'n teoretiese raamwerk vir die konsep organisasiekultuur ten opsigte van hoe dit geskep en in stand gehou word binne organisasies. Verskeie modelle en voorbeelde van organisasiekultuur binne klein sowel as groor organissaies word ontleed en daar word gekyk na hoe die grootte van 'n organisasie organisasiekultuur beinvloed. Klein organisasies met 'n plat struktuur word beskou as buigsaam, outonoom, innoverend en daartoe in staat om die vebruiker se behoeftes aan te spreek. Daarteenoor word tradisionele burokratiese organisasies soos polisie-organisasies gekenmerk deur formele strukture met te veel vlakke, operasionele reels en regulasies ten einde volle beheer te he oor prosedures. Die rigiede stelsels, outokrasie, en stadiege leweringsproses van sulke strukture word dikwels gekritiseer. Modelle om organisasiekultuur te verander ten einde effektiwiteit te verbeter word voorgestel. Die teoretiese bespeking van die konsepte organisasiekultuur en dienslewering word gevolg deur 'n gevallestudie van die SAPD ten einde te bepaal die mate waartoe organisasiekultuur impakteer op dienslewering. Die eerste fase behels 'n analitiese perspektief van die SAPD se historiese militere kultuur sedert 1913 asook' n kritiese blik op operasionele fases waardeur die SAPD gegaan het tot en met die nuwe dispensasie. Die vroee 1990s tot net na die April 1994 verkiesing verteenwoordig' n nuwe era in die SAPD ten opsigte van transformasie inisiatiewe wat daarop gerig was om die polisieringsfunksie te verander van 'n agent wat eng gefokus was op die handhawing van wet en orde na 'n geintegreerde polisiediens wat aanspeeklik is teenoor die bree gemeenskap. Dit behels die lewering van 'n polisiediens sowel as probleem-oplossing binne die konteks van 'n menseregte-kultuur. Polisiekultuur word, as gevolg van misverstande, dikwels beskou as 'n bron weerstand teen verandering. Die heersende organisasiekultuur - wat 'n nalatenskap is van die vorige paramilitere styl byvoorbeeld outokratiese leierskapstyl, tradisionele burokratiese strukture, korrupsie, geheimhouding, wantroue - is van die dominante indikatore wat gemeenskaplike eienskappe is van die verskeie polisie-agentskappe. Hierdie dominante kenmerke veroorsaak weerstand teen enige veranderingsinisiatief en word as negatief beskou. Die beskrywing van die SAPD word gevolg deur' n uiteensetting van metodes en prosedures wat gebruik was tydens die empiriese navorsing wat gedoen was by twee polisiestasies in Kaapstad. Data insamelingsmetodes sluit in: 1) lieratuurnavorsing, 2) ope een-tot-een onderhoude met die stasiekomisarisse van die twee stasies, 3) die verspreiding van geslote vraelyste aan junior offisiere by polisiestasies ten einde hul houding te bepaal teenoor die organisaies waar hulle werk, en 4) observasies. Teoretiese bewyse toon dat die polisiekultuur wat normaalweg gekenmerk word deur paramilitere, buroktariese, rigiede stelsels en prosedures steeds bestaan binne die SAPD en dat dit bydra tot swak koordinasie, swak response en oneffektiewe dienslewering. Ten slotte word gemeld dat polisiedienssentra plekke is waar die publiek eerstehands kennis maak met dienslewering. Ten einde 'n effektiewe diens te lewer, behoort eenhede wat verwante diense lewer geintegreer te word onder die bevel van een bevelvoerder. Misdaadvoorkoming is steeds die primere funksie van die SAPD en beamptes moet toegerus word met die nodige bevoegdhede, vaardighede asook kapasiteitsbouprogramme wat in lyn is met die kontemporere polisieringsfunksie.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Arts in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Masters (Criminology) in the Department of Criminal Justice, at the University of Zululand, South Africa, 2014
South Africa is currently a country in crisis. A strike of around 1.3 million public-sector employees, which started on the 18 the August 2011, was and still is causing chaos in the country. Government institutions such as hospitals and schools are closed due to strikes (The Wall Street Journal. 2011). Due to the frustration of the communities because of lack of service deliveries most of these strikes and gatherings becomes violent and destructive. The researcher has identified a major gap with the current curriculum utilized for the basic training of trainees in the South African Police Service. The curriculum mostly consists of theoretical presentations, especially with regard to crowd management. There is no practical training presented on how to manage crowds, and there is no presentation of the equipment that can be utilized and how it can be used to handle crowd management and unrest related incidents. All police officials are ultimately responsible for maintaining law and order and therefore the researcher believes that it is extremely important that trainees should be introduced to crowd management and unrest incidents during basic training. This will enable them to have the necessary skills to handle unrest situation should they be faced with it at station levels. This will enhance service delivery for the whole SAPS, as all police officials will know how to manage crowds.

Managerialist principles have been applied within public services for a number of years but their ability to alter or improve public service has been questioned. This study examined the introduction of Best Value in the police service. Best Value was introduced to Police Authorities by the New Labour Government in the Local Government Act 1999 to ensure that all services provided by these authorities were 'delivered to clear standards'. In addition, they must take into account the cost and quality of all services and provide them in the most efficient, effective and economic manner. All services are subject to review over a five year period and should be reviewed in connection with the fours C' s, competition, comparison, challenge and consultation in order to achieve continuous improvement. In addition, Best Value aimed to change the organisation of the police service by encouraging a greater role for the Police Authorities in deciding how services were delivered, supported the opening up of the police to partnership arrangements and promoted the need for local innovation and ways of working. The main aim of the research was to look at the effects of these 'Best Value' policies on the police service and whether the implementation of these policies led to improvements in service delivery and the restructuring of the organisation as intended. This was achieved by selecting three case study areas and employing a number of research methods including semi-structured interviews, using documentary analysis and examining quantitative data. The study found that despite initial differences in the way the Best Value was implemented a fairly uniform approach was adopted in the three Police Authorities. It established that Best Value was encouraging the police service to make changes to the way that services were delivered. In addition, there was some evidence that Best Value had encouraged greater involvement of Police Authorities in deciding how services were delivered. Under Best Value change tended to be gradual and incorporated both national and local objectives. This incremental nature of change meant that as yet there was little evidence of improvements in measured performance.

The Police Service has a strategic priority to improve approaches to progression forunder-represented groups; however, it is facing continued challenges for this priority, as there is a lack of progression for Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) officers. There are implicit suggestions in policy that increasing BME officers in the police would improve police culture in the form of attenuating the racism that may be creating barriers to recruitment and progression. Reform efforts have taken place in the UK Police Services in the last decade to have a more diverse workforce, especially with regard to race, sex and sexual orientation. However, contemporary research has repeatedly demonstrated that there are inherent problems in assimilation of officers that are not white males (Holdaway and O’Neill,2004; Bolton and Feagin, 2004; Cashmore, 2001). The common themes from previous research are that BME officers face barriers of stereotyping, police culture and racism that affects their working environment and prospects of progression. This thesis examined BME senior officers perceptions of progression in the British Police Service. The research was conducted within a qualitative paradigm to examine barriers to career progression that affected BME officers so that professional knowledge is improved for police leaders to consider alternative employment practices. This thesis focused on BME and white Superintendents working in the United Kingdom. BME Superintendents were excluded from the sub-culture of progression, which contained informal practices that were rooted to covert institutional racism. The predominant informal practice found was networks that operated covertly and were linked to chief officer sponsors who could provide mobility. Within the networks there was axiomatic knowledge providing vital dissemination of information for progression. BME Superintendents were negatively impacted by exclusion from these informal practices and exhibited physical and psychological behaviours such as working hard,anxiety and having a lack of confidence. A model describing the cause and effect of BME progression in the British Police Service was developed through this research and is presented as new professional knowledge.

