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1
Wright, A. D. "The Religious Life in the Spain of Philip II and Philip III". Studies in Church History 22 (1985): 251–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424208400007993.
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From the vividly autobiographic Life of St Teresa famous images of conventual life in sixteenth-century Spain have been derived; both the dark impression of unreformed monastic existence and the heroic profile of reformed regulars. Before and after that era the social, not to say political prominence of certain figures, friars and nuns, in Spanish life is notorious, from the reigns of the Catholic Monarchs to that of Philip IV and beyond. Modern historical research has indeed highlighted the contribution to political and ecclesiastical development, to early Catholic reform above all, of key members of the regular clergy under the Catholic Monarchs. For monastics, as opposed to mendicants, in post-medieval Spain, the extensive and meticulous researches of Linage Conde have put all Iberian scholars in his debt. The fascinating origins of the essentially Iberian phenomenon of the Jeronymites have recently received new attention from J.R.L. Highfield, but further insights into the true condition of the religious life in the Iberian peninsula of the supposedly Golden Age are perhaps still possible, when unpublished material is consulted in the Roman archives and in those of Spain, such as Madrid, Simancas, Barcelona and Valencia. Considerations of space necessarily limit what can be suggested here, but the development of monastic life in Counter-Reformation Spain is arguably best considered in its extended not just in its stricter sense: for parallels and contrasts, as well as direct influences, were not confined by the normal distinctions between the eremitic and the monastic, the monastic and the mendicant, the old and the new orders, or even the male and female communities. Furthermore the intervention of Spanish royal authority in Portuguese affairs between 1580 and 1640, not least in ecclesiastical and regular life, provides a useful comparative basis for consideration of truly Iberian conditions.
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Sharipov, Alisher Sh. "Holy scriptures of Cao Dai: themes, sctructure, ideologies". Russian Journal of Vietnamese Studies 7, nr 2 S (16.06.2023): 58–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.54631/vs.2023.72-473405.
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This article aims to introduce some basic caodaist texts, which as caodaists believe have been dictated by the spirits directly to the mediums of Cao Dai clergy and were published within first years of this new religion's operations in Tay Ninh. The texts describe core principles of caodaism, provide instructions for creating religous communes, reflections on mundane and monastic life, and various lessons on theory and practice of caodaism. For each book there is an outline of its structure and content, followed by one or few examples of texts in authors translation with socio-cultural comments and intertextual highlights.
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Hanson, Jeffrey. "Thomas Aquinas and the Qualification of Monastic Labor". Religions 15, nr 3 (19.03.2024): 366. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel15030366.
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Early monastic communities in Egypt were veritable laboratories for the practice of Christian virtue; perhaps surprisingly, they were also large-scale coordinated communities of labor. That manual labor should have been part of anchoritic life is not obvious; given that hermits were leaving the cities and the usual occupations of life in the world, there might be a question as to why they would seemingly return to such occupations having sought the purity of living alone in the desert. Combining Platonic thought with radical Christianity, the monks found a way to make the maximally spiritual life also a worker’s life. The architects of this form of life saw manual labor as a means for achieving self-sustenance, an effective weapon against temptation, a resource for the support of the needy, and a vital component in the monks’ ascetic program. The argument of this paper is that this powerful cultural consensus on the centrality of work to monastic life endured for almost a thousand years before it came to be qualified, by Thomas Aquinas among others. When Thomas Aquinas writes on the purposes of manual labor he is entirely traditional. However, Aquinas ends up diminishing the extent to which the pursuit of the traditional goods gained by the practice of manual labor is obligatory for monastics. Aquinas’s discussion of manual labor as an element of monastic life is a definite departure from the tradition. In the typically polite fashion of a scholastic theologian, Aquinas shifts away from Augustine and re-interprets St. Paul in unprecedented fashion. His argument is influenced by his own commitment to a new form of monastic life, which was changing not just theologically but as a result of the evolving backdrop of the social and economic realities with which religious life necessarily interacted.
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Binns, John. "Monasticism—Then and Now". Religions 12, nr 7 (8.07.2021): 510. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel12070510.
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The monastic tradition has its roots in the New Testament practices of withdrawing into the desert, following a celibate lifestyle and disciplines of fasting. After the empire became Christian in the 4th century these ascetic disciplines evolved into monastic communities. While these took various forms, they developed a shared literature, gained a recognised place in the church, while taking different ways of life in the various settings in the life of the church. Western and Eastern traditions of monastic life developed their own styles of life. However, these should be recognised as being formed by and belonging to the same tradition, and showing how it can adapt to specific social and ecclesiastical conditions. In the modern world, this monastic way of life continues to bring renewal to the church in the ‘new monasticism’ which adapts traditional monastic practices to contemporary life. New monastic communities engage in evangelism, serve and identify with the marginalised, offer hospitality, and commit themselves to follow rules of life and prayer. Their radical forms of discipleship and obedience to the gospel place them clearly within the continuing monastic tradition.
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Airijoki, Moa. "Christian Monastic Life in Early Islam". Journal of Medieval Religious Cultures 49, nr 1 (styczeń 2023): 125–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.5325/jmedirelicult.49.1.0125.
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Miller, David. "Modernity in Hindu Monasticism: • Swami Vivekananda and the Ramakrishna Movement". Journal of Asian and African Studies 34, nr 1 (1999): 111–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156852199x00202.
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This paper attempts first to define "modernity" within a Hindu context, using Religion in Modem India (Robert D. Baird, ed.) and Modem Religious Movements in India (J.N. Farquhar) as points of departure. Many of the Hindu thinkers studied by both the Baird and the Farquhar texts were either monastic or ascetic leaders, and of the four Hindu modem movements described in the Baird edition, three were monastic centered movements. Thus, "modem" in the Hindu context is closely interrelated with a monastic or an ascetic way of life and with monastic movements as institutions of socio-religious change. Indeed, Agehananda Bharati, in his insightful article entitled, "The Hindu Renaissance and its Apologetic Patterns" (1970), identifies Swami Vivekananda, who is a key figure in the Baird and Farquhar texts, as an ideal model of a scientific, modem man, who, nevertheless is a monastic. Bharati concludes that "Modern Hindus derive their knowledge of Hinduism from Vivekananda, directly or indirectly." The remainder of the paper provides an analysis of Swami Vivekananda's definition of modernity, which he first formulated in 1893 at the World's Parliament of Religions. The paper concludes with notes on the monastic institution, the Ramakrishna Math and Mission, that Vivekananda founded in order to carry out his vision of Hindu modernity.
