Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Plant-soil relationships – Western Australia”

[Truncated abstract] A greater adoption of stubble retention, minimum-till and no-till farming practices for the purposes of conserving soil, water and fertility requires a greater understanding of the complexity of physical and chemical interactions between the soil and crop residues. There is currently insufficient knowledge to allow reliable predictions of the effects of different residue types in different environments on soil fertility and crop growth, owing to the many residue characteristics and environmental interactions that have been shown to affect decomposition or nutrient release. The role of fibre and nutrient composition in nutrient release from crop residues, and implications for residue management techniques, were studied. Canola, lupin and field pea residues, obtained from farmland in Meckering and Northam, Western Australia, were separated into upper and basal stems, leaves, and siliques or pods. This was done to provide materials with a wide range of chemical and physical characteristics, and also allowed consideration of differential residue management of plant organs, such as comparing harvested canola siliques and retained canola stubble. Pre-treatment by chopping and/or humidification was applied to residues to provide some information about the processes of nutrient release. Residues were subjected to simulated rainfall to assess nutrient leaching from plant material, and placed on soil in pots in constant-temperature glasshouse conditions to assess decomposition. Amounts and rates of change of residue fibre and nutrients were determined throughout leaching and decomposition. Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) microanalysis was used to assess the location of diffusible ions in air-dried residues and the effects of humidification on nutrient positioning and release. ... However, the release of calcium and magnesium depended on the decomposition of the more recalcitrant components such as cellulose and lignin, as supported by microscopy results showing changes in nutrient distribution following humidification. The proportionality of amounts of calcium and magnesium leached and released during decomposition is likely to suggest a similarity of chemical form more than similarity of function or position of the two elements. Management of crop residues for maximising and optimising the timing of release of different nutrients will need to take into account the placement of different plant types and parts, particle sizes distribution and pre-treatment of material to efficiently manage short- and long-term soil fertility to sustain crops, particularly on degraded soils. Significant nutrient release of potassium, sulphur and magnesium from crop residues can be achieved from surface placement, with the release of potassium and sulphur managed by modifying residue particle size through appropriate harvesting, ploughing or sowing implement selection. High nutrient uptake crops and plant parts –where they can be economically viable to grow or separated by the harvesting technique – are particularly valuable as sources of nutrients and soil organic matter.

[Truncated abstract] Spontaneous plant growth and soil development occur at disturbed sites with their extent and nature being variously affected by soil fertility status, local climate and topographic conditions. Soil-plant interactions can be diverse and site-specific within a disturbed landscape. The main purpose of the present study is to evaluate soil characteristics and landscape indices in relation to natural plant growth and soil development under different conditions and for diverse materials. A comprehensive study has been carried out to evaluate spontaneous soil development and plant colonization on various regolith materials at a railway cutting near Jarrahdale bauxite mine and on various substrates comprising waste rock, weathered regolith and replaced topsoil at Scotia (Norseman, Western Australia) and Kelian (East Kalimantan, Indonesia). At Jarrahdale soil development has occurred slowly over 36 years in relation to morphological changes in surface horizons. Soils at several locations exhibit substantial changes in color, texture and structure. The slow soil development is primarily due to low biomass and litter contributions (˜1 Mg/ha) from colonizing plants (e.g. Dryandra sessilis, Eucalyptus marginata and low shrubs) on the cutting shelf and slow litter decomposition. Nutrient accumulation is up to 5 kg N/ha, and 0.5 kg/ha for P and K. Surface soil samples from Jarrahdale are generally acidic (pH < 5.1) and contain low concentrations of total soil carbon (20 g/kg) and nutrients of total nitrogen (0.73 g/kg), bicarbonate-extractable phosphorus (bic-P) (< 2 mg/kg), bic-K (37 mg/kg) and total exchangeable bases (<1.1 cmol/kg, with 24 % base saturation). Soil properties at the Scotia waste dump are mainly associated with alkaline (mean pH = 9) and saline conditions (EC1:5 = 1.01 dS/m). Exchangeable base values are high with average concentrations of exchangeable Ca of 18 cmol/kg and exchangeable Mg of 6 cmol/kg, thus these elements are not a limiting factor for plant nutrition. Patchy plant growth on the waste dump is mostly related to differences in water availability in the arid region and to salinity such that halophytes (saltbushes Maireana and Atriplex) colonize many parts of the waste dump together with some Melaleuca and Eucalyptus species

[Truncated abstract] In southern Western Australia the replacement of deep-rooted native vegetation with annual species has resulted in rising water tables and increased salinity due to insufficient water use. The area has a Mediterranean-type climate where rainfall during summer is generally low but variable resulting in limited plant growth. However, if rainfall does occur it potentially can contribute to to the increased water excess or drainage by increasing the soil water content before the main drainage period in winter. The first study investigated factors controlling soil water content changes during the fallow (December to May) in annual farming systems. This was achieved by examining variation in available soil water storage to a depth of 1.0-1.5 m at three sites within 13 seasons. Reasons for the variation were examined using the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM). This study also investigated the relationship between soil water content at the end of the fallow period (1 May) and the amount of drainage below 2.5 m by using APSIM coupled to historical weather records at three locations. At the end of the fallow a mean of 24 mm (or 25%) of rainfall during the fallow was retained in the soil. Losses of soil water during the fallow were due to evaporation (mean of 60 mm), transpiration from plant cover (mean of 12 mm) and drainage below the root zone and run off (combined mean of 13 mm). Soil water accumulation during the fallow period had a significant impact on simulated drainage under wheat in the following growing season. Every 1 mm increase in soil wetness at the end of the fallow resulted in a 0.7-1 mm increase in simulated drainage during the growing season. ... Variation in the water excess due to variation in rainfall was greater than the reduction in water excess due to lucerne. This makes the decisions about when to grow lucerne to reduce water excess difficult if livestock enterprises are less profitable than cropping enterprises. The findings of this PhD indicate that lucerne does have a place in Mediterranean-type environments because of its greater water use than current farming practices. However, its use needs to be strategic and the strategy will vary from region to region. For example, in the low rainfall region lucerne sowings need to be matched with high soil water contents and phase length will generally be short (2-3 years). In comparison at high rainfall regions lucerne will need to be grown for longer or combined with other strategies to increase water use.