Summary in English.
According to President Thabo Mbeki, the fight against corruption is one of the principal tasks of his new government. Corruption is a central concern for a country that is in a difficult political transition and is facing strong economic demands. South Africa needs an effective government. The focus of this paper is one of the areas where corruption is thriving, the South African Police Service (SAPS). I have chosen for a study within the department of Safety and Security because this is the headquarters of the fight against corruption and the place where the rule of law should be rooted most deeply. If the justice-system is corrupt, the whole state will be polluted. According to the Parliamentary researcher for the Safety and Security Committee 'the current level of corruption within the overall criminal justice system is the factor most negatively influencing efforts to substantially improve safety and security in South Africa', undermining both public confidence and crime prevention strategies (Briefing Committee 1999:1). This is one motivation for writing a thesis on this topic: corruption is a central concern for those involved in South African politics. The theme of corruption is also at the heart of political organization. People organize themselves for certain goals. Whatever these goals are, corruption interferes with their effective pursuance. Studying corruption means studying the nature of government and the tension between the way it should use its power and the way it does. It is about the limits of human organization, the tension between the public and the private, and the slippery way people practice their ethics. This is another motivation for writing on this topic: corruption is a central concern for those involved in political science. In South Africa, there are widespread beliefs in the existence of corruption. In a survey published by Idasa in 1996, 46 percent of the respondents felt that most officials were engaged in corruption and only 6 percent believed there was a clean government (Lodge 1998:157). The police certainly does not have a dean reputation. In a newspaper poll over half of the respondents called the police 'corrupt and having no integrity' (Sowetan 28/3/96, quoted in Syed and Bruce 1997:2). Moreover, an opinion survey at the end of 1998 showed that 60 percent of the respondents thought the government was controlling corruption 'not very well' or 'not at all well' (Mail & Guardian 8/10/99:30). In this thesis, I want to put these figures into perspective. The purpose of the thesis is two-folded. Firstly, to provide for an analysis of the historical, political, social and organizational roots of corruption within the SAPS. Secondly, to confront this analysis - and the policy directions it suggests - with the practice of fighting corruption in South Africa.

The democratisation of education in South Africa reflects a worldwide phenomenon. Coupled with democratisation is the demand for institutional accountability with regard to learner success and support. Regulating authorities such as the Departments of Education and Higher Education, therefore expect training institutions to establish and maintain student support services to assist learners in the successful completion of their studies. As a recognised and accredited education and training service provider, the South African Police Service is therefore required not only to train its employees but also to accept responsibility for the success of its learners. The purpose of this research study is to explore whether or not existing SAPS learner support services rendered to trainees during basic police training are regarded by trainees as valuable and effective. The findings of the study should assist the SAPS in determining areas in which it could improve these services to ensure the success of all its trainees. For the purposes of this study learner support is defined as a comprehensive and rigorous system supporting learning through the provision of a broad spectrum of services (academic and non-academic) that are meant to enable learners to optimise their learning experience. The constructivist learning theory was adopted as the theoretical framework for the study. The research design utilised was survey research, and the data collection instrument was a questionnaire. The validity and reliability of the questionnaire as well as the validity of the constructs utilised were confirmed by means of tests relevant to this purpose. The sample used was representative of the learner population in the SAPS and the response could be classified as very good. The most important findings of this research study were that the learners participating in the research experienced the learner support services they received as useful/helpful and timely rendered. While the results of the frequency tests suggest the existence of some conflicting findings with regard to the usefulness/helpfulness and timeliness of the services rendered it was therefore be concluded that learners who utilised the services found them satisfactory. Overall, it was found that learner support services were regarded as important and generally delivered on time. The instrument, and the large number of respondents involved in the generation of data, ensured a refined analysis of the data. Based on the analysis it was possible to identify specific academies where the provisioning of learner support was more advanced than others. It was also possible to identify specific aspects regarding learner support that could be strengthened, such as Library Services. The research indicates that the SAPS could target certain aspects of its support services and academies for improvement. This study concluded by recommending a learner support model for the South African Police Service.
Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2015.
Education Management and Policy Studies
PhD

Police high-speed vehicular pursuits are contentious due to lives lost and property damage resulting from unintended crashes. To reduce pursuit-related trauma, and potential litigation, police jurisdictions have introduced restrictive policies that limit when officers may engage in a pursuit. However, opponents of restrictive pursuit policies believe this results in reduced deterrence, increased criminal offending and dangerous driving practices. This thesis tested these assumptions using a single case study of Queensland, Australia, where the Queensland Police Service (QPS) implemented two restrictive pursuit policy iterations in 2007 and 2011. Five studies sought to establish the policies’ specific aims; whether they were achieved; if there was resistance to the policy reforms; and, if so, what were the rationales for such resistance. The major theoretical contribution of this thesis was to support the notion that Dent and Goldberg’s (1999a; 1999b) Loss Resistance Theory can help explain why police might resist policy reform. Loss Resistance Theory argues that change per se is not the root cause for resistance to performance altering policies, but stakeholders’ perceived losses in terms of their autonomy, status, and independent discretion, resulting from the policy change. Lipsky’s (2010) Discretionary Independence Theory applied to police officers acting as ‘street-level bureaucrats’ (Lipsky, 2010), provided an additional theoretical platform to test policy limitations on officers’ decision-making. Several other theories were derived from the literature and used to assist data collection and provide focus to the analysis. These included Classical Deterrence Theory, as derived from Hobbes (1651), Beccaria (1764/1872) and Bentham (1780/1988), that was tested relative to alterations in offending behaviour. Moore’s Public Value Theory (1995), that explains public acceptance of authority and coercion is judged against citizens’ expectations for justice, fairness, efficiency, and effectiveness, provided an opportunity to explore external policy acceptance and/or resistance. Cohen and Felson’s (1979) Routine Activity Theory proposes that for a crime to be successfully committed, the three necessary elements are a motivated offender, the availability of a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian. The theory was tested by analysis of crime patterns and offending behaviours where police guardianship may have been affected by the policy restrictions. The research began with study 1, a documentary archival search and analysis spanning the pre-policy years from 1989 to 2006, that sought to confirm the intent of Queensland’s restrictive pursuit policies. Applying a One Group Pretest/Posttest Design method, using official QPS data from 2003 to 2015, study 2 then explored changes in pursuit frequencies, and associated trauma, before and after each policy iteration. Study 3 used the same method to test changes in frequency and rate of selected offence categories. Study 4 analysed operational reports to identify policy noncompliance that may infer resistance. And, finally, study 5 analysed interview responses from fifteen operational police officers. Findings from study 1 reveal the primary intent of the policies was to reduce the number of deaths associated with police pursuits. Study 2 found that both restrictive policies reduced pursuit-related trauma, as intended. Crime classes tested in study 3 all showed reductions to varying degrees, except evasion offences, which increased exponentially. Early policy resistance was evident from the results of study 4 but diminished over time. The results of studies 4 & 5 found early resistance to the restrictive policies was predicated on officers’ fears of potential loss to their autonomy, independent decision-making capacity, and operational feasibility. This research established that restrictive police pursuit policies did not contribute to increases in the general road death toll due to any lack of road policing enforcement, as predicted in the literature. And, except for evasion offences, they did not facilitate increased crime where the use of a vehicle is either mandatory or desirable for the successful completion of the offence. With the passing of time, and the negation of pre-empted outcomes, resistance is now largely eliminated. However, police officers reportedly continue to resist applying the evasion offence policy requirements, while in their view prosecutors and magistrates fail to adhere to the relevant legislation. Future researchers may wish to test the findings in an alternative jurisdiction to establish if the results can be equally observed and replicated. However, the findings imply that police administrators contemplating policy reform should focus greater attention and resources on ongoing training investment before and after policy implementation. Their goal should be to ensure officers are thoroughly versed in the organization’s aims, so that policies may be fully embraced by operational and prosecutorial staff, while assuaging any perceived losses from the outset, particularly to officers’ status and authority.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Crim & Crim Justice
Arts, Education and Law
Full Text