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Mecham, June. "Cooperative Piety among Monastic and Secular Women in Late Medieval Germany". Church History and Religious Culture 88, nr 4 (2008): 581–611. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187124108x426754.
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AbstractScholarship has demonstrated that religious life for women was more fluid, more tied to the secular world and to gender ideologies, than strict categorizations of monastic versus lay, regular versus extraregular, visual versus intellectual allows. This article argues for the conceptualization and study of female monasticism, and female spirituality in general, as part of a broad continuum—as part of a shared culture of devotional practices—accepted and embraced (to a greater or lesser extent) by both men and women, secular and lay. More specifically, it explores the interaction between secular and professed women in support of monastic life, monastic devotion, and more broadly, medieval religious culture. Religious and lay women collaborated and cooperated to support specific religious communities and particular devotional practices, like the nuns' performance of the liturgy or their duty to remember patrons as part of the monastic memoria. Such collaboration and cooperation, however, has often escaped the notice of historians.
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Jonveaux, Isabelle. "Ascetism: an endangered value? Mutations of ascetism in contemporary monasticism". Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis 23 (1.01.2011): 186–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.30674/scripta.67386.
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This article seeks to understand the shifts which are affecting monastic asceticism in modern society. Is monastic asceticism really changing and in which terms? Why has the place of the body in religious virtuosity changed? As religious virtuosity is based on ascetic practices, we cannot consider that monastic life nowadays has totally eschewed asceticism. So we have to understand the new sense given to this traditional religious practice. It seems that both asceticism and the place of the body in monastic life are changing. Rather than a decline of asceticism, it is more accurate to say that its meaning is being redefined and it becomes more intellectual than physical. At the same time, the body acquires a new position: from mortification to self-fulfilment, it becomes a new ally—and no longer an enemy—of monastic life. So, is asceticism an endangered value? Yes, in the sense that it is no longer a religious value, as was proved by monks who said they are not ascetics, or the nun who said that her community lives a ‘non-ascetic asceticism’. However this does not mean that it has disappeared. The practice of asceticism is necessary to religious virtuosity, but the way to practise it and to define it has been changing, and this is contingent on other evolutions of the religious system and of society. The new kind of asceticism which monks are living nowadays is mainly intellectual asceticism.
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Gärtner, Claudia. "The Monastic Cell as Utopian Niche: The Contribution of Religious Niches to Socio-Ecological Transformation". Utopian Studies 35, nr 1 (marzec 2024): 67–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.5325/utopianstudies.35.1.0067.
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ABSTRACT This article explores the extent to which Christian traditions, especially the monastic way of life, possess a transformative potential toward a socio-ecological society. Christian ideas are not unbroken utopias, but they possess an eschatological proviso based on God’s otherness. Neither is monastic life a prefiguration of the Kingdom of God, nor do Christians or the Church prefigure a heavenly society, but Christian action and religious communities can be regarded as forms of refigurative practice, which can fail again and again without losing hope. This article describes the relationship between niche and transformation, between monastic cell and utopia, as such a refigurative practice.
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Palmisano, Stefania, i Marcin Jewdokimow. "New Monasticism: An Answer to the Contemporary Challenges of Catholic Monasticism?" Religions 10, nr 7 (28.06.2019): 411. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel10070411.
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New Monasticism has been interpreted by its protagonists as an answer to the challenges of the future of Christian monasticism. New Monastic Communities can be defined as groups of people (at least some of whom have taken religious vows) living together permanently and possessing two main characteristics: (1) born in the wake of Vatican Council II, they are renewing monastic life by emphasising the most innovative and disruptive aspects they can find in the Council’s theology; and (2) they do not belong to pre-existing orders or congregations—although they freely adapt their Rules of Life. New Monastic Communities developed and multiplied in the decades during which, in Western European countries and North America, there was a significant drop in the number of priests, brothers and sisters. Based on our empirical research in a new monastic community—the Fraternity of Jerusalem (a foundation in Poland)—we addressed the following: Why are New Monastic Communities thriving? Are they really counteracting the decline of monasticism? What characteristics distinguish them from traditional communities? We will show how they renew monastic life by emphasising and radicalising the most innovative and disruptive theological aspects identified in Vatican Council II.
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Krawczyk, Piotr. "Diversity of Monastic Life in the Historical Perspective". Kościół i Prawo 12, nr 2 (19.12.2023): 187–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.18290/kip2023.29.
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In the history of the Catholic Church, various ways of implementing the consecrated life and its specific type in religious life have been revealed. To this day, there are monastic orders, cloistered orders, canons regular, hospitaller orders, mendicant orders, and congregations performing works of mercy. The author briefly presents the history of the evolution of these orders, from antiquity to the present day. The article shows how they have changed throughout history and how they undertake contemporary tasks in a new way. The nature of religious life is still the same, but, depending on the circumstances, it constantly takes new forms to implement the ideal of imitating Christ by pursuing the evangelical counsels in the present times.
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Mutuku, Catherine A. Muthoki, Chrispine Ouma Nyandiwa i Bibiana Ngundo. "Information Communication Technology Use Related Challenges and their Coping Strategies in Monastic Religious Life". Journal of Sociology, Psychology & Religious Studies 3, nr 4 (19.10.2021): 23–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.53819/810181025022.