Over the past thirty years, price relativities and technological development have motivated an increase in the area of land allocated to cropping, as opposed to pasture production, throughout the central wheat belt of Western Australia. Nevertheless, reducing the proportion of pasture in these rotations has challenged the future productivity of farming systems in this area. First, the frequent application of selective herbicides for weed control in extended cropping rotations has promoted the development of herbicide resistance in a number of major agricultural weeds. Second, the primary use of annual plants has promoted the development of soil salinisation by allowing a significant proportion of rainfall to recharge saline water tables. The inclusion of perennial pasture phases between extended periods of cropping may mitigate or delay these constraints to production through (a) allowing the use of costeffective forms of non-selective weed control, and (b) through creating a buffer of dry soil that absorbs leakage occurring beneath subsequent crops. This study consequently explores the value of including perennial pasture phases in dryland agricultural systems in the eastern-central wheat belt of Western Australia, accounting for benefits related to herbicide resistance and water table management. A novel computational algorithm for the solution of multiple-phase optimal control problems is developed and used to conduct a conceptual analysis of the value of lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) pasture for managing annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum Gaudin), the primary weed in wheat belt cropping systems. The competitiveness and fecundity of annual ryegrass provide strong economic incentives to maintain a low weed population, irrespective of herbicide-resistance status. Consequently, the ineffectiveness of selective herbicides primarily reduces the profitability of cropping by motivating the adoption of more costly non-selective forms of weed control. The inclusion of lucerne in land-use rotations is only optimal in the presence of severe herbicide resistance given (a) the low efficiency of alternative weed-management practices available during the pasture phase, relative to selective-herbicide application; (b) the significant cost of establishing this perennial pasture; and (c) the high relative profitability of cereal production in the absence of resistance. The value of lucerne, relative to annual pastures, for weed management is explored in greater detail through the use of compressed annealing to optimise a sophisticated simulation model. The profitability of candidate rotations is also manipulated to account for the long-term production losses accruing to the recharge of saline groundwaters that occurs beneath them. Sequences incorporating lucerne are only more profitable than those that include annual pasture at the standard set of parameter values if (a) annual ryegrass is resistant to all selective herbicides, (b) the water table is so shallow (approximately less than 3.5 m deep) that frequent rotation with perennials is required to avert soil salinisation, or (c) sheep production is highly profitable. The value of perennial pasture is sufficient under these circumstances to overcome its high establishment cost. Consistent with intuition, these benefits are reinforced by lower discount rates and higher rates of leakage occurring beneath annual-based systems. Formulation of an effective communication strategy to report these results to producers is justified given the complexity involved in determining the true magnitude of these intertemporal benefits through alternative means, such as field trials.

This thesis examines a broad spectrum of physiological and silvicultural features of the highly valued woody angiosperm hemi-parasite Santalurn album L. (Indian sandalwood) in relation to its culture in plantations in northern Western Australia. Topics covered include allometry of host and Santalum when grown as single plant pairings in both field and pot culture, nutritional interactions between Santalum and beneficial and non-beneficial hosts, deleterious influences of parasitism on plantation productivity and heartwood induction in young trees. In Western Australia sandalwood is grown in the nursery for 8 months before establishment in the field and during this time a pot host is introduced. Survival of Santalurn after field establishment and its subsequent growth were significantly affected by the time of introduction of the pot host, Alternanthera nana. Increasing the period of the Santalum : Alternanthera association in the nursery to 109 days prior to field establishment markedly increased early growth of Salztalum plantations. Introduction at 134 days prior to field establishment was detrimental to the parasite as the Alternanthera was too vigorous for the small Santalum seedlings. Santalurn plants had a lower root : shoot ratio lower when cultured with Alternanthera in the nursery prior to field establishment compared with seedlings grown without Alternanthera. Alterrzantlzera survival in the field was high when it had been grown with Santalum for 12 weeks or more in the nursery prior to field establishment. After 1 1 weeks in the field a strong negative linear relationship was shown between Santalunz root : shoot ratio and Alternarzthera dry weight, and a positive linear relationship between Salztalum DW and Alternanthera DW. In Western Australia Santalu~n is established in the field with an intermediate host which nourishes the parasite for 3-5 years before Santalum becomes dependent on its long-term host and the intermediate host dies. The relationship between Santalum and several species tested as intermediate hosts was examined by pairing Santalum seedlings with intermediate host seedlings in 25 litre pots over a 10 month period. Growth of Santalum in pot culture with three N2-fixing woody intermediate hosts (Sesbania forrnosa, Acacia traclzycarpa and A. ampliceps), the woody non N2-fixing Eucalyptus camaldulensis or without a host varied considerably between host treatments. Santalum growth was greater and root : shoot ratio lower for seedlings grown with N2-fixing hosts compared with seedlings grown with E. carnaldulensis or with no host. The root : shoot ratio of unattached Santalum increased exponentially over time, whereas for all other treatments it remained relatively constant. An assessment of the value of the hosts, termed host use efficiency, was computed as Santalum shoot DW / host shoot DW. The host use efficiency of A. trachycalpa was greater than that of the other hosts. The xylem sap of hosts and Sarztalum, and ethanolic extracts of endophytic tissue of haustoria of Santalzkm were analysed for amino acids, organic acids and sugars to determine which solutes were available in the host and which were extracted by the Santalum haustoria from different hosts. There were similarities between Santalum and legume hosts in concentration and composition of xylem sap amino acids, and in the amino acid spectra of the corresponding Santalum endophytic tissue, whereas there were low N levels in xylem sap of E. camaldulensis and dissimilarities between its amino acid composition and that of Santalum. This indicated substantial direct intake of xylem N by Santalum from legume hosts but little N from the xylem sap of E. canzaldulensis. There were high concentrations of asparagine, glutamate, aspartate and y-amino glutamate in the xylem sap of the legume hosts, while in the non-legume the most common amino acids were glutamate, aspartate, glutamine and arginine. Proline, the predominant amino acid in the xylem sap of Santalum acurninatum growing in natural vegetation (Tennakoon et al. 1997) was not detected or present in very low concentrations in Santalurn album under these conditions. in the non-legume. Xylem sap of hosts contained variable amounts of sugars (sucrose, glucose and fructose) and organic acids (fumaric, citric and malic acid), whereas that of the parasitic Santalum was dominated by fructose and malic acid. Dissimilarities in the proportional amounts of xylem-borne sugars and organic acids were particularly evident for the E. camaldulensis : Santalum partnership. Diurnal profiles of photosynthesis and transpiration of Santalum were closely similar to those for corresponding hosts, whereas the midday leaf water potential of Santalum was consistently more negative than that of corresponding hosts. Net photosynthesis and water use efficiency was lower, but transpiration rates were similar to that of corresponding hosts. Nitrogen concentrations of foliage of Santalum were higher than their hosts, and higher when on legume hosts than on E. camaldulensis, or without a host. Nitrogen concentrations of Santalum foliage was strongly correlated with net photosynthesis and water use efficiency of Santalum. 813C values of shoot dry matter of Santalum were poorly correlated with instantaneous water use efficiency of Santalum. Tissue water relations of Santalum were similar to that of water-stress tolerant species. S. formosa proved the best host followed by Acacia ampliceps and A. traclzycarpa based on dry matter gains of Santalum. Estimates of heterotrophic gain of C of Santalum when grown in association with the legume hosts over a nine week period indicate 57.9% of C was derived from A. ampliceps, 45.5% from A. trachycarpa and 34.6% fiom S. fomosa. Abundance of haustorial attachments on roots of hosts was poorly correlated to Santalum shoot DW. Root nodules of legume hosts were parasitised by a small proportion of Santalum haustoria. Sodium and phosphorus concentrations of foliage of Santalum were generally higher than that of corresponding hosts. Net gains of calcium, potassium, phosphorus and sodium in Santalum was greatest when grown in association with hosts richest in the corresponding element. Net losses or only small gains of calcium, potassium, phosphorus and sodium were recorded when Santalum was grown with E. camaldulensis or without a host suggesting that Santalum has limited ability for uptake of those minerals through its own root system. To understand the effect of hosts on the productivity of a Santalum plantation a young plantation of Santalum with three host species Cathormion umbellatum, Sesbania formosa and Acacia anuera was selected to study the relationship between host quality and distance of hosts from Santalunz on Santalum health. The selected plantation showed marked decline in health and vigour of both Santalum and hosts between years 3 and 5. Parameters of the host plants were assessed to select the best predictor of Santalunz crown health. The height and diameter growth increment of Santalum between years 3 and 5 was strongly correlated to Santalum crown health. Santaluin crown health and growth increased as host quality increased, and the distance of host fiom Santalum decreased. An index, which combined host quality and the distance of the host from that of Santalum, was a better predictor of Santalum crown health than host distance or quality alone. The age at which heartwood is initiated in Santalum album under plantation conditions in Western Australia in unknown, but in natural stands in India it occurs between 10-13 years of age (Rai 1990). A field experiment was conducted to determine the efficacy of stem injections of paraquat andlor ethrel in initiating heartwood formation in five year old Santalum trees in a plantation. Trees injected with paraquat alone had a significantly greater extension of induced heartwood, both radially and vertically, than those trees injected with ethrel alone or distilled water. Eight months after treatment with paraquat or ethrel or a combination of these chemicals induced heartwood was formed, which had high lipid, and low starch and polysaccharide concentrations compared to the sapwood. Induced heartwood from both chemical treatments and their combinations contained total volatile oil and santalol oil (alpha and beta santalol) concentrations that were equal to or greater than that of naturally formed heartwood and greater than that of sapwood. Moisture content, and concentrations of K and Mg, and in some treatments Ca of induced heartwood were significantly lower than that of sapwood. The thesis concludes with a synthesis of the findings and suggestions for future research, with special reference to mid-rotation aspects of Santaltrm plantation silviculture.