Current research on interpreters in the legal system acknowledges the complexity of their role and the potential for both positive and negative effects of interpreter-mediated communication (Boser, 2013; Heydon & Lai, 2013; Laster & Taylor, 1994). However, reports of the Australian police’s reluctance to provide interpreter services or of using inappropriate people suggest that non-native speaking people may be at risk (Australian Law Reform Commission (ALRC), 1992; Gibbons, 2003; McMillan, 2009). Moreover, ineffective use of interpreters can impact the already overextended time and resources of police and risks fracturing relationships with members of the community that they aim to build. To date, the apparent discrepancy between police guidelines that encourage interpreter use and these negative reports has been given limited support by research, as it rarely takes into account the police perspective. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis was to explore the use of interpreters from a policing perspective. A triangulated methodology was devised to investigate police perceptions of using interpreters, how police use interpreters in interviews with suspects, and police policy and guidelines about how to use interpreters. Such an investigation would also allow for an examination of interpreter use by police with victims, witnesses, suspects and informants. Multiple angles of investigation were used because improving police use of interpreters requires an investigation to understand police perceptions, recognise current practice and inform best practice. Considering these three elements will add to the growing empirical understanding of police use of interpreters and make a unique and practical contribution to improved police guidelines and training.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Applied Psychology
Griffith Health
Full Text

This thesis studies a 2002 attempt to fundamentally reform the Pakistan Police Service (PSP) through the promulgation of Police Order 2002. This reform was aimed at converting the PSP from an instrument of coercive government to a force responsive to and protective of the citizenry. It constituted, as its introduction explicitly stated, a significant move toward democratic consolidation in Pakistan. PO 2002 was introduced nationwide on 14 August 2002 with wide support from Pakistani elites and under the direction of the autocratic but reform-oriented government of General Pervez Musharraf. Yet PO 2002 failed. It was amended in 2004 and annulled in 2010. Understanding why it failed is important for understanding the challenges confronting democratising developing states, like Pakistan. Existing accounts attribute PO 2002 failure either to ‘loss of political will’ or to ‘bureaucratic politics’. The present research inclined toward the latter explanation until evidence gathered in the field pointed in quite another direction. The thesis employed a combination of process-tracing of the history of PO 2002 and the analytical framework of advocacy coalition developed by Sabatier and Jenkins-Smith. The use of Advocacy Coalition framework (ACF) directed research toward the most important factors before the actors involved. Semi-structured interviews with these revealed their beliefs and various aims regarding the initiation, progress and fate of PO 2002. ACF also alerted the research to the impact on the policy domain of external perturbations, internal shocks and changes in socio-political conditions. Interviews with key personnel of the Musharraf regime and relevant political and civil parties revealed considerable unanimity of opinion: the demand for police reform originated in the 1990s when simultaneous strategies of democratic transition and neoliberal transformation conflicted, aggravating chaos and distributional conflicts in multi-ethnic urban centres of Pakistan. Governments used police in an attempt to control the situation but brutal, highly politicised policing failed, prompting widespread acceptance of the need for police reform. ACF analysis found that the policy design phase of the resulting PO 2002 was monopolised by a material coalition of PSP that identified the problem as control of police by central executive power. It recommended transfer of control to local communities. Absent an epistemic community capable of analysing this proposal’s merits, and in an atmosphere of general public distrust of elected politicians, it was approved by a military government pursuing community empowerment and by liberal elites who saw it as the pathway to democratic policing. But research revealed a contradiction in PO 2002’s stated objectives – first, to improve police performance and, second, to make police autonomous. Increased autonomy worked against performance by serving the motives of PSP officers more interested in removing bottlenecks from their careers than in effective policing. Moreover, the transfer of control to divided, often mutually hostile communities, in the times of market liberalisation merely fragmented politicisation and led to intercommunal violence. Exacerbating the situation was the fact that, even before PO 2002 was implemented, the aftermath of 9/11 caused unprecedented anti-American sentiment in Pakistan. Given popular perceptions of the US as anti-Islam, President Musharraf’s assistance to George W. Bush in his ‘war on terror’ cost him public support. Meanwhile, thanks to PO 2002, his government could not employ police to fight terrorists hiding in local communities. Belated recognition of the need to align police with the policies of the central executive led to the 2004 amendment of PO 2002. Control of provincial heads of police was acquired by the state via the intermediary home secretary, while control of ancillary police agencies was left with local actors and communities. But problems once again re-emerged when the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) came to power after Musharraf’s resignation in 2008. Strong evidence against the lower ranks of police force victimising the accused of blasphemy came forward, creating a scandalous national crisis. PPP government and state institutions were blamed for neglecting their responsibility and not protecting the rights of the accused. Further inquiry identified both the internal and external structures of PO 2002 as problem parameters. The additional internal structures introduced by PO 2002 had introduced procedural delays which significantly increased the risks for the blasphemy accused. These procedural delays further increased the probability of exploitation of police force by the local political actors, business groups and the extremist factions in some communities. Lower level police constables inspired by the extremist ideology or overtaken by their own sentiments even killed the accused of blasphemy, especially in Punjab. One, such incident also led to the murder of the governor of Punjab in 2010. The strong evidence before the PPP government left little choice but to repeal PO 2002 in 2011, and revert back to PO 1861, but it was not without incremental changes. PO 2002 failed because of its own internal weaknesses. Removing central executive control created serious security issues and singular focus of the PSP material coalitions on removing career bottle neck in their careers introduced procedural delays between reporting of the crime and initiation of its investigation. This delay increased the risk of victimisation of already vulnerable blasphemy accused. Devolving policing responsibility to local communities may seem democratic, but in a multi-ethnic country it is a recipe for conflict. The study concludes by exploring models aimed at reconciling control of police with democratic imperatives but argues that the lack of political trust in the executive, which began with Pakistan’s transformation to a neoliberal regime, remains the biggest challenge for democratic consolidation in Pakistan and perhaps in other developing countries.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Govt & Int Relations
Griffith Business School
Full Text

There has been increasing concern about the lack of adherence to total quality management principles among public and private sector organisations who espouse a quality orientation. One example is the British police service. While it's new appraisal system (adopted nationally in 2004) has much to commend it, little can be regarded as quality compliant. The problem is its traditional outlook. Quality systems are focused on team-working with the assumption that processes, not people are the problem. The new police appraisal makes no such assumption retaining an emphasis on the individual as the major determinant of organisational performance. It is this contrast which focuses the present research not only concerning issues of performance assessment and appraisal but also diagnosis. It introduces the theory of planned behaviour as a remedy which incorporates organisation culture/climate, simultaneously, as indirect beliefs. It uses familiarity assessments to overcome increasing concerns about traditional elicitation processes. This produces the first research question: To what extent will integrating organisation culture/climate as indirect (top down) beliefs in the theory of planned behaviour provide a legitimate model for intervention and change in quality organisations? It also raises concerns about the theory's prediction of behaviour in circumstances of an annual appraisal and produces the second research question: To what extent will expanding the adapted theory of planned behaviour to include measures of performance self awareness (past behaviour, current expected behaviour and negative affectivity) provide a more legitimate model for intervention and change in quality organisations? Both these questions are addressed from a critical realist perspective, focused on the repeated self report returns of 325 personnel from a single English constabulary, conducted over two years. Aggregated to the group mean these measures provide evidence of bottom-up emergent processes analysed using structural equation modelling. Results support first the adapted theory of planned behaviour as a solid foundation for further development, and second its expansion as a legitimate model for intervention and change in quality organisations. Overall, the research provides for the quantitative improvement of British police service performance management and appraisal procedures, also relevant to other quality organisations. It also produces a number of theoretical, methodological and applied/ practitioner implications which are discussed together with study limitations.