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The study attempted to investigate the challenges that the monastic religious encounter in the use of information communication technologies with reference to internet, mobile phones, computers/laptops and digital televisions; and their coping strategies, a case of the Missionary Benedictine Sisters of Tutzing (MBST) in Nairobi Priory, Kenya. The world today is witnessing tremendous changes and development in the information and communication technologies. However, there is scanty literature that addresses the challenges and the strategies that can be used by religious consecrated men and women, to cope up with the modern communication technologies effectively. The study employed sequential explanatory mixed methods. The target population included the perpetually professed sisters, junior sisters in the leadership team (superiors, formators and administrators) of the monastic religious congregation of the MBST Nairobi Priory, Kenya. Questionnaires, interviews and focus group discussion (FGD) were the instruments used to collect data. The findings of the study in which both the challenges and the strategies were presented in a 4-point Likert scale and respondents were asked to indicate their choices from; 4=Strongly agree, 3=Agree, 2=Disagree, 1=Strongly disagree revealed that: With the challenges the use of ICTs pose to the monastic lifestyle (community life and the evangelical counsels); majority of them in all the 14 challenges presented, agreed and strongly agreed to them. Likewise the interviews and FGD had similar experiences with the same challenges. The strategies for coping up with the challenges too showed similar responses to a greater extent in agreement. From the study it is clear that, as monastic religious, the MBST cannot not afford to be alien to the modern means of communication as they are the chief means of information and education, of guidance and inspiration. Since they are unavoidably embedded in daily life, the religious consecrated should use them conscientiously and responsibly to become a factor of humanization, which calls for a proper formation of conscience. Keywords: Information Communication Technology, Challenges, Coping Strategies, Monastic Religious Life, Missionary Benedictine Sisters of Tutzing, Kenya
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Бричка Анна Володимирівна. "ЛІТЕРАТУРНО-ПЕРЕКЛАДАЦЬКА ДІЯЛЬНІСТЬ ПАЇСІЯ ВЕЛИЧКОВСЬКОГО". International Academy Journal Web of Scholar, nr 6(36) (30.06.2019): 55–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.31435/rsglobal_wos/30062019/6557.
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Purpose of Article is to research of literary translation activities Paisius Velichkovsky in the context of spiritual culture of Ukraine XVIII century. The research methodology includes historical, epistemological, and method of learning sources. Scientific novelty. The author found that Paisius Velichkovsky was the founder of Ukrainian literature ascetic, bringing it to a Ukrainian source monastic education. Thanks to him, the Ukrainian lands first appeared accurate and complete translations of the Church Fathers, which positively affected the spiritual practice of the monks and spiritual life of contemporary Ukraine as a whole. Conclusions. Paisius Velichkovsky virtually monastic life returned to its ancient foundations, it is a real updater Ukrainian religious life and the first Ukrainian monk mentor and leader in the ascetic reading. Translations Paisius Velichkovsky turned the then decline in spirituality spiritual wealth revived monastic life.
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Palmisano, Stefania. "Moving Forward in Catholicism". International Journal for the Study of New Religions 1, nr 2 (12.01.2011): 207–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/ijsnr.v1i2.207.
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The aim of this article is to analyse the organizational innovations which monastic communities established after Vatican Council II (“new monastic communities”) introduced with the aim of renewing monastic life. The article will also consider the problems in the relationship between these communities and the Catholic Church, which arise as the result of such innovations. The first section reports the main results of empirical research carried out on new monastic communities in Italy, looking in particular at how such innovations were introduced. The second section begins with the question of canonical recognition of these new communities by the Catholic Church, and discusses the relationships between innovation, recognition and legitimation
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Klymov, Valeriy. "Ukrainian Orthodox Monasteries as a Factor in National History". Ukrainian Religious Studies, nr 20 (30.10.2001): 73–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.32420/2001.20.1184.
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In its nearly 1000-year history, the Ukrainian monastery as a specific religious institution, aimed at realizing the idea of a perfect Christian life through self-isolated forms of organization of life, experienced a rather complicated evolution. In Ukraine, this complexity has not always been dictated by the inherent development of monasticism itself (the monk in translation from Greek - solitary) or the peculiarities of the forms of organization of monastic life (anachormatism, slander, laurels, kinovies), and to a large extent determined by external non-monastic and extra-church factors.
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Jonveaux, Isabelle. "Facebook as a monastic place? The new use of internet by Catholic monks". Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis 25 (1.01.2013): 99–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.30674/scripta.67435.
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Although Catholic monasteries are theoretically out of the world, monks and nuns more and more use the internet, both for religious and non-religious reasons. While society at large often takes it for granted that monks are out of modernity, monastic communities have been adopted media from relatively early on, and we cannot say that they have come late to its use. The internet can offer monasteries a lot of advantages because it allows monks to be in the world without going out of the cloister. Nevertheless, the introduction of this new media in monasteries also raises a lot of questions about the potential contradictions it poses with other aspects of monastic life. The paper seeks to research the use of the medium by monks and nuns even in their daily lives, and attempts especially to investigate the potential changes it brings to monastic life.
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Thomas, Gabor. "Life before the Minster: the Social Dynamics of Monastic Foundation at Anglo-Saxon Lyminge, Kent". Antiquaries Journal 93 (wrzesień 2013): 109–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003581513000206.
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Anglo-Saxon monastic archaeology has been constrained by the limited scale of past investigations and their overriding emphasis on core buildings. This paper draws upon the results of an ongoing campaign of archaeological research that is redressing the balance through an ambitious programme of open-area excavation at Lyminge, Kent, the site of a royal double monastery founded in the seventh century ad. The results of five completed fieldwork seasons are assessed and contextualised in a narrative sequence emphasising the dynamic character of Lyminge as an Anglo-Saxon monastic settlement. In so doing, the study brings into sharp focus how early medieval monasteries were emplaced in the landscape, with specific reference to Anglo-Saxon Kent, a regional context offering key insights into how the process of monastic foundation redefined antecedent central places of long-standing politico-religious significance and social action.
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Eichman, Jennifer. "Zhuhong’s Communal Rules for the Late Ming Nunnery Filiality and Righteousness Unobstructed". NAN Nü 21, nr 2 (11.12.2019): 224–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685268-00212p03.
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AbstractThis article presents a single detailed case study of communal life at a small private Buddhist nunnery governed by strict rules and inhabited by religiously active nuns. The first half of this article focuses on why the nunnery was constructed, how it was funded, where it was built, its architectural design, and its residents. The second half examines the daily ritual activities of the nuns, their education, disciplinary procedures, fundraising, and community relations. In bringing to life how the culture of monastic discipline shaped the daily rhythms of these nuns’ lives, this article further sheds light not only on monastic culture in Hangzhou at the end of the Ming, but also demonstrates the contrast between that culture and other Buddhist and contemporary religious competitors in the surrounding religious landscape. In so doing, this article shifts our attention from the study of hagiography to the broader context of female monastic culture exhibited in the genres of communal rules (guiyue) and vinaya texts.
