Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Military architecture fortifications history”

Le XVIe siècle qui voit l'expansion de l'empire ottoman en Méditerranée orientale, propulse la petite bourgade d'Alger au rang de capitale de Régence et bastion militaire de la Porte Sublime, sur les côtes du Maghreb, face à l'hégémonie de l'empire espagnol. Les Ottomans qui la transforment en ville guerrière, lui créent un port artificiel, la dotent de nouveaux remparts et établissent autour d'elle, un réseau de points de fortification, qui quadrille le territoire et contrôle la province. Entre 1516 et 1830, Alger qui est surnommée al Maḥrūssa (la bien gardée), reste imprenable par la mer. Son souci permanent de protection se traduit par un renforcement et un entretien continuels de ses fortifications. Cet essai qui ne prétend qu'à une contribution au vaste champ de recherche d'un corpus inédit, est une enquête sur une architecture totalement inexplorée, sur la base d'archives et de relevés in situ. L'exploration des archives du Génie militaire français, constituant une source fondamentale en grande partie inédite, servira à la restitution de la structure défensive de la province d'Alger. L'intérêt de ce travail réside principalement dans l'identification des typologies constructive et architecturale militaires d'Alger ottoman, qui permettent de cerner la culture constructive de guerre ottomane en Afrique du Nord
The 16th century which saw the expansion of the ottoman empire in Eastern Mediterranean, propels the small town of Algiers to the rank of capital of Regency and military bastion of the Sublime Porte, on the Maghreb coast, facing the hegemony of the Spanish empire. The Ottomans who transform it into city Warrior, creates an artificial port, equipped with new ramparts and establish around it, a network of points of fortification, which quadrille the territory and supervise the province. Between 1516 and 1830, Algiers which is called al Maḥrūssa (well kept), remains impregnable by the sea. Its permanent concern for protection is to show the strengthened and continual maintenance of its fortifications. This essay claiming to a contribution to the vast field of research of an unpublished corpus is an investigation into a totally unexplored architecture, on the basis of archives and records in situ. The exploration of the archives of the French military engineering, constituting a fundamental source largely unpublished, will serve as the return of the defensive structure of the province of Algiers. The interest of this work lies mainly in the identification of the military constructive typologies and architectural of ottoman Algiers, which identify the constructive culture of Ottoman war in North Africa

Sous le règne de Philippe Auguste, une nouvelle forme d’architecture fortifiée, fondée notamment sur l’utilisation de tours de flanquement cylindriques à archères, se développe et se diffuse sur tout le territoire correspondant à la sphère d’influence de la couronne capétienne, aussi bien dans la maîtrise d’ouvrage royale que non royale. Cette architecture « capétienne » devait s’imposer sans partage jusqu’à la fin du règne de Louis IX. Historiquement, ce phénomène architectural participe de la montée en puissance de la couronne capétienne, qui trouve dans la fortification un moyen de contrôler et sécuriser le territoire qu’elle domine, surtout sous Philippe Auguste qui multiplie les chantiers dans tout le royaume. Mais le nouveau pouvoir royal s’exprime aussi dans le contrôle que la couronne exerce sur l’activité architecturale des maîtres d’ouvrage non royaux, qui lui permet de limiter l’emploi des formes de l‘architecture capétienne aux alliés de la couronne. L’analyse montre que la genèse et l’évolution de cette architecture furent le résultat d’une interaction entre les sphères royale et non royale, et non pas simplement, comme on l’a longtemps considéré, le résultat de la diffusion d’un hypothétique « modèle » royal, qui aurait été copié partout. L’architecture royale n’en joue pas moins un rôle important dans le phénomène, en particulier sous le règne de Philippe Auguste, lorsque la couronne développe progressivement une architecture très standardisée, qui devient l’expression de la nouvelle puissance royale et de l’intégration des différentes villes du royaume à une organisation étatique naissante
Under Philip Augustus reign, a new form of fortified architecture, founded in particular on the use of circular towers with arrow loops, rose and spread across the territory under the capetian crown’s sphere of influence, in both royal and non-royal buildings. This « capetian » architecture would become the norm until the end of Louis IX’s reign. Historically, this architectural phenomenon was part of the capetian crown’s rise; the crown found in fortification a way to control and secure the territory it dominated, especially under Philip Augustus who multiplied constructions across the kingdom. Royal power, however, also manifested itself in the crown’s control over feudatories’ architectural activity, effectively limiting the use of capetian architecture to the crown’s allies. Our analysis shows that this architecture’s inception and evolution were the result of interactions between royal and non-royal spheres, and not merely, as previously thought, the result of a hypothetical royal « model » copied everywhere. Royal architecture nonetheless played an important role in the phenomenon, in particular under the reign of Philip Augustus, when the crown progressively developed a highly standardized architecture, which became the expression of the new royal power and of the integration of the kingdom's multiple cities with an emerging state organization

Une étude architecturale à travers quatre monographies des forts du Deccan (Inde), Naldurg, Torgal, Firozabad et Bellary dans le contexte des échanges interculturels (Orient-Occident) au sein de la culture technique de la guerre (fortification, artillerie, rôle des défenses, gestion de l’eau) dans la société médiévale et moderne indienne.Finalement, cette thèse cherche à définir les spécificités de l’architecture militaire du Deccan du 14ème au 18ème siècle, comme l’aboutissement technique de la défense médiévale et moderne en Inde
Architectural studies of four forts of Deccan (India): Naldurg, Torgal, Firozabad and Bellary in the context of intercultural exchange (between East-West) in the technical culture of war (fortification, artillery, defenses role, water management) in the medieval and modern Indian society.Finally, this study seek to define specificities of the military architecture of Deccan from the fourteenth to the eighteenth century, as the technical outcome of medieval and modern defense in India