Thesis (MPA)--Stellenbosch University, 2003.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Freedom of association is a constitutional fundamental freedom denied the members of the Namibian Police Service. This led to the researcher to conduct a study on current labour practices in the said organisation. The aim thereof was to establish whether the inexistence of unions has a detrimental effect on labour relations, and also to explore possibilities of introducing trade unions in the Police Service. A study was conducted within a qualitative approach with the data obtained from existing literature as well as through interviewing police officers and other public office bearers. It was ultimately found that the entire organisation is fraught with labour related problems, which would have been handled differently within unionism. The study therefore recommends that a union be formed for the Namibian Police members.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Vryheid van assosiasie is 'n konsitusionele fundamentele vryheid wat die lede van die Namibiese Polisiediens ontsê is. Dit was aanleidend tot die navorser se ondersoek van bestaande werkspraktyke in die gemelde organisasie. Die studie is daarop gerig om vas te stel of die bestaan van unies nadelig inwerk op werksverhoudings asook om die moontlikheid van die instelling van vakunies in die polisiediens te ondersoek. Die studie is met 'n kwalitatiewe benadering onderneem en data is bekom uit bestaande literatuur asook onderhoudsvoering met polisiebeamptes en ander openbare ampsdraers. Daar is uiteindelik bevind dat die hele organisasie gebuk gaan ander werksverwante probleme wat binne vakunie-verband anders hanteer sou word. Die studie beveel dan ook aan dat 'n unie vir die lede van die Namibiese Polisie ingestel moet word.

The six papers contained within this thesis relate to the study of Wellbeing in the UK police between 2011 and 2015. Holistically, the papers presented here cohere to fulfil the research objectives by addressing three general questions: 1. To what extent are resilience interventions effective? 2. To what extent does wellbeing manifest itself within the UK police service? 3. To what extent is wellbeing managed, shaped and influenced through leadership? This research has made five significant and original contributions to knowledge and practice: Firstly, it has firmly established why a study of this nature is called for in policing. There has been no previous work carried out on resilience training efficacy in UK policing prior to this, and as such our understanding of how to create a conducive environment with the right leadership approach to address wellbeing issues was hitherto limited. Secondly, having mapped the current terrain in respect of wellbeing in policing, this research has found, labelled and reported on a previously hidden phenomena, that of Leaveism. Leaveism fills a lacuna in current thinking regarding behavioural responses to being unwell or experiencing workload overload; and how that impacts in the workplace. Thirdly, this research has contributed to workplace practice; understanding how these phenomena play out and can be managed operationally illustrates the applied nature of this study, contributing to evidence based practice within the police. Fourthly, many of the findings contained within this research have been influential across policing nationally, providing frameworks for other police forces to work from. Finally, and most significantly, this thesis has tested and reported on resilience training efficacy, concluding that it results in significantly better workplace outcomes for employees. This thesis contains papers that have been peer reviewed and published in academic journals. With a strong emphasis on practical workplace application this research has provided a valid and reliable evidence base for police forces to act upon. This work has radically changed both our (police service) understanding, and our ability to act on the phenomena detailed in this thesis. Policing in the UK is changing monumentally. The findings presented in this thesis have made a significant contribution to both the organisational changes within UK Policing; and to the effective management of those changes.

This study has been undertaken to analyse the potential of sport as cultural capital in the South African Police Service. There is a need to determine the role of sport in the SAPS and its realisation as a cultural capital and to also find out why the SAPS does not fully realise sport as Cultural Capital. The study offers an understanding of aspects of law enforcement agency sport, cultural and social capital, social cohesion, the social role of sport, sport governance, political power and struggle and sport policy in the SAPS. A review of relevant literature dealing with sport in the law enforcement agencies, cultural and social capital and sport policy was carried out. The sources to gather information embody: books, magazines, articles, newspapers, Government media reports, journals and information from the internet. Single stage sampling procedure was used as the researcher has access to names in the population and can sample the people or other elements directly (Creswell, 2009). A schedule of questions served as the main data collection tool, and it was piloted on ten per cent of the members of the population who did not serve in the final sample of respondents. This exercise assisted in validating the questions. The qualitative study was done with face-to-face semi-structured interviews to get the views of SAPS sport participants relating to SAPS sport. The questions schedule was used to conduct face-to-face interviews to collect data analysed using Atlas ti. SAPS sport contributes towards the accrual of cultural capital within the South African Police Service, but with an exception of language culture, embodied cultural capital and objectified cultural capital. The study concludes that workplace sport has a positive influence on employees' performance and it contributes significantly towards the high level of employees' commitment to the organisation. Police officers should be given opportunities to be involved in sport and recreation activities within the working environment. SAPS should ensure that proper resources are provided and are made easily accessible to enable employees to participate in sport regardless of rank. All police personnel should be exposed to opportunities that are there because of participation in sport in the work environment. SAPS top management should give full support to all members who are interested in participating in sport because of the benefits that are accrued when taking part in sport. Proper sport structures should be put in place at all levels of SAPS sphere of operations so that there should not be communication breakdown in relation to sport issues.
Thesis (DPhil)--University of Pretoria, 2016.
Biokinetics, Sport and Leisure Sciences
DPhil
Unrestricted

Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology) --University of Limpopo, 2008
Police members of the South African Police Service (SAPS) work under constant physical, emotional and psychological stress due to the demands of their work. It is possible to assume that this profession could be more susceptible to trauma, depression and suicide ideation than a less demanding profession. The increase in suicides within the SAPS in the past years has created great concern worldwide. The literature review contributes to the understanding of vicarious trauma by providing evidence of its widespread existence and the impact on all professions that deal with trauma victims, as do the SAPS. A need for further research was highlighted. The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of vicarious trauma within the SAPS; how rank, marital status, education, duration of service and workload affect the existence of vicarious trauma; and how the experience of vicarious trauma affects the lives of the SAPS member . A quantitative study was done with a sample comprising of 60 SAPS members from the Limpopo Province (Lebowakgomo and Mankweng stations). The inclusion criteria included: participants (both permanent and voluntary) had to be active, field working members of the SAPS and had to be in direct association with trauma victims. The conceptual framework: T rauma Theory guided the description and interpretation of the data. Findings revealed that there exist, at present, high levels of vicarious trauma within the SAPS. The duration of service and the marital status of the individual were found to have an influence on the existence of compassion fatigue, while rank, workload, education level and gender were found to have no direct relationship to the presence of vicarious trauma. Finally , this study concludes with recommendations for future studies into vicarious trauma within the SAPS.

Affirmative action is the purposeful, planned placement and development of competent or potentially competent persons in or to positions from which they were debarred in the past. Affirmative action is an attempt to redress past population, on a local and national level. One of the requirements of affirmative action in South Africa is that it must target persons who have been discriminted by unfair discrimination in the past. the Emplyment Equity Act was brought into the South African government to bring equality to all. Unfair discrimination is a branch of affirmative action in which individuals are discriminated against not only on race, but includes colour, sex, religion, age, disability, language and the likes. Section 9 of the Constitution of South Africa prohibits unfair discrimination against any person on any of the listed grounds. Section 2 of the Employment Equity Act is in place to aim to achieve equity within the workplace by promoting equal opportunity and fair treatment as well as eliminating unfair discrimination. Section 6, like the Constitution, lists grounds against which an individual may not be discriminated. Historically, the South African Police Services were a deeply-routed racist organization, where only white males were afforded better opportunities. This however changed after South Africa became a democratic country and with the introduction of the SAPS Act. Transformation within the SAPS took place after South Africa moved towards a democratic society.