A field-based project was undertaken to develop and test a mechanism which would allow for the correlation of the health of vegetation surrounding playa lakes in south-west Australia with the natural variation in salinity and waterlogging that occurs spatially and temporally in natural systems. The study was designed to determine threshold ranges of vegetation communities using moderately extensive data over short temporal periods which will guide the design of potential engineering solutions that manipulate hydrological regimes to ultimately conserve and protect native vegetation. A pair of playa lake ecosystems, surrounded by primary production land, was modelled with hydro-geological data collected from March 2006 to March 2007. The data was used to determine the hydroperiods of vegetation communities fringing playa lakes and provide insight into the areas and species that are most affected by extreme rainfall events which are hypothesised to have a significant, rapid deleterious effect on the ecosystems. The methodology was multi-faceted and included; a detailed topographical survey; vegetation surveys; hydrological and hydro-geological monitoring over a 12 month period. 4 The hydro-geological data and vegetation data was linked with the topographical survey at a high resolution for spatial analysis in a Geographic Information System (GIS) to determine the degree of waterlogging experienced by vegetation communities over the monitoring period. The study has found that the spatial and temporal variability of hydroperiods has been reduced by rising groundwater levels, a result of extensive clearing of native vegetation. Consequently populations are becoming extinct locally resulting in a shift in community composition. Extreme summer rainfall events also have a significant impact on the health of vegetation communities by increasing the duration of waterlogging over an annual cycle and in some areas expanding the littoral zone. Vegetation is most degraded at lower positions in the landscape where communities are becoming less diverse and dominated by salt tolerant halophytic species as a result of altered hydrological regimes. Some species appear to be able to tolerate groundwater depths of less than 2.0 m from the surface, however there are thresholds related to the duration at which groundwater is maintained at this depth. Potential engineering solutions include groundwater pumping and diverting water through drains to maintain sustainable hydroperiods for vegetation in areas with conservation value. The effectiveness and efficiency of the engineering solutions can be maximised by quantifying thresholds for vegetation that include sustainable durations of waterlogging. The study has quantified tolerance ranges to salinity and waterlogging with data collected over 12 months but species may be experiencing a transition period where they have 5 sustained irreversible damage that will result in their eventual mortality. With long-term monitoring, the methodology developed and tested in the study can be used to quantify the long-term tolerance ranges that are important for the application of conservation approaches that include engineering solutions.