La présente thèse vise à apporter des éclaircissements sur la réapparition du souci défensif, sa matérialisation et son évolution en Anatolie occidentale et centrale au début du premier millénaire av. J.-C. (Xe-VIe s.). Le territoire soumis à l'examen comprend la Phrygie, la boucle de l'Halys, la Carie, la Lydie, l'Ionie, l'Eolide et la Troade. Cette étude s'intéresse en premier lieu aux différentes méthodes de fortification utilisées au cours de cette période. Par l'examen des principales caractéristiques architecturales des murs de défense (techniques de construction, dispositifs défensifs), cette étude cherche à déterminer de quelle manière ces nouvelles constructions s'inscrivent dans la tradition architecturale anatolienne et dans quelle mesure leurs concepteurs contribuèrent à l'évolution de celle-ci en adoptant et en transformant les méthodes de fortification qui en sont issues. La construction d'un rempart, parce qu'elle impliquait de nombreux acteurs, était un fait de société majeur. Par leur conception, les techniques utilisées pour leur construction, leur emprise dans le paysage, les murailles sont des monuments chargés de symboles et des témoins privilégiés de l'histoire des sociétés qui les ont construites et perfectionnées. Au-delà des considérations archéologiques, cette étude s'attache donc aussi à replacer la construction de fortifications dans le contexte militaire mouvementé de l'Anatolie préclassique et tente également d'évaluer l'impact d'un tel projet de construction dans l'histoire politique et sociale des populations anatoliennes de l'âge du fer.

Le but de cette étude est de présenter un tableau des questions de défense en Crète aux époques classique et hellénistique. La cité grecque étant une entité double, la défense de la ville n’a pas été séparée de celle de son territoire.

Le point de départ de ce travail est le catalogue des fortifications crétoises, qui comprend 61 sites fortifiés (enceintes urbaines, forts et tours isolées).

À partir d’une étude qui fait une grande place aux questions de topographie, il a été possible d’une part, de dégager des dynamiques régionales et d’autre part, d’identifier certaines caractéristiques et certaines évolutions dans l’implantation des cités crétoises.

L’exemple de la Crète permet d’alimenter le débat sur la place de l’enceinte dans la définition de la cité. Les vestiges archéologiques ne semblent pas aller dans le sens des sources littéraires, selon lesquelles toute cité était nécessairement ceinte d’un rempart. Mais l’existence d’une enceinte semble bien être la marque du statut de cité./This study aims to raise various questions regarding defence in Crete during the classical and Hellenistic Periods. As the Greek city-state was a double entity, it seemed important to not separate the defence of the town from the defence of the territory.

The starting point of this work was the catalogue of Cretan fortifications, which contains 61 fortified sites (city walls, forts and watch-towers).

Topography plays a key role in the study therefore it is possible, on the one hand to separate regional dynamics of some cities and, on the other, to identify certain characteristics and evolutions in the settlement of Cretan cities.

The example of Crete encourages the debate on the role of the city-wall in the definition of the city-state. Archaeological remains do not seem not to agree with literary sources which declare that every town had a wall. However the existence of a city-wall appears to be indicative of the city-state.
Doctorat en Histoire, art et archéologie
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

La presente etude a pour objet les fortifications des plantagenet en poitou, de 1152 a 1242. Prenant appui sur les methodes croisees de l'archeologie monumentale, et de l'analyse des textes, elle met en evidence les particularites de construction des fortifications edifiees par ou avec le soutien des rois d'angleterre en poitou. Cette recherche eclaire l'histoire des poitevins, et leurs relations avec les plantagenet, autant que l'evolution des modes de construction des places-fortes. L'ancien comte de poitou, qui comprend actuellement les departements de la vienne, les deuxsevres et la vendee, passe aux mains d'henri plantagenet par son mariage avec alienor d'aquitaine en 1152. Si henri ii reste assez peu present en poitou, ou il affronte plusieurs revoltes de barons, son fils richard y reside en tant que comte des 1172, et entreprend des campagnes de fortification (niort, scorbe-clairvaux, talmont). Au debut du xiiie siecle, jeansans-terre, puis henri iii, s'attachent a conserver egalement des points d'appui dans cette region, surtout apres 1204, lorsque la frontiere nord de leurs territoires continentaux est repoussee au sud de la loire. Ces places sont confiees a de puissants vassaux capables d'en assumer la garde (thouars, parthenay, mauleon), ou aux bourgeois des villes encourages par des privileges ou des chartes de communes (niort, poitiers). Partant de l'analyse d'une centaine de chateaux en poitou, l'etude retient une douzaine de constructions attribuees aux plantagenet dans les annees 1180-1242. Ce sont les caracteristiques architecturales defensives de ces chateaux et enceintes urbaines qui revelent l'intervention de maitres d'oeuvre proches de la couronne anglaise ; le developpement systematique des tours de flanquement sur l'enceinte est commun aux constructions de philippe-auguste a la meme epoque. L'innovation s'exprime a travers les elements de la defense, talus et eperons, machicoulis sur arcs, archeres. Certaines de ces caracteristiques traduisent une influence de l'architecture orientale, mais les constructions des plantagenet revelent une recherche originale, repondant sans doute a une evolution rapide des techniques d'attaque des places dans les annees 1200. En l'attente de fouilles sur l'ensemble des sites, les conclusions de cette etude soulignent le role majeur de quelques fortifications poitevines dans la politique des plantagenet
The object of this research is to examine the angevin's fortifications in poitou, from 1152 to 1242. A close observation of archeological remains, as well as documentary evidences, brings us a few informations about the original way the buildings of the kings of england developped in that period. It reflects the history of the poitou, the relations between the angevins and the local nobility, as well as the building of the castles. The county of poitou covers the present-day departments of vendee, deux-sevres, and vienne. The province comes into angevin hands in 1152. Poitou doesn't seem to be a very important land for henry ii, who rather stays in anjou, and has to face several uprisings from the poitevin lords. As count of poitou, as soon as 1172, richard installes a new administration and builds fortifications (niort, scorbe-clairvaux, talmont). At the beginning of the 13th century, john lackland, and his son henri iii, are more interested in getting strongholds in poitou, since they lost normandy, anjou and touraine. Conceding grants and giving money, they encouraged some powerful local lords (thouars, parthenay, mauleon), or burgenses, to keep the control of their fortifications. A dozen of the hundred castles studied in poitou can be attributed to angevin architecture. This military architecture sees the development and the systematization of the flanking towers with arrow slits. Innovating details can be noticed such as the buttresses machicolations, arrow slits alcoves, or beaked towers. The influence of the oriental architecture is certain but the plantagenet style still presents a notable creativity. The excavations which would enable us to fully understand the architecture of those sites have not been carried out yet. But so far, the questions raised by the first survey lets us foresee new prospects for further research regarding the major part those castles played in the angevin policy