Policing is often characterised by highly stressful situations that are outside the experience of the general public (Violanti, 1999). In spite of this only a few studies have gone beyond identifying and categorising likely stressors as well asking police officers themselves how they view and experience stress. The present research set out to explore the subjective experiences of and preferred modes of managing stress as reported by police officers and some of their spouses. Adopting a mixed methodological approach, three empirical investigations were conducted. The first study reported findings emerging from a survey questionnaire, while the second and third studies entailed Interpretative Phenomenological Analyses of narrative, interview based data. The quantitative study comprised two distinct phases: a pilot followed by a large scale postal questionnaire, both surveying psychological outcomes of anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and coping behaviours of 45 and 168 police officers respectively. Analysis of variance for differences on anxiety and depression as a function of rank and gender produced non-significant results across two the phases. Hierarchical log linear however showed different patterns of morbidity for gender in the prevalence of PTSD. Interpretative phenomenological analysis of the interview transcripts with six police officers revealed themes relating to "stress in an experience to be denied; the emotional rules of display how stress is managed; and managing the professional self" as important dimensions of stress and managing stress experiences. The analysis of six officer spouses' accounts about their own stress experiences identified three prevalent themes; namely, "living with an intransient organisation; feelings of exclusion; and living with a non-communicative partner". Collectively these two sets of themes showed the experience of stress for these police officers was multi-dimensional in that two conversational voices (that of a professional police officer, and as a private individual) emerged. Influenced by the role of the officer in both worlds, organisational norms in their professional world and quality of relationships in their private world, the findings of this thesis are discussed in terms of the interconnectedness between the public and private worlds of the officer and how this shapes their contextualisation, experience and management of stress.

Thesis (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Although terms such as input, output, outcomes, productivity, quality, efficiency and effectiveness represent measures of performance, they also measure different aspects of performance. The question of the relevance of the measurement of performance for the South African Police Service (SAPS) invariably arises. The following three questions have, therefore, been formulated: • What is the relevance of performance measurement for the SAPS? • Which performance measurement determinants must be addressed and integrated into the process of performance measurement in the SAPS? • How could performance measurement improve the rendering of service? The purpose of the exploratory study was to provide a conceptual framework for performance measurement by developing a systematic and comprehensive performance measurement system (model) for the SAPS which will have longterm advantages for both the SAPS and the customers and/or communities they serve. The key aims were, "therefore, threefold: • To ensure that the SAPS is fulfilling its mission and accomplishing targeted results. • To measure police performance (successes) in respect of input, output, outcomes, effectiveness and efficiency which will have a direct impact on the combating of crime and is of value to customers and/or communi ties served by the police. • To compare a newly developed and pilot-tested model with the present performance measurement initiative used by the SAPS to prove that the new model has promise. Face-to-face and focus group interviews were conducted with 16 English and Welsh individuals. In addition, face-to-face and focus group interviews were also conducted with 12 police officials of the SAPS in order to determine the current state of affairs regarding police performance measurement. As part of the inductive study and to focus on the formulated questions and purpose, as well as to account for the data, three hypotheses were formulated for this study. The newly developed model will, therefore, enable the establishment of the extent to which: • Resources (human and physical) could be used effectively and efficiently by focussing on performance measurement. • Police operations and activities could be improved on an ongoing basis by focussing on targeted results. • Police operations and activities will have a positive impact on the combating of crime. A conceptual performance measurement framework was developed which reflects the fulfilment of the SAPS's mission and the accomplishment of targeted results. This model also measures the performance (successes) of the SAPS in respect of input, output, outcomes, effectiveness, and efficiency. Twenty police stations of one police area in the Western Cape were selected for the pilot-testing of the newly developed performance measurement system for the SAPS. After the model had been successfully piloted, it was compared with the performance measurement system used by the SAPS at present. The proposed model achieved a substantial higher mark in comparison with the present process/system used in the SAPS. Finally, the new performance measurement system for the SAPS that consists of the following performance measurement determinants namely, strategic direction, performance framework, performance measures, strategy-institutionalizing and performance assessment provides an important building block in the process of analysing the quality of service. In conclusion, according to this exploratory study the newly developed performance measurement system for the SAPS shows that the SAPS can apply the model, in its current format, fully and optimally. However, some shortcomings connected to the model, have been identified.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Alhoewel terme soos insette, produksie (uitsette), gevolge (resultate), produktiwiteit, 'kwaliteit, doelmatigheid en doeltreffendheid maatstawwe van werkverrigting verteenwoordig, meet dit ook verskillende aspekte van werkverrigting. Die vraag na die toepaslikheid van die meet van werkverrigting vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Polisiediens (SAPD) tree telkens na vore. Die volgende drie vrae is derhalwe geformuleer: • In watter mate is die meet van werkverrigting op die SAPD van toepassing? • Aan watter beslissende faktore vir die meet van werkverrigting moet aandag geskenk word en watter van hierdie faktore moet in die proses van die meet van werkverrigting in die SAPD geïntegreer word? • Hoe kan die meet van werkverrigting dienslewering verbeter? Die doel met die verkenningstudie was om 'n voorstellingsraamwerk vir die meet van werkverrigting te verskaf deur 'n stelselmatige en omvattende stelsel (model) vir die meet van werkverrigting vir die SAPD te ontwikkel wat langtermynvoordele sal inhou vir die SAPD, sowel as die kliënte en/of gemeenskappe wat dit bedien. Die sleuteldoelwitte is daarom drievoudig: • Om te verseker dat die SAPD sy missie ten uitvoer bring en die beoogde resultate bereik. • Om die werkverrigting (suksesse) van die Polisie met betrekking tot insette, produksie, resultate, doelmatigheid en doeltreffendheid te meet wat 'n direkte invloed op die bekamping van misdaad sal hê en ook van waarde is vir kliënte en/of gemeenskappe wat die Polisie bedien. • Om die nuutontwikkelde en voorafgetoetse model te vergelyk met die metode wat die SAPD tans gebruik om werkverrigting te meet om te bewys dat die nuwe model belofte inhou. Persoonlike onderhoude is met 16 Engelse en Walliese persone gevoer en fokusgroepsbesprel<.ings is gehou. Persoonlike onderhoude is ook met 12 polisiebeamptes van die SAPD gevoer en fokusgroepsbesprekings is gehou om die huidige stand van sake oor die meet van werkverrigting in die Polisie te bepaal. As deel van die verkenningstudie en om op die gestelde vrae en doel te fokus, asook om 'n verldaringvir die data te gee, is drie hipoteses vir hierdie studie geformuleer. Die nuut ontwikkelde model sal dus die mate van die volgende kan bepaal: • Hulpbronne (menslik en fisies) doeltreffend en doelmatig benut word deur op werkverrigting te fokus. • Polisie-operasies en -aktiwiteite op 'n deurlopende grondslag verbeter kan word deur op die beoogde resultate te fokus. • Polisie-operasies en -aktiwiteite 'n positiewe invloed op die bekamping van misdaad sal hê. 'n Voorstellingsraamwerk vir die meet van werkverrigting is ontwikkel wat die uitvoeringvan die missie van die SAPD en die bereikingvan beoogde resultate weerspieël. Hierdie model meet ook die werkverrigting (suksesse) van die SAPD met betrekking tot insette, produksie, gevolge, doeltreffendheid en doelmatigheid. Twintig polisiestasies van een polisie-area in die Wes-Kaap is gekies vir die vooraftoetsing van die nuutontwikkelde stelsel vir die meet van die werkverrigting vir die SAPD. Nadat die model suksesvol getoets is, is dit vergelyk met die stelsel wat tans deur die SAPD gebruik word om werkverrigting te meet. Die voorgestelde model het 'n aansienlike hoër punt behaal in vergelyking met die stelsel wat tans in die SAPD gebruik word. Laastens bied die nuwe stelsel wat werkverrigting in die SAPD meet en wat bestaan uit die volgende bepalings vir die meet van werkverrigting, naamlik strategiese rigting, raamwerk vir werkverrigting, maatstawvve vir werkverrigting, strategiese institusionalisering en waardebepaling van werkverrigting 'n belangrike bousteen in die ontledingsproses van kwaliteit diens. Sammevattend toon die nuutontwikkelde stelsel VIr die meet van werkverrigting in die SAPD volgens hierdie verkenningstudie dat die SAPD die model in sy huidige formaat ten volle en optimaal kan toepas. 'n Paar tekortkomings met betrekking tot die model is egter geïdentifiseer.