This thesis compares the in situ water balance of common annual production systems (wheat, lupin, subclover and serradella) with a grazed perennial system (lucerne) at a site in the Avon Catchment, Western Australia. Using a physically-based water balance approach the value of a plant based solution in redressing the hydrological imbalance that has become a feature of much of the dryland agricultural region of Western Australia is investigated. The effectiveness of lucerne in providing greater available storage for buffering large rainfall events, as compared to the annual systems, is illustrated. Continued transpiration following out-of-season rainfall events maintains a larger available storage capacity. In contrast, the annual systems that are fallow over summer only withdrew a small fraction of water by soil evaporation between rainfall events. Under annual systems, the profile moisture store was sequentially increased to the extent that additional increments of rainfall could potentially contribute to deep drainage. A particular focus of this study has been to investigate the presence of soil constraints to root growth, and to assess how these constraints affect the water balance. A site survey indicated the soil penetration resistance was sufficient to impose a physical constraint to root growth. Published literature on the site shows soil acidity is also at a level imposing chemical constraints to root growth. A root growth model “Rootmodel”, for predicting root growth with and without soil constraints is examined in detail as a method for providing root growth parameters for inclusion into the numerical water balance model, SWIM based on Richard’s equation. Functions developed from “Rootmodel” adequately describe the effect of profile limitations to root growth, such as soil strength, moisture availability and temperature. Recommendations are made for inclusion of a growth suppressing function in “rootmodel” based on the chemical limitation of low pH. The effects of soil acidity on the root growth of several species is investigated experimentally and the resultant root data provided a reference point by which the simplified prediction of root growth built into SWIM could be adjusted using a linear reduction function. A similar linear reduction function is also employed to impose a physical constraint in the form of high penetration resistance.

[Truncated abstract. Please see the pdf format for the complete text. Also, formulae and special characters can only be approximated here. Please see the pdf version for an accurate reproduction.] This thesis examines the water use, ecophysiology and hydraulic architecture of Eucalyptus marginata (jarrah) growing on bauxite mine rehabilitation sites in the jarrah forest of south-western Australia. The principal objective was to characterise the key environment and plant-based influences on tree water use, and to better understand the dynamics of water use over a range of spatial and temporal scales in this drought-prone ecosystem. A novel sap flow measurement system (based on the use of the heat pulse method) was developed so that a large number of trees could be monitored concurrently in the field. A validation experiment using potted jarrah saplings showed that rates of sap flow (transpiration) obtained using this system agreed with those obtained gravimetrically. Notably, diurnal patterns of transpiration were measured accurately and with precision using the newly developed heat ratio method. Field studies showed that water stress and water use by jarrah saplings on rehabilitation sites were strongly seasonal: being greatest in summer when it was warm and dry, and least in winter when it was cool and wet. At different times, water use was influenced by soil water availability, vapour pressure deficit (VPD) and plant hydraulic conductance. In some areas, there was evidence of a rapid decline in transpiration in response to dry soil conditions. At the end of summer, most saplings on rehabilitation sites were not water stressed, whereas water status in the forest was poor for small saplings but improved with increasing size. It has been recognised that mature jarrah trees avoid drought by having deep root systems, however, it appears that saplings on rehabilitation sites may have not yet developed functional deep roots, and as such, they may be heavily reliant on moisture stored in surface soil horizons. Simple predictive models of tree water use revealed that stand water use was 74 % of annual rainfall at a high density (leaf area index, LAI = 3.1), high rainfall (1200 mm yr-1) site, and 12 % of rainfall at a low density (LAI = 0.4), low rainfall (600 mm yr-1) site, and that water use increased with stand growth. A controlled field experiment confirmed that: (1) sapling transpiration was restricted as root-zone water availability declined, irrespective of VPD; (2) transpiration was correlated with VPD when water was abundant; and (3) transpiration was limited by soil-to-leaf hydraulic conductance when water was abundant and VPD was high (> 2 kPa). Specifically, transpiration was regulated by stomatal conductance. Large stomatal apertures could sustain high transpiration rates, but stomata were sensitive to hydraulic perturbations caused by soil water deficits and/or high evaporative demand. No other physiological mechanisms conferred immediate resistance to drought. Empirical observations were agreeably linked with a current theory suggesting that stomata regulate transpiration and plant water potential in order to prevent hydraulic dysfunction following a reduction in soil-to-leaf hydraulic conductance. Moreover, it was clear that plant hydraulic capacity determined the pattern and extent of stomatal regulation. Differences in hydraulic capacity across a gradient in water availability were a reflection of differences in root-to-leaf hydraulic conductance, and were possibly related to differences in xylem structure. Saplings on rehabilitation sites had greater hydraulic conductance (by 50 %) and greater leaf-specific rates of transpiration at the high rainfall site (1.5 kg m-2 day1) than at the low rainfall site (0.8 kg m-2 day1) under near optimal conditions. Also, rehabilitation-grown saplings had significantly greater leaf area, leaf area to sapwood area ratios and hydraulic conductance (by 30-50 %) compared to forest-grown saplings, a strong indication that soils in rehabilitation sites contained more water than soils in the forest. Results suggested that: (1) the hydraulic structure and function of saplings growing under the same climatic conditions was determined by soil water availability; (2) drought reduced stomatal conductance and transpiration by reducing whole-tree hydraulic conductance; and (3) saplings growing on open rehabilitation sites utilised more abundant water, light and nutrients than saplings growing in the forest understorey. These findings support a paradigm that trees evolve hydraulic equipment and physiological characteristics suited to the most efficient use of water from a particular spatial and temporal niche in the soil environment.