During the 1930s, the Republic of Czechoslovakia endeavored to construct a system of modern fortifications along its frontiers to protect the Republic from German and Hungarian aggression and from external Versailles revisionism. Czechoslovakia's fortifications have been greatly misrepresented through comparison with the Maginot Line. By utilizing extant German military reports, this thesis demonstrates that Czechoslovakia's fortifications were incomplete and were much weaker than the Maginot Line at the time of the Munich Crisis in 1938. The German threat of war against Czechoslovakia was very real in 1938 and Germany would have penetrated most of the fortifications and defeated Czechoslovakia quickly had a German-Czech war occurred in 1938.

Les fortifications napoleoniennes, construites ou projetees par les ingenieurs-fortificateurs francais pendant la periode du premier empire sont a ce jour relativement peu etudiees. La raison en est que pendant longtemps on considerait que napoleon, connu surtout pour ses exploits dans le domaine de la guerre offensive, n'etait pas interesse par les fortifications stationnaires defensives. Si cela s'avere relativement vrai en france; la situation en est toute autre dans d'autres pays faisant partie de l'empire. L'etude commence a gdansk, qui de par sa position geopolitique etait predestinee a devenir une des plus importantes des villes-"bases d'appui" ou des vestiges des fortifications napoleoniennes sont encore en place aujourd'hui. Cette ville ou ont travaille les plus grands fortificateurs de l'epoque: chasseloup-laubat, haxo, kirgener et dont le developpement des travaux etait suivi de pres par napoleon lui meme, servira de reference dans l'analyse des autres villes portuaires de l'europe, en passant par l'allemagne, la hollande, la belgique, la france, l'italie, la yougoslavie et se terminant a corfou. Les comptes-rendus, les memoires, les rapports de l'epoque font connaitre la facon d'aborder le probleme de la conception des fortifications par les ingenieurs, en fonction de la situation sur place, de la strategie generale et du developpement des evenements politiques. Les ingenieurs fortificateurs de cette epoque font de grands itineraires, elaborent des projets pour plusieurs villes. Tous les projets sont vises par le comite des fortifications a paris et dans la plupart des cas l'empereur lui meme donne ses propres directives. Ainsi, malgre les distances qui separent les villes etudiees, il est possible d'y retrouver des traits semblables. Ca travail vise aussi a etablir une typologie des traces et de formes d'architecture militaire utilises a cette epoque, en fonction de la strategie, de leurs auteurs, de leur position geographique et politique. Hormis les traites generaux de fortification il existe tres peu d'ouvrages sur les sujet. L'etude est donc basee essentiellement sur les archives: lecture des rapports et des plans, etablissement d'une correlation entre les informations ecrites et les informations graphiques et dans le cas de gdansk aussi des releves et analyses in situ.

Cette thèse porte sur les enceintes urbaines et les forts présents sur le littoral est-africain. L'objectif est de retracer la genèse des fortifications du Xe au début du XIXe siècle, depuis l'islamisation et l'apogée des cités-Etats côtières jusqu'aux dominations portugaise et omanaise. Cette approche globale traite de plusieurs aspects de l'architecture militaire, notamment son intéraction avec la société et l'urbanisme. Le développement des cités d'Afrique orientale a été favorisé par des compétitions politiques pour le contrôle de territoires et du commerce maritime international. Les fouilles archéologiques de la cité de Gedi montrent que les fortifications péri-urbaines sont antérieures à l'arrivée des Portugais, car la première enceinte de Gedi date de 1450. D'autres exemples kenyans permettent de proposer une généralisation des enceintes urbaines à partir du XVe siècle, au moment où les cités-Etats swahili sont à leur apogée. La présence de forts reste étroitement liée aux activités commerciales de la cité swahili, ainsi le fort d'Husuni Ndogo est construit au début du XIIIe siècle, au moment où la cité de Kilwa prend le contrôle du commerce de l'or dans la région de Sofala. A partir de 1505, les forts portugais forment un ensemble d'ouvrages chargés de garantir l'accès et le monopole à la route des Indes. En 1698, la côte orientale africaine est reprise par les Omanais qui réoccupent certains forts portugais et construisent leurs propres forts
My subject of doctorate focuses on the town walls and the forts constructed on the East African coast. My objective is to retrace the history of fortifications from the Xth century to the beginning of the XIXth century, from the izlamisation and the aopgee of Swahili Cities-States until the Portuguese and Omanese domination. .