Thesis (MPA)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: research study was about finding the right sourcing strategy that would work effectively for the South African Police Service (SAPS) garages. Its purpose was to help the SAPS garages deal strategically and effectively with their work load while repairing the SAPS vehicles, as the current evidence indicated that the garages might not have sufficient capacity to cope with the volume of repairs they were receiving. The research was structured as a case study design, in which personal interviews were held with SAPS garage managers, SAPS strategy drivers (Head Office) and executive managers at the City of Cape Town, Western Cape Provincial Government Fleet, and Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa (PRASA). To follow up on these initial one-on-one interviews, a further questionnaire comprising similar, information-gathering questions was sent out to various SAPS garage managers to elicit more detailed information on the circumstances of their individual garages. A literature review, which formed the basis of the study, explains the sourcing strategy, and explores different sourcing options including how to make the best sourcing decision. In this study, three models of sourcing strategy were considered, and were supported by the case study of the City of Cape Town, Western Cape Provincial fleet management, and PRASA. This study has proved that what the different authors have written and recommended about in-sourcing and outsourcing can still be considered in conjunction with the current legislative and policy framework. The cost analysis was conducted in order to be able to assess which option would be the more expensive between in-sourcing and outsourcing. The fundamental finding of this research was that the SAPS garages could not handle all the work they were receiving, as they did not have the capacity, for various reasons, to deal with the volume of vehicle repairs that were coming in, and that the variety of sourcing strategies at the different garages were not effectively reducing the backlog. There was no clear sourcing strategy in place from the National office to guide the garages. From these findings, the recommendation is that the big garages should handle all the services and minor repairs including some major repairs, with the majority of the major repairs being outsourced to service providers, while the smaller garages should focus on services and minor repairs only, and outsource all major repairs. The vehicles that are not within a 30km radius of the SAPS garages must be directly outsourced to providers using the RT46 contract, or similar arrangement. Further research studies are needed regarding the demographic structure of the garages, and also regarding the effectiveness and efficiency of the actual running of the garages. A balance then needed to be found between in-sourcing and outsourcing, whilst ensuring that the garages were operating efficiently and outsourcing responsibly.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die navorsingstudie is gedoen om die effektiefste en geskikste verkrygingstrategie vir die voertuigwerkswinkels van die Suid-Afrikaanse Polisiediens (SAPD) te bepaal. Die doel was om die werkswinkels te help om strategies en effektief te werk gegewe hulle werkslading, aangesien huidige bewyse getoon het dat hulle nie voldoende kapasiteit daarvoor het nie. Die navorsing is gestruktureer as ’n gevallestudie, waartydens persoonlike onderhoude met SAPD-werkswinkelbestuurders, SAPD- strategiese drywers (Hoofkantoor), en uitvoerende bestuurders van die Stad Kaapstad, die Wes-Kaapse Provinsiale Regering-vloot en die passasier-spooragentskap van Suid-Afrika (PRASA) gevoer is. Ter opvolging van die oorspronklike individuele onderhoude is ’n verdere vraelys gebruik waarin soortgelyke vrae aan SAPD-werkswinkelbestuurders gestel is om meer inligting aangaande die toestand van hulle werkswinkels te bekom. ’n Literatuuroorsig, wat die basis gevorm het van die studie, verduidelik die verkrygingstrategie en ondersoek verskillende verkrygingsopsies, asook hoe om die beste verkrygingsbesluite te neem. In hierdie studie is drie verkrygingstrategiemodelle oorweeg, wat ondersteun is deur die gevallestudie van die Stad Kaapstad, die Wes-Kaapse Provinsiale Regering-vlootbestuur en PRASA. Die studie het bewys dat dít wat die onderskeie outeurs oor in- en uitkontraktering bevind en aanbeveel het, steeds oorweeg behoort te word, aangevul deur die bestaande wetgewing en beleidsraamwerk. Die kosteontleding is gedoen om te bevestig watter in- of uitkontrakteringsopsies die effektiefste sou wees. Die fundamentele bevinding van hierdie navorsing is dat die SAPD se voertuigwerkswinkels tans nie al die werk wat hulle ontvang, kan hanteer nie, omdat hulle om verskeie redes nie die nodige kapasiteit het om die groot aantal voertuie wat inkom, te herstel nie. Die uiteenlopende strategieë wat die onderskeie werkswinkels volg sover dit uitkontraktering betref, verminder ook nie die agterstand nie. Daar is nie ’n duidelike verkrygingstrategie van die nasionale kantoor wat riglyne aan die werkswinkels verskaf nie. Die aanbeveling na aanleiding van hierdie bevindinge is dat die groot werkswinkels al die versienings en kleiner herstelwerk, met inbegrip van sekere groot herstelwerk, moet hanteer, terwyl die kleiner werkswinkels moet fokus op versienings en kleiner herstelwerk, en alle groot herstelwerk moet uitkontrakteer. Indien voertuie buite ’n 30 km-radius van ’n SAPD-werkswinkel is, moet sodanige herstelwerk uitgekontrakteer word deur gebruik te maak van die RT46-kontrak, of ’n soortgelyke reëling. Verdere navorsingstudies is nodig oor die demografiese struktuur van die werkswinkels, asook die doelmatigheid en effektiwiteit betreffende die werklike bedryf van die werkswinkels. ’n Balans moet gevind word tussen in- en uitkontraktering, terwyl daar verseker moet word dat die werkswinkels effektief bedryf word en uitkontraktering op ’n verantwoordelike wyse geskied.

Arizona police officers are required by the Arizona Police Officer Standards and Training board to complete continuing training on an annual basis. Police continuing training has traditionally been offered as lecture-based classroom training. Online training offers an alternative method of providing training. The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of an online version of a police training class to a classroom-based version of the same course. Participants consisted of sworn police officers employed by the Phoenix Police Department and taking the department’s Domestic Violence Investigation (DVI) course. The study compared student learning outcomes between the two course versions, as well as student attitudes and perceptions of training.

The study utilized a descriptive research design with a mixed methods approach. Research questions investigated the attitudes and perceptions of participants, compared student learning outcomes between the two course versions, and asked whether educational level and previous experience with online learning was linked to positive learning outcomes in the DVI course. Quantitative data consisted of demographic questionnaires, a 45-question assessment of the likelihood of success in online learning, a 10-question pre-test, and a 10-question post-test. Qualitative data was obtained through interviews with six participants who had taken the DVI course.

The results of the study indicated participants in the online version of the DVI course performed as well or better on the post-test than their counterparts in the classroom. Participants interviewed for the study enjoyed the online presentation of the course, and supported the development of additional online training options within their department. Positive student learning outcomes for the online DVI course provide support for the development of online police training programs.