The annual production of biosolids in the Perth region during the period of this study was approximately 13,800 t dry solids (DS), being supplied by three major wastewater treatment plants. Of this, 70% was typically used as a low-grade fertiliser in agriculture, representing an annual land use area of around 1,600 ha when spread between 5 and 7 t DS/ha. Loading rates of biosolids are typically based on the nitrogen (N) requirements of the crop to be grown, referred to as the N Limiting Biosolids Application Rate (NLBAR). A consequence of using the NLBAR to calculate loading rates is that phosphorus (P) is typically in excess of plant requirement. The resultant high loading rates of P are considered in the guidelines developed for the agricultural use of biosolids in Western Australia, but lack research data specific to local conditions and soil types. Regulatory changes throughout Australia and globally to protect the environment from wastewater pollution have created a need for more accountable and balanced nutrient data. Experiments presented in this thesis were undertaken to ascertain: the percentage relative effectiveness (RE) of biosolids as a source of plant available P compared with inorganic P fertiliser; loading rates to best supply P for optimum crop growth; P loading rates of risk to the environment; and the forms of P in local biosolids. Therefore, both the agronomic and environmental viewpoints were considered. Anaerobically digested and dewatered biosolids produced from Beenyup Wastewater Treatment Plant, Perth with a mean total P content of 2.97% dry weight basis (db) were used in a series of glasshouse, field and laboratory experiments. The biosolids were sequentially fractionated to identify the forms of P present and likewise in soil samples after applying biosolids or monocalcium phosphate (MCP).
The biosolid P was predominantly inorganic (92%), and hence the organic fraction (8%) available for mineralisation at all times would be extremely low. The most common forms of biosolid P were water-soluble P and exchangeable inorganic P (66%), followed by bicarbonate extractable P (19%) and the remaining P as inorganic forms associated with Fe, Al and Ca (14%). Following the application of biosolids to a lateritic soil, the Fe and Al soil fractions sorbed large amounts of P, not unlike the distribution of P following the addition of MCP. Further investigation would be required to trace the cycling of biosolid P in the various soil pools. The growth response of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) to increasing rates of biosolids and comparable rates of inorganic P as MCP, to a maximum of 150 mg P/kg soil was examined in the glasshouse. The percentage relative effectiveness (RE) of biosolids was calculated using fitted curve coefficients from the Mitscherlich equation: y = a (1-b exp–cx) for dry matter (DM) production and P uptake. The initial effectiveness of biosolid P was comparable to that of MCP with the percentage RE of biosolids averaging 106% for DM production of wheat shoots and 118% for shoot P uptake at 33 days after sowing (DAS) over three consecutive crops. The percentage residual value (RV) declined at similar rates for DM production in MCP and biosolids, decreasing to about 33% relative to freshly applied MCP in the second crop and to approximately 16% in the third crop. The effectiveness of biosolid P was reduced significantly compared with inorganic P when applied to a field site 80 km east of Perth (520 mm annual rainfall). An infertile lateritic podsolic soil, consistent with the glasshouse experiment and representative of a soil type typically used for the agricultural application of biosolids in Western Australia was used.
Increasing rates of biosolids and comparable rates of triple superphosphate (TSP), to a maximum of 145 kg P/ha were applied to determine a P response curve. The percentage RE was calculated for seasonal DM production, final grain yield and P uptake in wheat followed by lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) rotation for the 2001 and 2002 growing seasons, respectively. In the first year of wheat, the RE for P uptake in biosolids compared with top-dressed TSP ranged from 33% to 55% over the season and by grain harvest was 67%. In the second year, and following incorporation with the disc plough at seeding, the RE for P uptake by lupins in biosolids averaged 79% over the growing season compared with top-dressed TSP, and by grain harvest the RE was 60%. The residual value (RV) of lupins at harvest in biosolids compared with freshly applied TSP was 47%. The non-uniform placement of biosolids (i.e. spatial heterogeneity) was primarily responsible for the decreased ability of plant roots to absorb P. The P was more effective where biosolids were finely dispersed throughout the soil, less so when roughly cultivated and least effective when placed on the soil surface without incorporation. The RE for grain harvest of wheat in the field decreased from 67% to 39% where biosolids were not incorporated (i.e. surface-applied). The RE could also be modified by factors such as soil moisture and N availability in the field, although it was possible to keep these variables constant in the glasshouse. Consequently, absolute values determined for the RE need to be treated judiciously. Calculations showed that typical loading rates of biosolids required to satisfy agronomic P requirements of wheat in Western Australia in the first season could vary from 0 to 8.1 t DS/ha, depending on soil factors such as the P Retention Index (PRI) and bicarbonate available P value.
Loading rates of biosolids were inadequate for optimum P uptake by wheat at 5 t DS/ha (i.e. 145 kg P/ha) based on the NLBAR on high P sorbing soils with a low fertiliser history (i.e. PRI >15, Colwell bicarbonate extractable P <15 mg P/kg). On soils of PRI <2 mL/g however, biosolids applied at identical loading rates would result in high concentrations of available P. Further work on sites not P deficient would be necessary to validate these findings on farmed soils with a regular history of P fertiliser. The sieving of soil samples used in the field experiment to remove stones and coarse organic matter prior to chemical analysis inadvertently discarded biosolids particles >2 mm, and thus their was little relationship between soil bicarbonate extractable P and P uptake by plants in the field. The risk of P leaching in biosolids-amended soil was examined over a number of different soil types at comparable rates of P at 140 mg P/kg (as either biosolids or MCP) in a laboratory experiment. Given that biosolids are restricted on sites prone to water erosion, the study focussed on the movement of water-soluble P by leaching rather than by runoff of water-soluble P and particulate P. In general the percentage soluble reactive P recovered was lower in soils treated with biosolids than with MCP, as measured in leachate collected using a reverse soil leachate unit. This was particularly evident in acid washed sand with SRP measuring 14% for biosolids and 71% for MCP, respectively, although the differences were not as large in typical agricultural soils. Specific soil properties, such as the PRI, pH, organic carbon and reactive Fe content were negatively correlated to soluble reactive P in leachate and thus reduced the risk of P leaching in biosolids-amended soil.
Conversely, the total P and bicarbonate extractable P status of the soils investigated were unreliable indicators as to the amount of P leached. On the basis of the experiments conducted, soils in Western Australia were categorised according to their ability to minimise P enrichment and provide P necessary for crop growth at loading rates determined by the NLBAR. Biosolids applied at the NLBAR to soils of PRI >2mL/g with reactive Fe >200 mg/kg were unlikely to necessitate P loading restrictions. Although specific to anaerobically digested biosolids cake applied to Western Australian soils, the results will be of relevance to any industry involved in the land application of biosolids, to prevent P contamination in water bodies and to make better use of P in crop production.