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Resnick, Irven M. "Litterati, Spirituales, and Lay Christians According to Otloh of Saint Emmeram". Church History 55, nr 2 (czerwiec 1986): 165–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3167418.
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It seems somewhat paradoxical that at the very time in the eleventh century when laity and clergy were most critical of the corrupt and decadent life led in many monasteries throughout Europe, one should find among reformers the most exaggerated claims for the benefits of monastic life. Peter Damian (1007–1072), one of the most ardent and indefatigable monastic reformers, provides ample evidence of this paradox.
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McGinn, Bernard. "The Changing Shape of Late Medieval Mysticism". Church History 65, nr 2 (czerwiec 1996): 197–219. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3170288.
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The historical development of explicit forms of Christian mysticism can be sketched according to a model of gradually accumulating and interactive layers of tradition. The monastic ideal of flight from the world in order to lead a specialized life of penance and prayer, either as a hermit or within a community, formed the institutional context for most forms of Christian mysticism down to the end of the twelfth century. This monastic layer of mysticism was primarily biblical and liturgical in the sense that it sought God in and through personal appropriation of the mystical understanding of the Bible as cultivated within the liturgical life of the monastic community. Most monastic mystics were also “objective” in the sense that they rarely talked about their own experiences of God, but rather sought to express their understanding of mystical transformation through biblical exegesis and theoretical expositions of a mystagogical character (that is, expositions designed to lead readers into the mystery of the consciousness of God's presence)
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Armistead, Samuel G., i Ruth J. Dean. "Jottings from a Monastic Kitchen". La corónica: A Journal of Medieval Hispanic Languages, Literatures, and Cultures 50, nr 1-2 (wrzesień 2021): 249–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/cor.2021.a910126.
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Abstract: This article explores a description of the foodstuffs and daily eating habits of a monastery as recorded in MS Codex 1081 (currently housed at the University of Pennsylvania). The authors provide a translation of the marginal note and examine the choice of terms, concluding it is from the eastern third of the Iberian Peninsula, written in Castilian, but with interference of Aragonese dialect. This note offers a delightful vignette, illuminating the daily routine of fifteenth-century Aragonese religious life: frugal, but not unappetizing fare, generous hospitality to the weary traveler, pleasant evening strolls, and finally a hearty nightcap of fruit and full-bodied wine, as recommended by a generous housekeeper.
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Clark, James G. "The Making of Nordic Monasticism, c. 1076–c. 1350". Religions 12, nr 8 (28.07.2021): 581. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel12080581.
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The introduction of regular religious life in the Nordic region is less well-documented than in the neighbouring kingdoms of northern Europe. In the absence of well-preserved manuscript and material remains, unfounded and sometimes distorting suppositions have been made about the timeline of monastic settlement and the character of the conventual life it brought. Recent archival and archaeological research can offer fresh insights into these questions. The arrival of authentic regular life may have been as early as the second quarter of the eleventh century in Denmark and Iceland, but there was no secure or stable community in any part of Scandinavia until the turn of the next century. A settled monastic network arose from a compact between the leadership of the secular church and the ruling elite, a partnership motivated as much by the shared pursuit of political, social and economic power as by any personal piety. Yet, the force of this patronal programme did not inhibit the development of monastic cultures reflected in books, original writings, church and conventual buildings, which bear comparison with the European mainstream.
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Clark, Anne L. "Guardians of the Sacred: The Nuns of Soissons and the Slipper of the Virgin Mary". Church History 76, nr 4 (grudzień 2007): 724–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0009640700500031.
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What could it mean to a medieval monastic community to own a valuable object? Certainly, property in general was crucial to the survival of a stable community, ideals of poverty and the thirteenth-century Franciscan experiment in radical poverty notwithstanding. More specifically, what did it mean to own not simply a field or mill that generated revenue, but an object that was believed to have power beyond its material qualities? Such objects—saints’ relics and wonder-working images—did of course also generate revenue, but their meaning and role for the monastic community and the wider society could be much richer than that. And what if the monastic community was a convent of nuns, of professed religious women whose lives were shaped not just by the rule they shared with their male counterparts, but also by the codes, both implicit and increasingly explicit, that constrained the range of women's religious activities?Although the first two of these questions—about monastic property and the religious value of sacred objects—have been extensively discussed in scholarship on the Middle Ages, a specific focus on gender in relation to monastic ownership of sacred objects has not been widely examined. My focus on gender here is generated by two salient aspects of religious life in the twelfth century, the period of this study. First, there was an increasing articulation of the priesthood as the sole means of mediating divine presence, and of that priesthood as exclusively male.
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Bayer O. Cist., John. "Living toto corde: Monastic Vows and the Knowledge of God". Religions 10, nr 7 (11.07.2019): 424. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel10070424.
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Monastic vows have been a source of religious controversy at least since the Reformation. Today, new monastic movements recover many elements of the tradition (e.g., community life and prayer, material solidarity and poverty), but vows—understood as a lifelong or binding commitment to obedience, stability and conversion to the monastic way of life—do not appear to capture much enthusiasm. Even the Benedictine tradition in the Catholic Church appears, at least in certain regions, to struggle to attract young men and women to give themselves away through vows. In this context, I ask whether vows should belong to the “future of Christian monasticisms”. I will look at Anselm of Canterbury for inspiration regarding their meaning. For him, monastic vows enact the “total” gift of self or the “total” belonging to God. I will suggest, following Anselm, that such vows enable an existential commitment that is in a unique way morally and intellectually enlivening, and that such vows should remain an element in any future monasticism wanting to stand in continuity with the “Christian monasticism” of the past. During my conclusion, I acknowledge that our imagination regarding the concrete forms the total gift could take may develop.
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Cunich, Peter. "The Syon Household at Denham, 1539–50". Studies in Church History 50 (2014): 174–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424208400001704.