During the 18th and 19th centuries, the evolution of artillery has commanded the evolution of military architecture. Fortifications physically depict a representation of the history of engineering and architectural principles; including strategic site placement, materiality, construction methodology, principles of weaponry, defense and design layout. Visiting any one of these enigmatic and monumental structures offers a walk into the past, a glimpse into the ideologies, cultures and sentiments of its conception. Fortifications, particularly American fortifications, lay silent waiting for visitors to unlock their contributions to the national and local historic fabric. Fort Washington is one such structure located within Fort Washington Park, Maryland perched above the Bank of the Potomac River where it long protected the Nation's Capital. Through my research, I propose to answer the following questions: How did the evolution of artillery and its unique site influence the design layout of Fort Washington? How does one begin to revive and restore such an extraordinary site? How can the architecture of today spark the interest of visitors while encompassing the needs of local residents? My proposal for a new, multifunctional visitor center tries to embrace, respect and reflect the existing structures by inspiring wonder among tourists and attracting local residents while also allowing for their restoration and self-sustainment.
Master of Architecture

Depuis les premières recherches archéologiques sur le site de Pétra au début du XXe s., certaines questions concernant la défense de la ville n'ont pas véritablement été abordées : il n’y a pas consensus sur l'existence et la datation de fortifications, notamment pour l'époque nabatéenne. Cette étude a pour objectif de vérifier l’existence d’un éventuel système défensif reposant sur un réseau de fortifications et de postes de guet au travers d'un relevé des vestiges archéologiques visibles en surface et de pouvoir en préciser la chronologie grâce à l’observation des techniques de construction et l’analyse de la céramique de surface. D’après la répartition des vestiges défensifs répertoriés, la défense de la ville semble avoir été assurée par un système contrôlant des points stratégiques sur un territoire incluant les secteurs périphériques de la ville. Le volume I replace tout d’abord Pétra dans son milieu naturel, décrit son espace urbain et présente le contexte géopolitique de la Nabatène. Il est ensuite consacré à l'étude archéologique du système défensif des Nabatéens de Pétra : l'histoire de la recherche sur ce sujet, l'organisation et l’architecture militaires des Nabatéens, l’analyse de la répartition des vestiges défensifs par type, accompagnée de datations et d'interprétations sur la fonction de chacun d'eux. Il se termine par une étude comparative avec d'autres systèmes défensifs développés en d'autres temps à Pétra et en d'autres lieux, nabatéens ou hasmonéens. Le volume II est consacré au catalogue décrivant les différents secteurs où des vestiges défensifs ont été enregistrés. Enfin, les volumes III et III bis sont dédiés à l'illustration
Since the first archaeological researches were carried out at Petra in the early 20th century, some questions regarding the defense of the city haven’t been tackled: there is still no consensus on the existence of fortifications and their dating, especially when it comes to the Nabatean period. The purpose of the present study is to determine, thanks to an inventory of archaeological site surface remains, the existence of a possible defense system relying on a network of fortifications and observation posts, and specify its chronology through the survey of building techniques and surface pottery analysis. According to the distribution of the listed defensive remains, the defense of the city seems to have been ensured by a system which controls strategic locations in a territory including the peripheral areas of the city. Volume I first puts Petra in its natural environment, describes its urban space and presents the geopolitical context of Nabataea. It is then focused on the archaeological study of the defensive system of the Nabataeans from Petra: the history of research on this subject, the military organization and architecture of the Nabateans, the analysis of the distribution of the defensive remains according to their type, complemented with datings and interpretations on the function of each remain. It ends by a comparative study with other defensive systems developed in other times in Petra and in other places, Nabataeans or Hasmoneans. The volume II is dedicated to the catalog which describes the various areas where defensive remains were recorded. Finally, the volumes III and III bis are specifically dedicated to illustrations

The relationship between architecture and defense during the mid-eighteenth to mid-nineteenth centuries in the portion of Hispanic Sonora that later became southern Arizona is examined. Included are a description and analysis of presidio fortifications, and a comparison of these defense works with other kinds of fortified and garrisoned places found in the region. Separate sections offer appraisals of how raw materials, labor, and tools, were used to plan and build frontier strongholds in northern New Spain and early Mexico. Also provided is a description of the weapons and tactics used in the defense of fortified places. An evaluation is made of the role of fortifications in grand strategy. Based on this evidence, it is argued that defense involved a wider variety of institutions than has traditionally been recognized. The survey of defensive sites also indicates that the presidios do not share certain important features. These differences reflect gradual changes in design concepts over time. It is argued that the causes of these modifications are principally the results of shifts in strategy.