The specificity of fungal isolates from endemic Western Australian orchid species and hybrids in the tribe Diurideae was investigated using symbiotic seed germination and analysis of the fungal DNA by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP). The distribution of the fungal isolates in the field was also assessed using two different seed baiting techniques. The information from these investigations is essential for developing protocols for reintroduction and translocation of orchid species. Two groups of orchids in the tribe Diurideae were studied. Firstly, a number of Caladenia species, their natural hybrids and close relatives from the southwest of Western Australia were selected because orchid species from the genus Caladenia are considered to have among the most specific mycorrhizal relationships known in the orchid family ? an ideal situation for the investigation of mycorrhizal specificity. Secondly, species of Drakaea and close relatives, from the southwest of Western Australia and elsewhere in Australia, which are never common in nature and occur in highly specialised habitats, were selected to investigate the influence of habitat on specificity. Seed from the common species Caladenia arenicola germinated on fungal isolates from adult plants of both C. arenicola and its rare and endangered relative C. huegelii, while seed from C. huegelii only germinated on its own fungal isolates. The AFLP analysis grouped the fungal isolates into three categories: nonefficaceous fungi, C. huegelii type fungi, and C. arenicola type fungi. The group of C. huegelii type fungi included some fungal isolates from C. arenicola. An analysis of the AFLP fingerprints of C. arenicola fungal isolates from different collection locations showed that some, but not all, populations were genetically distinct, and that one population in particular was very variable. Despite being thought to have very specific mycorrhizal relationships, Caladenia species hybridise frequently and prolifically in nature, often forming self-perpetuating hybrid lineages. Five natural hybrids within Caladenia and its closest relatives were investigated. Symbiotic cross-germination studies of parental and hybrid seed on fungi from the species and the naturally occurring hybrids were compared with AFLP analyses of the fungal isolates to answer the question of which fungi the hybrids use. The germination study found that, while hybrid seeds can utilise the fungi from either parental species under laboratory conditions, it is likely that the natural hybrids in situ utilise the fungus of only one parental species. Supporting these observations, the AFLP analyses indicated that while the parental species always possessed genetically distinct fungal strains, the hybrids may share the mycorrhizal fungus of one parental species or possess a genetically distinct fungal strain which is more closely related to the fungus of one parental species than the other. The work on Caladenia hybrids revealed that C. falcata has a broadly compatible fungus that germinated seeds of C. falcata, the hybrid C. falcata x longicauda, and species with different degrees of taxonomic affinity to C. falcata. In general, germination was greater from species that were more closely related to C. falcata: seeds from Caladenia species generally germinated well on most C. falcata isolates; species from same subtribe (Caladeniinae) germinated well to the stage of trichome development on only some of the fungal isolates and rarely developed further; and seeds from species from different subtribes (Diuridinae, Prasophyllinae, Thelymitrinae) or tribes (Orchideae, Cranichideae) either germinated well to the stage of trichome development but did not develop further, or did not germinate at all. The AFLP analysis of the fungal isolates revealed that the fungi from each location were genetically distinct. In situ seed baiting was used to study the introduction, growth and persistence of orchid mycorrhizal fungi. A mycorrhizal fungus from Caladenia arenicola was introduced to sites within an area from which the orchid and fungus were absent, adjacent to a natural population of C. arenicola. In the first growing season, the fungus grew up to 50 cm from its introduction point, usually persisted over the summer drought into the second season and even into the third season, stimulating germination and growth to tuber formation of the seeds in the baits. Watering the inoculated areas significantly increased seed germination. Mycorrhizal relationships in Drakaeinae were less specific than in Caladeniinae. A study of the species Spiculaea ciliata revealed that this species, when germinated symbiotically, develops very rapidly and has photosynthetic protocorms, unlike all other members of the Drakaeinae. An AFLP analysis of the fungal isolates of this species grouped the isolates according to whether they had been isolated from adult plants or reisolated from protocorms produced in vitro. Isolates were genetically distinct when compared before germination and after reisolation. A cross-species symbiotic germination study of seeds of three Drakaea species and one Paracaleana species against fungal isolates from the same species and several other Drakaeinae species revealed lower specificity in this group than previously thought. A number of fungal isolates from Drakaea and Paracaleana species germinated two or more seed types, while all seed types germinated on fungal isolates from other species and the seed of Drakaea thynniphila germinated to some extent on every fungal isolate tested. An AFLP analysis of the Drakaeinae fungal isolates supported this information, revealing little genetic differentiation between the fungi of different orchid species. An ex situ seed baiting technique was used to examine the role of mycorrhizal fungi in microniche specialisation in the narrow endemic Drakaea. Soil samples from within and outside two Drakaea populations were tested for germination of the relevant seed types. In both cases, germination was significantly higher on soil samples from within than outside the populations, suggesting that the relevant mycorrhizal fungi may be restricted to the same microniches as the Drakaea species. The presence of similar fungi at distant, disjunct locations may be related to the extreme age and geological stability of the Western Australian landscape. The information from these investigations is essential for developing protocols for reintroduction and translocation of orchid species. It appears that the mycorrhizal relationships in these groups of orchids are not as specific as was previously thought. For reintroduction work, a broad sampling strategy is necessary, as it cannot be assumed that the same orchid species has the same fungus at different locations. A broadly compatible fungus may be of considerable utility in conservation work, such as in situations where a specific fungus appears to have poor saprophytic competence or where soil conditions have been altered. Seed baiting studies provide additional data on fungal distribution in situ. In general, molecular data do not provide information about efficacy or fungal distribution, so research programs that combine symbiotic germination studies with seed baiting investigations and genetic analyses of the fungi will provide the maximum benefit for designing more effective conservation programs.

Australia is experiencing widespread ecosystem degradation, including dryland salinity, erosion and vegetation loss. Approximately 1 million hectares (5.5%) of the south-west agricultural zone of Western Australia is affected by dryland salinity and is predicted to rise to 5.4 million hectares by 2050. Such degradation is associated with many environmental outcomes that may impact on human health, including a decrease in primary productivity, an increase in the number of invasive species, a decrease in the number of large trees, overall decrease in biodiversity, and an increase in dust production. The resulting degradation affects not only farm production but also farm values. This study examines the effects of such severe and widespread environmental degradation on the physical and mental health of residents. Western Australia has an extensive medical record database which links individual health records for all hospital admissions, cancer cases, births and deaths. For the 15 diseases examined in this project, the study area of the south west of Western Australia (excluding the capital city of Perth) contained 1,570,985 morbidity records and 27,627 mortality records for the 15 diseases examined in a population of approximately 460,000. Environmental data were obtained from the Western Australian Department of Agriculture?s soil and landscape mapping database. A spatial Bayesian framework was used to examine associations between these disease and environmental variables. The Bayesian model detected the confounding variables of socio-economic status and proportion of the population identified as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander. With the inclusion of these confounders in the model, associations were found between environmental degradation (including dryland salinity) and several diseases with known environmentally-mediated triggers, including asthma, ischaemic heart disease, suicide and depression. However, once records of individuals who had been diagnosed with coexistent depression were removed from the analysis, the effect of dryland salinity was no longer statistically detectable for asthma, ischaemic heart disease or suicide, although the effects of socio-economic status and size of the Aboriginal population remained. The spatial component of this study showed an association between land degradation and human health. These results indicated that such processes are driving the degree of psychological ill-health in these populations, although it remains uncertain whether this 4 is secondary to overall coexisting rural poverty or some other environmental mechanism. To further investigate this complex issue an instrument designed to measure mental health problems in rural communities was developed. Components of the survey included possible triggers for mental health, including environmental factors. The interview was administered in a pilot study through a telephone survey of a small number of farmers in South-Western Australia. Using logistic regression a significant association between the mental health of male farmers and dryland salinity was detected. However, the sample size of the survey was too small to detect any statistically significant associations between dryland salinity and the mental health of women. The results of this study indicate that dryland salinity, as with other examples of ecosystem degradation, is associated with an increased burden of human disease.