The reform measures recommended by the Commission of Inquiry into Possible Illegal Activities and Associated Police Misconduct (referred to as the "Fitzgerald Inquiry") radically transformed the face of policing in Queensland. The most significant of these recommendations was the establishment of an external oversight body, the Criminal Justice Commission (CJC), which has independence from executive government and holds the power to investigate not only police but any public servant or politician. Other recommendations included "Whistleblower" legislation, increasing sanctions for serious misconduct, lateral recruitment and promotion by merit rather than seniority. The first main research question tested in this thesis is whether these reform measures have produced improvements in the following areas: the efficiency and effectiveness of the processes for dealing with complaints against police; public confidence in those processes and the public standing of the Queensland Police Service (QPS) generally; standards of police behaviour; the incidence of corrupt conduct; and police attitudes towards reporting misconduct by their fellow officers. These Fitzgerald Inquiry reforms were strategies primarily derived from two schools of thought describing the nature and cause of police corruption: deterrence based theory (including "individual" or "rotten apple" theory) and cultural (also labeled "cultural" or "socialisation") based theory. To date most strategies used to combat police corruption have been underpinned by these theories. A third theory - situational based theory (sometimes titled "environmental" or "opportunity" theory) - which has had success in crime prevention, has been scarcely used in the area of police corruption. However, an extensive body of research has affirmed the effects of situational factors on police behaviour, suggesting the potential for the application of situational crime prevention initiatives in combatting police corruption. The second research question proposed in this thesis is whether situational based theory could also be beneficial in the prevention of police corruption. Data drawn upon to test the first research question were interviews and surveys with police officers, public attitude surveys and statistics from the processing of complaints against police. Although each source has limitations, collectively the data are sufficiently comprehensive - and robust - to defend conclusions about the general direction of the changes which have occurred. These data indicate that the Fitzgerald Inquiry reforms have, at least to some degree, had their intended impact on the QPS. These reforms have contributed to an apparent improvement in public confidence in the complaints system and the QPS generally. Moreover, the available evidence suggests that the Fitzgerald Inquiry reforms have resulted in a weakening of the police code of silence. As far as the specific issue of corruption in the QPS is concerned, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions from existing data sources. However, the weight of the available evidence is that such conduct is less pervasive and occurs at lower levels than was the case in the pre-Fitzgerald Inquiry QPS. It is very difficult to ascertain which reform components were the most effective and which were not helpful at all, as these reform measures were initiated simultaneously. For example, the negative elements of the police culture may have been eliminated or reduced but whether it was the cultural strategies or one of the deterrence based strategies influencing officer behaviour remains unknown. The second main research question the thesis poses is that the use of situational crime prevention techniques has potential for contributing to the prevention of police corruption. A situational analysis of complaints against police data, including the development of a typology for classifying types of police corruption and misconduct, was used as an example of how this may be accomplished in Queensland. The study provides some, albeit limited, support for the hypothesis that situational crime prevention methods are applicable to police corruption. Based upon three years of complaints data, enough homogenous cases were gathered to enable the analysis of four categories of police corruption - Opportunistic Thefts, Driving under the Influence, Assault (while off-duty), and Theft from Employer. Given that this study only used three years of complaints data held by the CJC and more than nine years of data exist, productive situational analyses of many other categories of corruption is probable. This study also illustrated that complaints against police data are being under utilised by the QPS and the CJC. For future research in the situational analysis of complaints data, I recommend improving the gathering of data from complaints files for storage in electronic form to enable situational prevention analysis to be conducted more readily. A geographical example was used to illustrate further how complaints against police data could be more extensively utilised as a prevention tool. This analysis was conducted at an organisation unit level determined primarily by geographical factors. The complaint patterns of units of similar "task environments", as measured by unit size and type of duties performed, were compared in an attempt to identify those units experiencing the presence or absence of "bad apples" or a "negative culture". This study led to the conclusion that a divisional analysis of complaints data can provide information valuable in combatting police corruption. When task environment was held constant, it was possible to identify units experiencing the effects of possible "bad apples" and/or "negative cultures". Once these particular units were identified, intervention strategies to address the units' particular problem could be constructed. Future research in this area would involve ongoing divisional data analysis followed-up by individual assessment of officers identified as "bad apples", or a "compare-and-contrast" procedure to distinguish features requiring correction in units identified as having a "negative culture". The research findings presented in this thesis are that progress has occurred in a number of areas in addressing the problems identified by the Fitzgerald Inquiry, but that there is undoubtedly scope for more to be achieved. Despite the very significant increase in the resources and powers available to investigators post-Fitzgerald, it is still difficult to prove that a police officer engaged in misconduct, or that other officers were aware of this fact and had failed to take action, because of the constraints imposed by evidentiary and legal requirements. Thus, while it is vital to maintain an effective and credible independent complaints investigation system and ensure that there is a proper internal discipline process in place, the scope for increasing the "deterrent power" of the present system is limited. Putting more resources into complaints investigations might make a difference at the margins, but is unlikely to lead to a significant increase in the probability of a complaint being substantiated and a sanction imposed. Investing more resources in investigations has an additional cost in that such resources are then lost to other efforts to combat corruption that may provide more fruitful results in the long term. The value of an occasional substantiation is placed above the ability to engage in a large amount of prevention work. Inevitably then, three clear messages are apparent. First, continued effort must be made to modify the organisational climate of the QPS in terms of commitment to integrity. Recommended strategies to accomplish this end are to continue the recruitment of more educated, female and older officers to reduce police-citizen conflict and the negative elements of the police culture, and also to develop a comprehensive, integrated approach to ethics education for QPS officers at all ranks and positions. Second, other forms of deterrence against misconduct are needed such as the use of covert strategies like integrity testing which could be conducted in conjunction with the CJC. Third, a greater emphasis needs to be placed on developing and implementing preventive strategies. This thesis has shown that valuable prevention strategies can be gained from situational and divisional analysis of complaints data, and a range of proactive management options based upon situational crime prevention theory are recommended. These strategies have application in any police service.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Criminology and Criminal Justice
Arts, Education and Law
Full Text

Thesis (MPhil (Sociology and Social Anthropology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Niederhoffer developed a scale in the early 1960s to measure the level of cynicism among police officials. Niederhoffer concluded that cynicism is prevalent among police officials and that professionalization of the police occupation is the root cause of cynicism. The Niederhoffer scale was subjected over years to a number of methodological tests. It was found to be multi-dimensional whilst some authors found that the scale is invalid. In this study, we confirmed these findings to some extent in that it was found that the Niederhoffer’s scale is indeed multi-dimensional and that it has a low internal reliability. This study also replicated some of Niederhoffer’s substantive hypotheses which were supported by our empirical data. The various dimensions of scale were also correlated with an Attitude Towards Organizational Change scale. It was found that cynicism is related most strongly to both fear of change and acceptance of change.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In die vroeë 1960’s het Niederhoffer ‘n skaal ontwikkel om die vlakke van sinisme onder polisie-amptenare te meet. Niederhoffer vind sinisme onder polisie-amptenare en skryf dit toe aan die professionalisering van dié beroep. Niederhoffer se skaal is geruime tyd al aan ‘n aantal metodologiese toetse onderwerp en die bevinding was dat dit meerdimensioneel is, hoewel sommige outeurs dit ongeldig bevind het. In hierdie studie is ook bevind dat Niederhoffer se skaal meerdimensioneel is met ‘n lae interne betroubaarheidstelling. Die studie herhaal sommige van Niederhoffer se hipoteses en bied steun aan die meeste van sy hipoteses. Die verskeie skaaldimensies is met die Houding Teenoor Organisatoriese Verandering-skaal in verband gebring en die bevinding is dat sinisme aan beide vrees vir verandering en aanvaarding van verandering verwant is.

Police work tasks are diverse and require the ability to take command, demonstrate leadership, make serious decisions and be self directed (Beck, 1999; Brunetto & Farr-Wharton, 2002; Howard, Donofrio & Boles, 2002). This work is usually performed in pairs or sometimes by an officer working alone. Operational police work is seldom performed under the watchful eyes of a supervisor and a great amount of reliance is placed on the high levels of motivation and professionalism of individual officers. Research has shown that highly motivated workers produce better outcomes (Whisenand & Rush, 1998; Herzberg, 2003). It is therefore important that Queensland police officers are highly motivated to provide a quality service to the Queensland community. This research aims to identify factors which motivate Queensland police to perform quality work. Researchers acknowledge that there is a lack of research and knowledge in regard to the factors which motivate police (Beck, 1999; Bragg, 1998; Howard, Donofrio & Boles, 2002; McHugh & Verner, 1998). The motivational factors were identified in regard to the demographic variables of; age, sex, rank, tenure and education. The model for this research is Herzberg’s two-factor theory of workplace motivation (1959). Herzberg found that there are two broad types of workplace motivational factors; those driven by a need to prevent loss or harm and those driven by a need to gain personal satisfaction or achievement. His study identified 16 basic sub-factors that operate in the workplace. The research utilised a questionnaire instrument based on the sub-factors identified by Herzberg (1959). The questionnaire format consists of an initial section which sought demographic information about the participant and is followed by 51 Likert scale questions. The instrument is an expanded version of an instrument previously used in doctoral studies to identify sources of police motivation (Holden, 1980; Chiou, 2004). The questionnaire was forwarded to approximately 960 police in the Brisbane, Metropolitan North Region. The data were analysed using Factor Analysis, MANOVAs, ANOVAs and multiple regression analysis to identify the key sources of police motivation and to determine the relationships between demographic variables such as: age, rank, educational level, tenure, generation cohort and motivational factors. A total of 484 officers responded to the questionnaire from the sample population of 960. Factor analysis revealed five broad Prime Motivational Factors that motivate police in their work. The Prime Motivational Factors are: Feeling Valued, Achievement, Workplace Relationships, the Work Itself and Pay and Conditions. The factor Feeling Valued highlighted the importance of positive supportive leaders in motivating officers. Many officers commented that supervisors who only provided negative feedback diminished their sense of feeling valued and were a key source of de-motivation. Officers also frequently commented that they were motivated by operational police work itself whilst demonstrating a strong sense of identity with their team and colleagues. The study showed a general need for acceptance by peers and an idealistic motivation to assist members of the community in need and protect victims of crime. Generational cohorts were not found to exert a significant influence on police motivation. The demographic variable with the single greatest influence on police motivation was tenure. Motivation levels were found to drop dramatically during the first two years of an officer’s service and generally not improve significantly until near retirement age. The findings of this research provide the foundation of a number of recommendations in regard to police retirement, training and work allocation that are aimed to improve police motivation levels. The five Prime Motivational Factor model developed in this study is recommended for use as a planning tool by police leaders to improve motivational and job-satisfaction components of police Service policies. The findings of this study also provide a better understanding of the current sources of police motivation. They are expected to have valuable application for Queensland police human resource management when considering policies and procedures in the areas of motivation, stress reduction and attracting suitable staff to specific areas of responsibility.