Notre thèse s’est donnée pour objectif de réaliser une étude systématique de l’évolution architecturale du Château et de la Citadelle de Nice dans le contexte géopolitique du duché de Savoie de la fin du XIIIe siècle au début du XVIIIe siècle, passant des ouvrages des maîtres d’œuvre médiévaux à ceux des ingénieurs de l’époque moderne. Notre recherche a porté sur les constantes et sur les différences, sur la complexité du site remodelé au cours des siècles dans une topographie contraignante toute particulière. La prise en compte de l’espace et du temps a constitué un élément déterminant dans l’étude de cet ensemble architectural imposant, à une période où l’architecture militaire a connu une évolution fulgurante.Cette place forte a été également resituée dans l’ensemble fortifié pluriel se développant de la frontière des États italiens à celle de la Provence orientale, composé d’anciennes places fortes médiévales, modernes ou de transition. Pour tenter de restituer l’image, la forme et les transformations successives du Château de Nice aujourd’hui disparu, notre travail s’est appuyé sur l’étude des textes, de l’iconographie et sur une approche archéologique comparée du site.La réalité historique du Château de Nice peut ainsi retrouver sa place dans sa globalité architecturale, temporelle et géographique
The objective of our thesis was the systematic study of the architectural evolution of the Castle and Citadel of Nice against the geopolitical backdrop of the Duchy of Savoy from the late 13th century to the early 18th century, covering the work of the medieval master builders to those of the engineers of the modern era. Our research focused on the continuity and differences, and on the complexity of a site that was remodeled throughout the centuries in a quite particular and constrained topography. The concern for space and time was an integral component in the study of this imposing architectural estate, erected at a period when military architecture was undergoing a dramatic evolution. This fortified town was also reexamined as part of a manifold ensemble of fortifications composed of former medieval, modern or intermediate fortified towns, which expanded from the border of the Italian states to that of eastern Provence. In an attempt to revive the image, form, and successive transformations of the now destroyed Castle of Nice, our work drew on the study of texts and iconography, and on a comparative archeological study of the site.The historical reality of the Castle of Nice can therefore reclaim its architectural, temporal, and geographical unity

Les Hautes Steppes comportent un grand nombre de fortifications dont beaucoup ont été attribuées à l’époque byzantine. Parmi elles, de grandes forteresses ont livré des dédicaces renseignant sur leur statut officiel, mais, on rencontre également de très nombreux « fortins ». Devant ce corpus composé de constructions aux caractéristiques très variées, la sériation, selon des critères architecturaux notamment, suivie de la recherche de corrélations entre les séries, apparaissait comme la méthode la plus efficace pour arriver à des résultats probants. Seul a ensuite été poursuivi l’examen des séries pouvant raisonnablement être étudiées dans le contexte byzantin. La distribution géographique de chacune d’entre elle a été examinée et des analyses spatiales ont été réalisées grâce à l’outil SIG. Ce travail a permis la mise en évidence de plusieurs réseaux dont les schémas d’implantation évoluent avec le temps. Il semblerait qu’on soit passé de la forteresse symbole d’un pouvoir qui se voulait fort, s’appuyant sur des lignes de défense naturelles, à des réseaux de surveillance peut-être plus adaptés à la particularité des ennemis des Byzantins, les Maures, puis les Arabes, réputés très mobiles et, de ce fait, difficiles à contrôler. La nouvelle approche des réseaux qui est proposée met en lumière une vision un peu moins négative de l’Afrique byzantine. Il y avait certes de nombreux problèmes de sécurité, mais les représentants du pouvoir byzantin n’ont peut-être pas abandonné l’Afrique à son sort sans tenter d’apporter des solutions
Tunisian High Steppes include a great number of fortifications. For many of them, a date in the Byzantine period was proposed. On few large ones, inscriptions indicating official status were found, but there are also numerous under-studied little « fortlets ». These constructions are quite different. A serial handling, based on architectural standards specifically, has been carried out. Only the series which can reasonably be attributed to the byzantine period have been examined in greater detail. Their geographical distribution has been studied and spatial analysis have been done, using a Geographical Information System (GIS). Thanks to this work, it is possible to identify successive networks. Their settlement plans seem to have changed, from the time when the fortress was considered as a power symbol and installed near natural lines of defense. It evolved to probably more adapted surveillance networks. Indeed, the Byzantine’s enemies were Moorish tribes and Arabs, known to be mobile people and considered hard to control. This new approach of fortifications networks highlights a less negative vision of Byzantine Africa. There were certainly great security problems, but Byzantine representatives doesn’t seem to have let Africans to their own without trying to bring solutions