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Late medieval monastic households shared many features in common with the large secular households of the gentry and aristocracy Indeed, the language used in describing monastic households had always echoed that of the extended secular family with ‘brothers’ and ‘sisters’ living together under the authority of a superior representing Christ but exercising control of the religious community as a ‘father’ or ‘mother’ figure. While the common life of the monastery was very different in many of its details to the lifestyle of a lay family, monastic legislators used the family relationship to describe the modus operandi of the monastic community St Augustine enjoined his monks to ‘obey your superior as you would a father’, and reminded an errant community of nuns that their superior had been ‘the mother not of your body but of your mind’. St Benedict wrote as ‘a father who loves you’, reminding his followers that God is ‘a loving father’ and urging them to show each other ‘the pure love of brothers’ while accepting the abbot as both the ‘father of the household’ and a ‘spiritual father’ who would provide for all their worldly and spiritual needs. David Rnowles therefore considered the medieval monastic conventus to be a ‘family’ in which a ‘simple family life’ was led by monks under the care of an ever-present superior who acted as a loving paterfamilias in governing the monastery; the monastery was ‘the home of a spiritual family whose life and work begin and end in the family circle’.
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Palmisano, Stefania. "Asceticism in Modern Times". Fieldwork in Religion 9, nr 2 (3.08.2015): 202–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/firn.v4.i1.16445.
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In this paper I examine how ascetic practices – consubstantial with monastic life of every kind and in every age – have been reinterpreted in the context of New Monasticism, a phenomenon which emerged at the end of the 1970s at the heart of contemporary Catholic monasticism. Starting from empirical research carried out in the most important Italian neo-monastic community, I aim to show how, in its efforts to respond to accusations of “being out of date” and “trivial” which have been levelled at contemporary monasticism, this community has become the interpreter of a process of “invention of monastic tradition” which restores a particular reinterpretation of the grammar of monastic asceticism. An analysis of these changes allows us to throw light on a transformed religious universe in which if, on one hand, traditional concepts of Catholic doctrine have been emptied of their original meanings, on the other they are taking on new ones, sometimes far from, or out of tune with, orthodox guidelines.
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Duong Thi Kim, Oanh, i Thao Nguyen Thi Phuong. "Soft Skills Education for Monastic students of Vietnam Buddhist Universities". Journal of Science Educational Science 66, nr 4 (wrzesień 2021): 27–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.18173/2354-1075.2021-0106.
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The value of Buddhism persists for more than twenty-five centuries and has a strong place in the hearts of the public. Modern Buddhism will continue the achievements that have been achieved when each monastic student cultivates the qualities and competencies to carry out the mission of spreading the Dharma Propagation. The socio-economic changes and the strong development of science, engineering and technology in the current period have brought a new breath of life to the path of religious practice, contributing to overcoming limitations. of traditional propaganda in the direction of one-way message transmission. In addition to acquiring knowledge of Buddhist teachings, scriptures, etc., to fulfill the spread of the Dharma Propagation to meet requirements of the new context, monastic students of Vietnam Buddhist Universities need to be equipped with essential soft skills. Although the meaning and type of soft skills of Buddhist preachers have been studied, the theoretical basis of soft skills education for monastic students in Vietnam Buddhist Universities is still little mentioned. The article focuses on analyzing theoretical issues about soft skills education for monastic students, such as the concept of monastic student, types of soft skills that need to be equipped for monastic students, content and form for soft skills education for monastic students. The analytical results of the article contribute to enriching the scientific basis of soft skills education for monastic students in Vietnam Buddhist Universities.
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Nadtoka, Gennadiy. "Orthodox monasteries in Ukraine from 1900-1917". Ukrainian Religious Studies, nr 8 (22.12.1998): 22–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.32420/1998.8.173.
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In the early twentieth century, monasteries remained an integral part of the Orthodox world in Ukraine. Being in the womb of the all-Russian church system, monasticism constantly felt the effect of organizational, political and spiritual unifying tendencies. At the same time, the external isolation of the monasteries from secular and even purely church life, and its own sources of replenishment of the monastic layer contributed to preserving the specificity of the further development of the monastic form of religious tradition in Ukraine.
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Șincan, Anca. "Chronicling the Underground: The Diary of an Old Calendarist Monastic Brother". Review of Ecumenical Studies Sibiu 14, nr 2 (1.09.2022): 310–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/ress-2022-0107.
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Abstract The secret police archives present the life of the religious underground as seen by the secret officers who were seeking to facilitate those communities’ destruction. The state’s official narrative about these clandestine groups is mirrored in alternative documents and narratives. This article focuses on the Old Calendarist Orthodox monastic community of the Dormition of the Mother of God Monastery in the Strada Televiziunii in Bucharest at the end of the communist regime. It showcases the life of the monastery as described in the diary of a monastic novice whose written account of becoming a monk described the last days of the monastery before its destruction by the secret police in 1983.
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Oltean, Daniel, i Youhanna N. Youssef. "Ascèse et liturgie dans l’Orient chrétien. Coutumes monastiques à l’enfermement d’un reclus". Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum / Journal of Ancient Christianity 24, nr 3 (1.12.2020): 585–605. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zac-2020-0054.
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Abstract This article focuses on the ancient Greek and Coptic euchologia containing a little-known monastic liturgical ritual used when a monk exchanged his coenobitic way of life for a solitary one. The oldest Greek manuscripts which preserve this ritual date back to the 10th century. In the Coptic environment, it is found in manuscripts from the 14th century. Nevertheless, long before these dates, Syriac literary sources mention an office for the blessing of the monastic cells, which contains several elements in common with the Greek and Coptic liturgical texts. As the ritual is no longer included in the modern euchologia, the article highlights the traces of the custom and the monastic reasons of this tacitly accepted forgetfulness.
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Demczuk, Mirosław. "Prawosławne ośrodki życia monastycznego na Ziemi Drohiczyńskiej". Elpis 24 (2022): 97–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.15290/elpis.2022.24.14.
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The religious past of the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox Church is very rich. Monasticism is an indispensable element of the tradition and life of the Orthodox Church. One of the conditions to have autocephaly in the Orthodox Church is having monasteries. Therefore, none of the Orthodox churches can be independent and fully formed without a steady state. Monasteries are the spiritual school for bishops. In this article was presented the genesis of the monastic life in the Drohiczyn Region. There was briefly discussed the meaning of monastic life in Orthodoxy. Also attention was focused on the development of the Orthodox Church in Drohiczyn. There was presented the history of the creation of the Monastery of the Transfiguration of the Lord, the Monastery of St. Spirit in Drohiczyn and the Monastery in Wirów.