In March 2012, Sir Tom Winsor published an ‘Independent Review of Police Officer and Staff Remuneration and Conditions’. This wide-ranging appraisal of the police service made a number of recommendations. One of the most controversial (recommendation 19) was that a direct entry pathway into policing,at the superintendent rank, should be established. In November 2014, the first cohort of direct entry superintendents commenced an 18-month training course,intended to equip them with the knowledge and skills to become senior police leaders. This thesis presents the findings of a study that followed the development of these officers as they progressed through their training and into roles as operational superintendents and concludes by proposing a ‘blended leadership model for policing’. The direct entry officers were interviewed at regular intervals throughout their training, to capture their reflections on this unique experience. Influential stakeholders from the chief officer ranks, staff associations and elsewhere also took part in this research. A focus on police culture and police leadership was used to contextualise the data that was collected. It was found that parts of the police service are insular and shackled by a lack of creativity and innovation. It was also identified that police culture doesn’t always welcome new perspectives. Importantly, it is argued that the service does not widely recognise that these issues exist and so is not equipped to resolve them from within. The direct entry superintendents were found to be engaging, motivated and credible professionals. They bring to their new roles a wealth of experience. This includes experience of delivering tangible outcomes for their previous organisations and also experience of leading people. These individuals are committed to public service and are mindful of the significant responsibility that they are accepting. The first 18 months of their service has been challenging. As the first cohort of direct entry officers, the College of Policing’s training course was in no way established. The superintendents were to experience significant pockets of resistance to the direct entry scheme. This was evidenced during the recruitment process, through face-to-face interactions with senior officers during training and also in the workplace. Opposition to this new pathway into the service has also been particularly evident on social media platforms. Multiple entry points into the police service are now established. The third cohort of direct entry superintendents will soon be commencing their training. There are significant research opportunities associated with this,including further exploration of culture and leadership perspectives as well as further review of operational capability and competence by direct entry officers.

The social construction of client service impacts on the everyday lives of all community members. This qualitative study was conducted to establish how frontline employees construct their client service in the police environment. Front-line employees, such as police officers and civilians working for the police, were interviewed in seven focus group discussions, and afterwards during in-depth interviews on a one-on-one basis. Data was also collected by studying unsolicited organisational documents such as policies and internal correspondence. I contributed by writing an essay on my personal experiences while working for the police service. Grounded theory was applied to analyse data through open, axial and selective coding. Twenty-one themes emerged from the data during open coding. Data was put back together again to find alternative links in the data. Eight main themes that could be tied to "dissatisfaction in the organisation" emerged from the data by applying this axial-coding process. Finding the single story line that could drape all themes saw the emergence of the core category. This process of selective coding identified the core category as being "dissatisfaction with internal processes in the organisation". A literature review covered topics such as motivation, commitment, policy, organisational culture, resistance to change and willingness. This process facilitated the development of my version or interpretation of a Process Satisfaction Model (PSM) which has been explicated in terms of the conditional matrix. The "goodness" of the study was evaluated in terms of reflexivity, peer debriefing, audit trail, credibility and dependability, authenticity, transferability and member checking. The main contribution of the study is to the social science in terms of theory and methodology and organisational human resource and management practice. Practical value was added to mainly policy formulation, implementation and accountability and education, training and development (ETD) practice. The study was concluded by reflecting on the researcher’s experience of the study during the course of the research.
Prof. Willem J. Schurink Prof. Karel Stanz

A research report submitted to the School of Governance in the Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management of the University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, in part fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of the Masters of Management in Public Policy
Any democratic state would be concerned about a policing approach that is characterised by militarism. South Africa under the apartheid government experienced the hardships that come with a police agency that is militaristic and politically oriented to serve minority interests and ‘deal’ with the apartheid government detractors. Security Sector Reform (SSR) was amongst the crucial policy issues that a democratic South Africa had to address considering the historical nature of the functioning of security and intelligence institutions. The transformation of the South African Police Service (SAPS) from a force to a service-oriented police agency formed part of the SSR, amongst which included creating civilian oversight mechanisms to serve as checks and balances on how the SAPS functions in a democratic state. The Civilian Secretariat for Police Service (CSPS) forms part of the civilian oversight institutions. Overtime, the SAPS started showing signs of reverting back to the militaristic policing approach which included reverting back to adopting military ranks in 2010. This raised concerns in the public domain with a consequential regression in terms of public trust and police integrity. This research assessed the role of the CSPS in terms of SAPS transformation focussing on police militarisation, demilitarisation, role and power of the Minister and role of SAPS in policy development. Further, the research also assessed the South African SSR policy and Security Sector Governance (SSG) framework to understand the implications these have regarding SAPS transformation. The study found that the SAPS is to some extend militarised through PPUs but the latter failed to gain full traction. Militarisation in itself is not a negative approach, however, the extent and degree of deploying militaristic policing approaches require stricter monitoring. The CSPS has adequate powers derived from policy and legislation but such are not adequately utilised to ensure a significant success on SAPS transformation. Political will is crucial to propel police reform in South Africa. The Minister of Police can strengthen the political oversight role on the SAPS by ensuring effective use of the CSPS and governance framework established for SAPS transformation.
M T 2019

Project examines how residential and business sectors of the community in the southern Gold Coast perceive the police service provided to them and records the level of satisfaction with that service. The history of policing is also discussed, from the early convict days to the methods employed by the Queensland Police Service.. This study explores how the residential and business sectors of the community in the southern Gold Coast area perceive the police service provided to them. The study also records the community level of satisfaction with that service. To provide a .context for theses community outcomes, contemporary policing issues in Australia are discussed, in particular how policing has developed from the early convict days to the current methods used by the Queensland Police Service to deliver its service. This study discusses such issues in policing as technology and the current concepts underlying police response times and police numbers and the impact this has on crime and community satisfaction levels. International concepts in crime prevention and community policing are explored and are highlighted by examples of community policing case studies conducted by the Queensland Police Service. Various studies relating to crime prevention are reviewed and the community fear of crime is discussed. Of particular interest is the expansion and theoretical considerations of situational crime prevention as relates to routine crime prevention activity and the role of guardians. The role of police as guardians for break and enter crime is of particular interest. The study concludes that a police response in this role is inadequate and alternative strategies must be implemented. Alternative strategies of guardianship could find the police implementing activities that empower the community with knowledge and resources to perform the role of guardians against break and enter crime themselves.