O Forte de São João Batista foi construído no século XVII sobre a ilha da Berlenga, situando-se a oeste da vila de Peniche. Atualmente encontra-se em funcionamento como casa de abrigo, ou campismo de habitação, dirigido por um grupo de residentes, que apesar do grande esforço desenvolvido para manter o edifício em boas condições, não tem sido muito bem sucedido, uma vez que se encontra em mau estado de conservação. Independentemente de se tratar de uma estrutura de caráter militar, que desempenhou essencialmente a função de defesa, sempre foi um lugar muito ocupado ao longo dos tempos. A sua localização única, privilegiada e de certo modo particular, no litoral português, provoca curiosidade e interesse nas pessoas, e dessa forma um grande desejo de o visitar. Com base nas obras de Mariano Calado, que estudou a história da vila de Peniche, este trabalho consiste em dois momentos. O primeiro pretende analisar e expor a evolução de todo o sistema defensivo, no qual se insere o Forte em estudo de São João Batista. Este último tem como objetivo apresentar uma possível intervenção arquitetónica que albergue um programa sólido e permita a sua ocupação anual. Através de uma análise aprofundada, não só de documentos escritos como também de elementos desenhados, este estudo permitirá uma melhor compreensão de todo o sistema de defesa da linha costeira, que tem vindo a desaparecer progressivamente de acordo com o elevado número de edifícios que se encontram em ruína, bem como mencionar possíveis intervenções em construções deste tipo de modo a evitar o seu total abandono e erosão. Este é um tema cujo interesse importa realçar, com o objetivo de contribuir para a sua salvaguarda e possível reutilização; The Defensive System of Peniche Fort of St. John the Baptist on the Berlenga Island ABSTRACT: The Fort of Saint John the Baptist was built in the XVII century on the Berlenga Island that is situated on the west side of the town of Peniche. Nowadays this building is used as a shelter or a house camping and it is ruled by a group of inhabitants of the town of Peniche. In spite of the great effort done by this group of people to maintain the building in good conditions, they haven’t been very well succeeded, because it is in a bad state of repair. Independently being a structure of military character, which had essentially a defence function, it has always been visited by many people. As it is very well situated, in the Portuguese coast, with wonderful landscapes, the building provokes curiosity and interest in people and this way they feel a great desire to visit it. Based on the works of Mariano Calado, who has studied the history of the town of Peniche, this work consists of two stages. The first aims to analyse and expose the evolution of the entire defensive system of the town, which includes the Fort of St. John the Baptist. The latter aims to present a possible architectural intervention which includes a solid programme and allows the annual occupation. Through an in-depth analysis, not only of written documents but also of drawings, this study will allow a better understanding of the entire defence system of the coastline that is gradually disappearing under the high number of buildings that are in disrepair, as well as mention possible interventions in buildings of this type and prevent their total abandonment and erosion. This is a topic whose interest should be noted, in order to contribute to the preservation and possible reuse of these buildings.

Le Japon possède un riche patrimoine militaire dont il ignore la valeur et les origines. Un regard sur le début du XIXe siècle montre une toute autre organisation des troupes, de type féodal. En fait, le pays adopte très vite le modèle français alors réputé le meilleur : de 1867 à 1919, diverses missions militaires organisent, bâtissent, ordonnent. Cette diplomatie militaire que l’on décortique à partir de sources inédites, est discontinue ; aux Français succèdent les Allemands, les Hollandais. Cependant les officiers du Génie et d’Artillerie, les As de la première Guerre mondiale ont tout particulièrement marqué le Japon. Casernes, mess d’officiers, usines, laboratoires en sont les témoins matériels, comme les premiers traités de construction et d’architecture. Dorénavant, le Ministère de la Guerre dispose d’une reconnaissance de ses plus anciens équipements. Avec cette synthèse, le ministère français de la Défense a une idée de la richesse de ces échanges.L’objet de la recherche est quelque peu tabou au Japon. L’architecture militaire n’a pas très bonne presse auprès du public car l’Archipel a tout perdu dans le dernier conflit mondial et il est toujours très critiqué par les pays d’Extrème Orient pour son occupation militaire.L’évaluation de la qualité architecturale des bâtiments militaires a longtemps été délaissée. Beaucoup de ces constructions publiques ont été détruites. Le peu de mémoire que constituent les restes mérite d’être apprécié à sa juste valeur avec les mêmes critères que pour l’architecture ou le génie civils. Aujourd’hui, l’armée de Terre soutient qu’elle a été formée par l’Allemagne, comme la Marine est persuadée d’avoir été éduquée par la Grande Bretagne. Nous montrons que le Japon a adopté les manières françaises pour son armée de Terre — à un moindre degré pour la Marine — et la France a continué longtemps cette formation par épisodes. Notre argumentaire, textes à l’appui, le certifie. D’autres chercheurs militaires ou non ont pisté antérieurement cette traces encore importantes de la présence française, mais faute de preuves suffisantes, ils n’ont pas pu aboutir aux certitudes que nous tentons d’affirmer. Le transfert de technologie de la France au Japon formalise une évolution constante et réfléchie, un éclectisme particulier qui figure une esthétique franco-japonaise
Former Japanese Army buildings built from Meiji to Showa era are still found throughout Japan. Nevertheless their heritage value has not been sufficiently evaluated. Furthermore since these architectures face demolition, there are calls for their proper historical assessment which is a necessary step to construct means for their preservation.In this paper, the term “Army Heritage” refers to former military buildings or structures of the Japanese Army that have architectural or technical importance for preservation. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the technological transfer in regard to these heritages from France to Japan, as there is evidence that the Japanese Army invited arranged military missions from France in order to create new systems and facilities.The research is based on studies of original documentations in libraries and archives both in Japan and in France. The author studied remaining military buildings, specifically, an officers’ mess hall of an aviation school in Akeno and an early stage military barrack of the 16th infantry regiment in Shibata. The investigation included dismantling method in Shibata.The author analyzed the results in three categories. 1, The system and organization of designs and plans of military architectures. 2, The prototypes of the architectural planning of military bases, barracks, covered paddock, officers’ mess and hangars. 3, Japanese and French human networks in the old Japanese Army. From these analyses, the author found that French technologies were imported whenever the Japanese Army needed innovative technologies like modern Army or aviation. Additionally, the French networks had been undoubtedly established in the Japanese Army from Meiji to the first period of Showa era. This thesis can serve as an important reference to the remaining “Army Heritages”, therefore the author proposes conservation to the Minister of Defense through this study
明治から昭和にかけての旧陸軍建造物は少なくとも数百棟が残存しているが解体の危機に瀕する建物も多く、「陸軍遺産」として遺産学的な評価と保全活用方法が求められている。日本の近代化という観点からは西欧、特にフランスからの技術移転が顕著であり、日欧を横断した歴史的評価が必要である。建築史・技術史的な枠組で陸軍の築造ならびに築城事業の成立と発展を追い、日仏の技術比較の中での特徴解明が求められている。本論文は、陸軍にて日仏関係が続いた明治初期から昭和初期までの建築や土木構造物に焦点を当て、担い手であった工兵組織の成立と築造・築城事業における計画・設計・施工体制を対象とした。幕末から繰り返し派遣された仏軍事顧問団が軍事大国フランス陸軍の兵制、造兵、築造、築城技術をもたらし、翻案に始まり日本で独自の技術に育て上げたのが工兵を含む陸軍技術陣の仕事であった。具体的には仏兵営をモデルとした初期の歩騎兵の築営計画（兵営施設）、高度の土木技術を下敷きとなし仏砲工技術を採用した明治中期の築城計画（要塞）、大正期の陸軍航空部発足にともなって建てられた鉄筋コンクリート造の大規模建造物（格納庫等）や欧風デザインの将校集会所の建築を追い、人的交流、施設計画の決定プロセス、建築計画や構法技術の詳細を明らかにした。研究の方法は、日仏の史料館所蔵の史資料を発掘し突合せると共に、日本国内の遺構（新発田兵舎、明野将校集会所等）の解体調査を含んだ現地調査より建築技術的検証を行った。更に当時の陸軍施設建設を行った施工会社等に残されたデータを収集解析し実際の建設プロセスを復原、各時期に訪日した仏人技術者並びに訪仏した日本人技術者の履歴、図面の読み替えや要素技術の組み替えによる日本への技術導入等といった諸側面に光を当て日仏の密な関係を解明した。本論文の結論は以下の三点に集約される。一、陸軍施設の建築設計から施工体制の解明、二、兵営計画並びに陸軍建築のプロトタイプ解明、三、陸軍における人的ネットワークの解明。以上の三点より明治初期から昭和初期にかけての旧陸軍において、システムを含めフランスからの技術移転が新たな技術の導入が求められる毎に密に行われていたことが判明すると同時に、フランス系のネットワークが連綿と続いていたことが明らかになった。本論文をもって筆者は現存する旧陸軍建築遺産の保存活用方法について防衛省へ提言を行う。