Thesis (MScAgric (Soil Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Renosterveld of the Western Cape region is often seen as a natural occurring veld type that will very easily re-establish itself wherever land is left unattended. In this study it was firstly noted that where wheatlands of the Berg River catchment (BRC) is left bare for a number of years, the renosterbos as a pioneer is slow in its re-growth response and when it does, certain patches in the landscape are preferred. This study therefore firstly focussed on the soil restrictions that widely determined the positions in the Berg River landscape where the renosterbos will re-establish itself. Secondly we needed to know whether some of the soil restrictions encountered could be alleviated and was possibly due to cultivation of this land. Through aerial observation it was found that a general patchiness does exist in the naturally occurring Renosterveld of the Voëlvlei area and hill tops of the region and was described by others as the true nature of this veld type. Closer investigation of the soils in the Voëlvlei reserve however showed that soil type played a major role in the patchiness found here. When re-growth of the renosterbos in previously cultivated areas was investigated, it was found that the soil type played the major role in the patchiness that occurred. The most commonly found soil restriction was soil density of the lower horizons. Any soil form that prevented the renosterbos to access the perched water table, to about 15m depth could not support the renosterbos. It is however our belief that soil could be prepared for the re-growth of renosterbos and through this action; renosterbos could also be used to alleviate the salinity problems found in this region. Additionally we investigated the impact of land-use change on the soil water balance and soil salinity by comparing a mature re-established stand of Renosterveld with an adjacent wheatfield. From the results, large differences in salinity and soil water behaviour were detected between the Renosterveld and wheatfield. Modelling of soil and plant water relations was done and the results were correlated well with field observations. This research also confirmed that the renosterbos through its deep rootedness is crucial in the conservation of other species found in the Renosterveld resulting from its ability to keep the water table down and with that the salts that is so often a problem in this area.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In die Wes-Kaap word Renosterveld gesien as 'n veld tipe wat natuurlik voorkom en maklik sal hervestig in areas waar land sonder toesig gelaat word. In hierdie studie is dit eerstens opgemerk dat waar koringlande in die Berg Rivier opvanggebied kaal gelaat word vir 'n aantal jare, is die renosterbos as pionier stadig in sy hervestiging en wanneer terug groei wel plaasvind is dit selektief. Die studie fokus dus eerstens op grondbeperkinge wat die areas bepaal waar Renosterveld sal hervestig. Tweedens wou ons vasstel of die grondbeperkings wat voorkom in die grond en wat heel moontlik die oorsaak is van landbewerking opgehef kan word. Deur lugfoto-waarneming is dit gevind dat algemene leë kolle wel opgemerk is in die natuurlik plantegroei van die Renosterveld, in die Voëlvlei area, asook teen die berg hange. Dit word beskryf as 'n algemene kenmerk van die Renosterveld. Nadere ondersoek in die verskillende grondtipes van die area het egter gewys dat die grond tipe 'n belangrike rol speel in die voorkoms en groei van die renosterbos en uiteindelik die (her-)vestiging van Renosterveld. Die terug groei van die renosterbos is ondersoek in voorheen bewerkte lande. Dit is gevind dat die grond tipe 'n belangrike rol speel in die voorkoms van die leë kolle in die Renosterveld. Die mees algemene grond beperking wat opgemerk is, was die verdigte sub-horisonte. Enige grondvorm wat toegang van die renosterboswortels tot by die grondwatertafel (tot by 'n diepte van 15m) beperk, is nie voldoende om die groei van 'n volwasse renosterbos te onderhou nie. Dit is egter ons oortuiging dat die grond voorberei kan word vir die hervestinging van die renosterbos en deur dit te bewerkstellig sal grondversouting beheer kan word. Die impak van landgebruikverandering op die grondwaterbalans en grondversouting is ook ondersoek, deur 'n volwasse stand van Renosterveld te vergelyk met 'n nabygeleë koringveld. Die resultate het getoon dat daar groot verskille in die grondwatervlakke, asook die soutinhoud tussen die Renosterveld en die koringland voorkom. Modellering van die grond-en plantwaterverhouding is uitgevoer en data het goed gekorreleer met veld waarnemings. Die studie het bevestig dat die natuurlike bewaring van die diep gewortelde renosterbos noodsaaklik is vir die voortbestaan van blom- en skilpadspesies wat slegs in die Renosterveld voorkom asook die vermoë van die renosterbos om stygende watertafels en versouting te beheer waar dit dikwels 'n probleem in hierdie area is.

Thesis (MScConsEcol (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--Stellenbosch University, 2008.
In the Mediterranean climate regions of the world, agricultural practices have caused considerable landscape transformation and lead to introduction of alien species that now dominate secondary succession on abandoned agricultural fields. Various restoration attempts have been made to reduce alien plant species cover, and to enhance the re-establishment and cover of native plant species. However, results and successes were mostly short-term due to re-growth and persistence of the weedy alien species, which has been suggested to be caused by land use history, especially the nutrient enrichment of soil, and particularly phosphorus and nitrogen. This study investigated different soil properties (pH, electrical conductivity (EC), soil moisture, as well as available phosphorus (P) and total nitrogen (N)) on 10 and 20 year old abandoned fields, as a function of depth in three habitats (ridge (old cultivated area), ditch (old drainage line) and slope (intermediate zone between ridge and ditch)) on the old fields. The relationship between these soil properties and the vegetation occurring on the two old fields was established. At the same time, restoration treatments (autumn burn, combination of autumn burn and herbicide, herbicide application alone, as well as spring burn) were conducted to reduce the cover and abundance of non-native plant species and Cynodon dactylon, and to enhance cover of native species. Results from the study show that levels of all investigated soil properties were higher on the younger field. The highest difference was observed in EC and pH. Seasonal differences in both soil properties could also be observed. A principal component analysis indicated that the dynamic of all soil properties shaped the vegetation type on old fields, with the main soil properties being dependent on land-use history and time since abandonment. This study suggests that EC and pH could be part of parameters that drive the persistence of undesirable species persistence on old fields and inhibit native plant species instead.