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Vandewiele, Wim. "Toekomst abdijgemeenschappen onder druk?" Religie & Samenleving 10, nr 1 (1.05.2015): 25–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.54195/rs.12261.
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The religious landscape of present-day Western-European society is characterized on the one hand by a high level of secularisation and on the other by an increased religious plurality (Berger 2000). The values intrinsic to a religiously oriented life in community are often diametrically opposed to the dominant Western-European thinking patterns like individualism, utilitarianism and scientism. It is in this context not self-evident to consciously choose monastic life and it is moreover difficult to remain committed as a monk or a nun to a life characterised by a quasi-linear continuity and by exceptional obligations and limitations (Merkle 1992). This article starts out by focusing briefly on an ethnographic study describing the physical and social environment of a specific contemplative Trappist community, the Abbey of Sint-Sixtus in Westvleteren (Belgium), thus contributing to the creation of a more objective image of contemplative orders in today’s society. It concludes with an analysis of the societal transition that challenges the role and the quality of present-day monastic community life.
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Frances, Ann. "William John Butler and the revival of the Ascetic Tradition". Studies in Church History 22 (1985): 365–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s042420840000807x.
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William John Butler, sometime vicar of Wantage in Berkshire and founder of the Community of St Mary the Virgin, gave a concrete and contemporary expression to an aspect of the ascetic idea current among followers of the Oxford Movement, which was revealed in their desire to restore monastic life in the Church in England. The Community founded by Butler was one of the earliest of the indigenous Anglican communities for women. In no way could the desert ideal or the later pre-Reformation models of religious life be reconstructed, nor would they have been appropriate in the climate of the time. However Butler believed, as had Newman, Pusey and others, that the basic principles of monastic life remained valid and they could and should find their place in the contemporary Church of England. It was believed that the Church had the grace and the resources of devotion within itself to give birth to the religious life anew, to continue its nurture and promote its development. Certainly the enhanced spirituality resulting from the example of deep devotion of the Tractarians themselves and that of their followers engendered a religious atmosphere in which new spiritual adventures were made possible.
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Beauregard, David. "SHAKESPEARE ON MONASTIC LIFE: NUNS AND FRIARS IN MEASURE FOR MEASURE". Religion and the Arts 5, nr 3 (2001): 248–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685290152813653.
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AbstractAgainst recent claims that Shakespeare satirizes and demystifies religious life in Measure for Measure, this article maintains that Shakespeare is generally sympathetic to Franciscan nuns and friars, particularly so in this play. Indeed, Shakespeare works against the anti-fraternal tradition by reversing its conventions. Nuns and friars are represented as virtue figures, not vice figures. The secular characters are guilty of sexual irregularities, whereas the religious are chaste and work to regularize the marriages of the lay figures. The usual exposure of the sexual corruption and hypocrisy of the friar backfires on Lucio, the chief vice figure in the play. The virginal and temperate Isabella, a secular figure in Shakespeare's sources, is portrayed as a prospective novice of the Poor Clares over against the puritanical Angelo, whose hypocritical asceticism turns into lust. Angelo conducts a public shaming English Protestant style, whereas the Duke in Catholic fashion conducts a sympathetic auricular confession. Finally Isabella does not sacrifice her virginity or accept the Duke's offer of marriage, two things her counterparts in the sources invariably do. Shakespeare's reversal of anti-Catholic conventions requires us to reposition him as a Catholic rather than a conforming member of the Church of England.
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Ageev, E. A. "The destiny of several female monastic communities in the South of Russia after the Revolution of 1917". Russian Journal of Church History 3, nr 2 (30.07.2022): 126–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.15829/2686-973x-2022-104.
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The article provides an overview of the history of some women’s monasteries in the South of Russia in the first post-revolutionary years. The conclusion is made about the organizational and economic stability of the women’s communities. The destruction of the monastic households and the nun`s communities themselves occurred as a result of the targeted efforts of local Soviet authorities, and sometimes even direct repression. However, separate groups of nuns in many places continued their religious life and influence on the population until the 1980s. The phenomenon of women’s monastic communities in Russia in the 20th century requires further comprehensive study.
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Bishop, Alex, i Kevin Randall. "An Evolving Inquiry of Monastic Spiritual Care for Aging Inmates". Innovation in Aging 5, Supplement_1 (1.12.2021): 131–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igab046.510.
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Abstract This investigation involved focus-group inquiry of the Oblates in Prison Program, a faith-based ministry founded on monastic principles in the Rule of St. Benedict. Data from a Benedictine Order monk and program coordinator, ordained prison minister, and lay ministry volunteer were collected. Participants were asked a series of questions regarding the spiritual care of aging prisoners. Responses were coded and cross-compared for thematic content. Of central thematic importance was implementation of a spiritual care model using traditional monastic rules for daily living. A second theme centered on purposeful rebuilding of self-renewal through stability and obedience. A final emergent theme encompassed institutional acceptance in the provision of religious sacraments, sacred texts, and artifacts. Results highlight the broader implications of providing spiritual care and outreach to aging prisoners. The role of restorative justice for successful delivery of faith-based spiritual care for improved rehabilitation of aging inmates will be further addressed.
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Murray, Jacqueline. "Masculinizing Religious Life: Sexual Prowess, the Battle for Chastity and Monastic Identity". Florilegium 36 (1.11.2023): 71–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/flor-36.004.
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With the increasing turn to celibacy for monks and priests over the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, one avenue for performing masculinity – sexual prowess and the engendering of children – closed for monks and priests. Jacqueline Murray explores the ways in which the myth of uncontrollable male lust became deployed to enable clerics to redefine masculinity: instead of actual battle, these second sons of the military aristocracy displayed strength and prowess through fighting lust; instead of actual sexual prowess, “real men” could demonstrate masculinity through rationally controlling sexual desires.
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Shen, Yang. "Idioms of Dignity and Respect: Addressing Elderly Strangers in Buddhist Monastic Publics in Reformed China". Review of Religion and Chinese Society 10, nr 1 (6.03.2024): 147–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22143955-12340019.