En 1659, le traite des pyrenees, signe entre la france et l'espagne, donne a louis xiv les territoires catalans situes au nord des pyrenees. Jusqu'en 1668, la nouvelle province du roussillon est presque entierement abandonnee. Par le pouvoir royal. Louis xiv s'attache bien plus a proteger les frontieres du nord du royaume. Or, avec la guerre de devolution, la frontiere catalane est menacee. Plusieurs ingenieurs francais, dont clerville et vauban, visitent alors la province, et des travaux de fortification, modestes, s'engagent. Avec la guerre de hollande, les espagnols se montrent a nouveau menacants, et, jusqu'en 1675, le roussillon reste sur la defensive. En 1676, 1677 et 1678, une armee francaise, s'appuyant sur des places en etat satisfaisant, penetre en catalogne : le rapport de forces entre la france et l'espagne sur la frontiere des pyrenees catalanes est bouleverse. En 1678, la paix est signee entre les deux pays. Mais louis xiv songe aux fonflits futurs, et il veut non seulement que le roussillon soit invulnerable, mais encore qu'il puisse servir de point d'appui a une armee combattant en territorie espagnol. Aussi, en 1679, vauban visite une nouvelle fois la province. Aussitot s'engage une vaste campagne de travaux dans les places du roussillon. En 1681, a lieu la benediction de mont-louis. Le roussillon est desormais une porte ouverte sur la catalogne. Les guerres de la fin du regne de louis xiv le confirmeront
By the treaty of the pyrenees signed between france and spain in 1659, louis the fourteenth acquired the catalan territories located to the north of the pyrenees. Until 1668, the royal authority took no further interest in the new province of roussillon. Louis the fourteenth paid more particular attention to the protection of the frontier on the north of thekingdom. Now, with the war of devolution, the catalan frontier was threatened. At that time several french engineers, including clerville and vauban, visited the province and modest defense works were undertaken. With the war of holland, the spanish proved to be threatening again and, until 1675, roussillon was on its guard. In 1676, 1677 and 1678, a french army, resting on safe fortified places, entered catalonia : the balance of power between france and spain on the frontier of the catalan pyrenees was disturbed. In 1678, peace was signed between the two countries. But louis the fourteenth ghought of future conflicts, and he wanted to turn roussillon not only into an invulnerable place, but also into a supporting place for an army fighting on the spanish territory. So, once again, in 1679 vauban visited the province. Immediately a vast run of works was undertaken in the fortified plalces of rossillon. In 1681 the fortress of mont louis was consecrated. Henceforth roussillon became a door, wide open onto catalonia. The wars taking place at the and of the reign of louis the fourteenth would confirm it