Puccinellia (puccinellia ciliata) and tall wheatgrass (Thinopyrum ponticum) often show ecological zonation in saline landscapes, with puccinellia occurring in less elevated more saline/waterlogged locations, and tall wheatgrass occurring in more elevated less saline/waterlogged locations. The aims of this study were to: (a) characterize the observed ecological zonation at a field site, (b) quantify the effects of variables likely to explain growth differences of the two plants in glasshouse experiments, and (c) identify and compare anatomical and physiological mechanisms that explain these zonation patterns. At an experiment in the field near Kojonup (0522824E, 6244579N), puccinellia was found to colonise the lower more severely salinised and waterlogged zones of the landscape, with tall wheatgrass occupying the higher less affected zones. These differences in zonation were clearly associated with variance in soil salinity and water-table depth. Glasshouse experiments in soil revealed that low pH values, low calcium concentrations and variation in salinity alone did not explain the ecological zonation observed in the field. However, there was a substantial difference in the responses of the two plant species to waterlogging in combination with salinity. Puccinellia grew better under saline waterlogged conditions than tall wheatgrass, which was associated with better regulation of Na+ and K+ under saline/waterlogged conditions than in tall wheatgrass. Under non-saline conditions, waterlogging (hypoxia) decreased shoot weights in puccinellia by 15% and in tall wheatgrass by 20%. Similar growth results were obtained in nutrient solution culture, where waterlogging was simulated by lowering the oxygen in solutions through bubbling with N2 gas. Under saline hypoxic conditions, puccinellia, compared to tall wheatgrass, showed increased growth and maintenance of selectivity of K+ over Na+ across adventitious roots. Solution experiments revealed adaptive traits responsible for conveying better growth and ion maintenance present in puccinellia, but not tall wheatgrass, such as inducement of a barrier to radial oxygen loss in the basal regions of adventitious roots (not previously reported in the literature for puccinellia), formation of root aerenchyma and packing of cortical cells and suberin deposition in hypodermal and endodermal root cell layers. These results should assist in targeting pasture species, and predicting their growth response, in saline and waterlogged landscapes. Further work on examining the genetic material of puccinellia is warranted in order to identify genes that could be transferred into crop plants to convey salt and waterlogging tolerance.

[Truncated abstract] Establishment of vegetation and ecosystem functioning is central to the mitigation of environmental impacts associated with mining operations. This study investigated the ecophysiological functioning of mature plants in natural vegetation and applied this knowledge to diagnose problems affecting plant health and causes of poor plant cover at a mine-rehabilitation site. Ecophysiological parameters, including plant water relations and mineral nutrition, were studied in conjunction with soil physical, hydraulic and chemical properties. The natural ecosystem at the study location in the Great Sandy Desert is characterised by sand dunes and interdunes with distinct plant communities on each. One of the most notable features of the vegetation is the presence of large Corymbia chippendalei trees high on the dunes and relatively small scattered shrubs in the interdunes. Triodia grasses (spinifex), dominate the vegetation in both habitats but different species occur in each; T. schinzii is restricted entirely to the dunes, and T. basedowii occurs only in the interdunes. It was hypothesised that the deep sandy dunes afford greater water availability but lower nutrient supply to plants in this habitat compared with those occurring in the lower landscape position of the interdunes. Water-relations parameters (leaf water potentials, stomatal conductance, d13C) revealed that dune plants, particularly woody species, displayed higher water status and water use than closely related and often congeneric plants in the interdunes. Nutrient concentrations in soils were significantly higher in the interdunes, but concentrations in foliage were similar for related species between habitats. It is concluded that the dunes provide a greater store of accessible water than the soil profile in the interdunes. ... Following an experimental wetting pulse equivalent to a summer cyclone event, A. ancistrocarpa plants displayed significant increases in stomatal conductance, leaf water potential and sap velocity in lateral roots within three days of irrigation at the natural site and two days at the rehabilitation site. Secondary sinker roots originating from distal sections of lateral roots were evidently supplying water to maintain hydraulic function in laterals, thus enabling a fast pulse response. This was accentuated at the rehabilitation site where roots were confined closer to the surface. These results indicate that plants at the rehabilitation site are more dependent on small pulses of water and have less access to deep reserves than plants at the natural site. It is concluded that high runoff losses and insufficient soil depth are major factors contributing to plant water stress, and combined with the direct impacts of erosion, are largely responsible for plant death and ultimately poor plant cover. These issues can be alleviated if cover soil depth is increased to more than 0.5 m and slope angles are reduced to <12o. This study demonstrates the value of an ecophysiological approach for diagnosing problems affecting plant establishment at mine-rehabilitation sites. Furthermore, it has provided recommendations that will improve the rehabilitation strategy and lead to the development of a well vegetated, resilient ecosystem on a stable and non-polluting land form.

Includes bibliography
ii, 84 leaves, [7] leaves of plates : ill. (some col.) ; 30 cm.
Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Plant Pathology, 1987

"July 2004."
Bibliography: leaves 120-136.
vii, 136 leaves : ill. (some col.), maps ; 30 cm.
Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library.
Investigates the effects of soil moisture dynamics on the growth and interactions between invasive annual grasses and native perennial grasses in the mid-north of South Australia. At most sites annual grass abundance was positively correlated with rainfall, soil moisture after rainfall and higher soil productivity. Perennial grass abundance was negatively correlated with annual grass abundance and soil moisture after rainfall, and was weakly positively correlated with percentage summer rainfall, elevation, radiation, gravel and slope. Overall perennial grasses responded little to the environmental variables investigated, but strongly to annual grass abundance, while for annual grasses soil moisture was the driving variable.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Discipline of Environmental Biology, 2004