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Abstract The paper examines the idioms of dignity and respect in addressing elderly individuals within Buddhist monastic publics in reformed China. It analyzes the use of three common address terms—jushi, shixiong, and lao pusa—and other phrasings as observed during fieldwork in Buddhist temples in Eastern and Southern China in the 2010s. By introducing the concept of “Buddhist monastic publics,” the study illuminates the dynamic interplay between a resident monastic life and the casual encounters of temple-goers. Address patterns are contextualized within the historical tension between monastic and lay statuses in a state-centric, Han-majority society, revealing fluctuating boundaries of inclusivity and exclusivity in Han Buddhist temple interactions. Overall, this study offers anthropological insights into the evolving dynamics of respect and recognition within contemporary Chinese Buddhist sociality. It highlights the diversity of discursive forms that inform and shape this social fabric, contributing to an interactionist interpretation of Buddhist temple engagement.
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Стојановић, Иван. "МАНАСТИРИ У ТЕМИШВАРСКОЈ ЕПАРХИЈИ – ЦЕНТРИ РЕЛИГИЈСКОГ И КУЛТУРНОГ ЖИВОТА СРБА У РУМУНИЈИ". ИСХОДИШТА 8, nr 1 (18.08.2022): 277–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.46630/ish.8.2022.18.
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In the area of today’s Romania, in the Romanian part of Banat, an area that territorially belongs to the Serbian Orthodox Diocese of Timisoara, in addition to 56 parish churches, there are five monasteries: Bezdin, St. George (on Brzava), Bazijaš, Zlatica and Kusić. Each of these monasteries has a rich history. The folklore tells us that some of these monasteries were founded in the 13th century, while we have documented evidence from the 16th century. In the rich history of the Serbian Orthodox Diocese of Timisoara, the Monasteries were and still are, the centres of the spiritual and cultural life of the Serbs in Romania. Many deserving bishops, metropolitans and patriarchs came from these monastic fraternities, who made a great contribution to the preservation of the religious and cultural identity of both the Serbian and Romanian people. Many deserving individuals and members of Serbian aristocratic families, contributed to the construction, renovation and beautification of these monasteries. These monasteries are places with rich iconostasis, frescoes, treasuries and libraries, where monastic and theological schools worked and more recently courses for singers and children’s religious camps, aiming to preserve the Orthodox faith and Serbian cultural identity in this area.Today, regular monastic and liturgical life takes place in four monasteries, and all monasteries are in constant spiritual and material renewal.
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Chao, Shin-yi. "Good Career Moves: Life Stories of Daoist Nuns of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries". NAN NÜ 10, nr 1 (2008): 121–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/138768008x273737.
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AbstractDaoist monasticism rose to prominence in China during the late twelfth and the mid-thirteenth centuries amid the turmoil of war and dynastic change. A particular Daoist monastic order emerged, called Quanzhen or 'Complete Perfection', which became popular and spread throughout China. A number of commemorative stone steles from the monasteries of the period have been preserved, and serve as the main sources for this article. The steles record the religious activities and experiences of female practitioners, some of whom rose to leading positions, as founders, abbesses, and managers of flourishing monasteries. The funding for these monasteries came from the donations of the lay followers whom they inspired. Within the monastic universe, they trained and ordained the next generation of clerics, and provided ritual services to the lay community as well. Toward the end of their careers, abbesses choose their successors from among their female disciples, and a lineage based on the master-disciple relationship took shape.
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Carvalho Moura Filho, Raimundo. "Aelredo de Rivelaux e Goderico de Finchale: austeridade e observância monástica em pespectiva (século XII)". Nova Tellus 40, nr 1 (14.01.2022): 169–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.19130/iifl.nt.2022.40.1.432577.
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In the course of the 12th century, with the emergence of new monastic orders, including that of Cistercian (1098 AD), the theme of austerity became central to the discussion on the best way of observing the Rule of Saint Benedict, a canonical document on regular life from the 6th century. Conceptions about austerity can be verified, on the one hand, in the Mirror of Charity, by the Cistercian abbot Aelredo de Rivelaux (1110-1167 AD), and, on the other, in the hagiography The Life of Saint Godric, whose socio-cultural place is the priory from Durham, also in Anglia. Thus, this article intends to prove that there were approaching and distancing concerning the best way to carry out monastic austerity in northern Anglia, at the center of religious renewal in the course of the 12th century.
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Luongo, Francis Thomas. "Catherine of Siena's Advice to Religious Women". Specula: Revista de Humanidades y Espiritualidad, nr 3 (14.05.2022): 99–124. http://dx.doi.org/10.46583/specula_2022.3.1032.
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This essay begins with the paradox that Catherine of Siena, perhaps the most famous uncloistered religious woman in the Middle Ages, became after her death an authority and model for cloistered monasticism for women during the Dominican reform movement. But the dissonance in the idea of Catherine as a model for cloistered religious women is heightened by false assumptions or oversimplifications of Catherine’s religious status, and of what it meant for Catherine to be a model for this or that form of religious life. This essay surveys Catherine’s letters to religious women, including letters to penitents or mantellate and letters to abbesses and nuns in monasteries. While Catherine’s letters to penitents and other women living in the world focus on the challenges of living without a formal religious rule, her letters to nuns focus on the importance of their maintaining claustration, following their rule and on the dangers of wealth—a recognition of the generally higher social and economic standing of monastic women. Catherine seems also to identify certain kinds of prayer with monastic life. It is important to remember that Catherine herself founded a monastery, and while it remains unclear what precisely her intentions were for this community, it is another sign of Catherine’s interest in and commitment to cloistered religiosity. The essay concludes by arguing for a more nuanced understanding of what it might have meant for Catherine to be a model for specific forms of religious life.
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Wang, Weiqiao. "Comparative Review of Worship Spaces in Buddhist and Cistercian Monasteries: The Three Temples of Guoqing Si (China) and the Church of the Royal Abbey of Santa Maria de Poblet (Spain)". Religions 12, nr 11 (8.11.2021): 972. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel12110972.
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Although the two parallel architectural forms, Han Buddhists and the Cistercian monasteries, seem, on the surface, to be very different—belonging to different religions, different cultural backgrounds, and different ways of construction—they share many similarities in the internal institutional model of monks’ lives and the corresponding architectural core values. The worship space plays the most significant role in both monastic life and layout. In this study, the Three Temples of Guoqing Si and the Church of the Royal Abbey of Santa Maria de Poblet are used as examples to elucidate the connotations behind the architectural forms, in order to further explore how worship spaces serve as an intermediary between deities, monks, and pilgrims. Based on field research and experience of monastic life, this comparative study highlights two fundamental similarities between the Three Temples and the Church: First, both worship spaces are derived from imperial prototypes, have a similar priority of construction, occupy the most important place in both sacred venues, and both serve as a reference for the development of monastic layout. Second, both worship spaces are composed of a similar programmed functional layout, including similar space dominators as well as itineraries. Beyond the surface similarities, this article further analyzes the reasons behind the three differences found. Due to their different understanding of deities, both worship spaces show different ways of worship, images of deities, and distances towards them.
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Hirsch, Carolin. "Religious Gift-Giving Turned Upside Down. On Monks and Punks in Myanmar". Zeitschrift für Wirtschafts- und Unternehmensethik 22, nr 1 (2021): 6–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/1439-880x-2021-1-6.
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In Myanmar, a mainly Buddhist country, gift-giving practices are part of the everyday life. An established practice is dāna, where laypeople support those living a monastic life. Turning this established practice on its head is used as a tool of socio-political protest by a group of punks, who run the local chapter of Food Not Bombs in Yangon. The punks’' protest is contextualized through the local nexus of religion and politics, within which dāna practices occupy a central role.
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Leyser, Conrad. "The Uses of the Desert in the Sixth-Century West". Church History and Religious Culture 86, nr 1 (2006): 113–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187124106778787060.
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AbstractThis essay surveys the cultural uses of the Egyptian desert in western ascetic culture across the fifth and sixth centuries. Challenging the commonly-held assumption that the desert was effectively suppressed by clerical hierarchies or monastic communities in the West, the essay argues that the institutions of the episcopacy and the monastery, the twin pillars of the medieval Church, in fact sought to lay their foundations squarely in the memory of the desert. The bishops selected for discussion are Caesarius of Arles, Fulgentius of Ruspe, and Gregory of Tours; the monastic communities are those described in the Life of the Jura Fathers and the Rule of Saint Benedict.
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Mills, Laurence. "Buddhist Monastic Life, according to the texts of the Theravada tradition. Mohan Wijayaratna, trans. Claude Grangier and Steve Collins, introd. Steve Collins." Buddhist Studies Review 10, nr 1 (15.06.1993): 114–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/bsrv.v10i1.15248.
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Buddhist Monastic Life, according to the texts of the Theravada tradition. Mohan Wijayaratna, trans. Claude Grangier and Steve Collins, introd. Steve Collins. Cambridge University Press, 1990. xxiv + 190 pp. H/back £27.50, US$37.50, Aus$45.00; p/back £8.95, US$10.95, Aus$22.50.
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Collett, Jessica. "Bede on Sickness, Episcopal Identity and Monastic Asceticism". Studies in Church History 58 (czerwiec 2022): 28–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/stc.2022.2.
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The value of bodily affliction as a means for integrating an active life of good works on earth with the contemplative values of heaven, prior to the return of Christ and the world's end, remains relatively unexplored, despite suffering saints being a common medieval trope. Using the work of Gregory the Great and the Venerable Bede, this article seeks to explore the interrelation of an active contemplative life and bodily affliction to shed light upon Bede's use of Gregory and his presentation of Cuthbert's episcopate to forge a distinctive understanding of the links between bodily illness, episcopal identity and the biblical ordering of time, as that ordering finds expression in biblical eschatology and apocalyptic.
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Zhou, Zhenru. "Transcending History: (Re)Building Longchang Monastery of Mount Baohua in the Seventeenth Century". Religions 13, nr 4 (25.03.2022): 285. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel13040285.
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This paper analyzes the roles architectural renovation played in the revival of Longchang Monastery of Mount Baohua (Jiangsu), a major Chinese monastery of the Vinaya School and an ordination center in Late Imperial China. Based on temple gazetteers, monastic memoirs, and modern documentation of monastic architecture and life by Prip-Møller, the author reveals the formation of a spatial system that centered at the threefold ordination rituals. It took the entire seventeenth century for the system to take form under the supervision of a Chan monk-architect Miaofeng and three successive Vinaya abbots, Sanmei, Jianyue, and Ding’an. The spatial practices, comprising a series of reconstructions, reorientations, redesigns, re-demarcations, and refurbishments, have not only reconciled fractures and defects in the monastic architecture but also built a history for the rising institute. This article examines the construction of and the narratives around three centers of the Monastery, namely, the Open-Air Platform Unit where Miaofeng erected a copper hall, the Main Courtyard where Sanmei reoriented the monastic layout to follow the Vinaya tradition, the Ordination Platform Unit where Jianyue rebuilt a stone ordination platform, and again the Open-Air Platform Unit that Ding’an had refurbished and reunited with the later centers. The forces that have driven this seemingly non-progressive history, as the author argues, are not only the consistent efforts to counteract the natural course of material decay, but also the ambition of making a living history without beginning or end.
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Croq, Alice. "Christian Monastic Life in Early Islam, written by Bradley Bowman". Arabica 69, nr 6 (21.12.2022): 703–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700585-12341652.
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Haseldine, Julian. "Friendship and Rivalry: The Role of Amicitia in Twelfth-Century Monastic Relations". Journal of Ecclesiastical History 44, nr 3 (lipiec 1993): 390–414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022046900014159.
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The proliferation of new monastic orders in the twelfth century presented the Church with a dilemma which had previously challenged the theologians of Christendom: the flowering of diversity within the unity of the faith. Just as theologians had had to resolve contradictions among the writings of the Fathers – the primary authorities for the interpretation of the Bible, and hence the elucidation of God's truth as it was perceived – so, in the new climate of monastic revival, ecclesiastical leaders had to come to terms with the existence of a variety of new interpretations of the Rule of St Benedict, and indeed that of St Augustine – the primary guides to the living of a true Christian life.