This dissertation examines the engagement of civilian designers in United States Army post architecture and planning between 1917 and 1948. During those years, the built environment of the Army was fundamentally transformed, as troops relocated from frontier posts and coastal fortifications to large permanent military bases. First conceived of as “soldier cities,” by the end of World War II these posts had come to resemble garden suburbs. At the same time, the architecture and planning of civilian communities also changed. Turn-of-the-century affection for the industrial city had, by 1920, given way to a preference for suburban living among the upper classes. After World War II, suburbia would become ubiquitous, as federally- supported tract-house developments sprung up around the nation. These changes in civilian and military architecture and planning were, I argue, tightly connected, in part through the movement of civilian designers back and forth between civilian and military commissions. For architects and planners, the Army post was a kind of laboratory in which to experiment with design concepts outside the constraints of the real estate market. For Army officials, meanwhile, the involvement of outside experts in post design helped to convince potential recruits and the public alike that military life was not so different from civilian life. As the built environments of military and civilian America mutually influenced one another, the distinction between the two narrowed, and the Army effectively hid itself in plain sight. I track the exchange between civilian and military design ideals in five chronological chapters, each highlighting a particular episode in Army post design, and each connecting to broader themes in American urban and suburban history. The first two chapters take place during World War I and look at the planning of the Army’s training camps, and the architecture of the YMCA and YWCA buildings therein. The third chapter focuses on the permanent post- building program of the 1920s and 1930s. The fourth chapter recounts the Army’s pre-World War II experiments in prefabrication, and the final chapter examines the re-planning of the atomic town of Oak Ridge, Tennessee, in 1948.

Just prior to the Japanese invasion, the Hong Kong Government embarked on an extensive program of building public shelters by tunneling into hillsides to protect the civilian population against bombing raids. Those air raid precaution tunnels that survive World War II have become part of the very few remaining physical witnesses to the history of Hong Kong in preparation of civil defence against Japanese attack. Tucked away inconspicuously in the bustling parts of the city, the disused shelter tunnels are the 'outsiders' of societal interaction, rarely catching the attention of the people of Hong Kong. Bored deep into the hills leaving only the portals exposed to air, this 'hidden' heritage continues to be lost or damaged without drawing public attention. Ironically, the damage is not from the ravages of war but from redevelopment projects above ground, geotechnical strengthening works and road improvement works, all of which have been carried out post-war, resulting in tunnels being partially or wholly filled in, dug up or forgotten and neglected. As little wartime architecture purposely built for preparation of World War II remains in Hong Kong, there is a need to preserve/ conserve this wartime heritage that once helped shape the city’s history. It is hoped that through this dissertation, both heritage and contemporary values of this forgotten example of wartime architecture be recognized and that a consensus be agreed upon conservation of this World War II heritage, in order to prevent further losses and damages that may only be fully appreciated when it is too late. The dissertation will examine the issues related to the conservation of air raid tunnels through answering the following questions: 1. Where were/ are the tunnels, what purpose did they serve and what are the stories behind them? 2. Are the tunnels a significant heritage, and if so, what are their heritage values? 3. Are the tunnels adequately protected as a heritage in terms of current legislation and policies? 4. What are the threats against the conservation of the tunnels? 5. What are the opportunities for the conservation of the tunnels?
published_or_final_version
Conservation
Master
Master of Science in Conservation

Nombreuses sont les villes françaises à abriter des éléments d’architecture militaire (citadelles, casernes, bastions,murailles, etc.). Bien que les fonctions défensives à l’origine de ces ouvrages soient peu à peu tombées en désuétude,ceux-ci sont ancrés dans les tissus urbains des cités qui les abritent aujourd’hui encore. Ils participent des morphologiesurbaines, des schémas fonctionnels et, plus globalement, de la manière dont la notion de ville est appréhendée.Les villes font dorénavant face à de nouveaux enjeux qui poussent à renouveler les cadres au travers desquelles ellessont traditionnellement approchées. L’étalement urbain, ses conséquences, la nécessité de tendre vers un urbanismerenouvelé et plus durable amènent à porter un nouveau regard sur les fortifications urbaines. Au-delà de son aspectsymbolique, ce type d’architecture est marqué par des caractéristiques spatiales hors-normes (localisation, volumétrie,géométrie) qui engagent à l’analyser au travers des prismes méthodologiques et conceptuels que fournit la géographie.Comment l’héritage des fortifications urbaines peut-il aujourd’hui être mobilisé afin de créer un espace urbain cohérent,tant sur le plan spatial que social ou symbolique et ainsi répondre aux aspiration des villes actuelles ?La première partie de la thèse porte sur les enjeux auxquels les “villes fortes” sont aujourd’hui confrontées (modernisation,croissance étalement urbain, etc.) et la manière dont leurs “ouvrages lourds” sont affectés. La deuxième partiedu travail s’attache à caractériser le phénomène des “villes fortes” en France aujourd’hui par le biais d’approchesdescriptives, empiriques et statistiques qui permettent de formaliser et d’analyser les logiques et les règles qui régissentle devenir des anciens ouvrages défensifs. La dernière partie de la thèse étudie le potentiel d’urbanisation des zones etouvrages militaires et propose de mesurer l’impact de leur transformation en logements dans le cadre d’un scénariode renouvellement urbain compact pour la ville de Besançon. Il s’agit d’évaluer les conséquences de telles mesuressur le schéma fonctionnel des villes et les formes urbaines. L’ensemble de ces travaux montre l’intérêt du recours auxouvrages défensifs dans le cadre d’un urbanisme à la fois renouvelé, mais aussi plus “durable”, en conformité avec lesformes urbaines, les demandes contemporaines et les projets des villes
A large number of french cities host military historical edifices (citadels, barracks, bastions, defensive walls, etc.). Although their initial defensive functions have been lost over time, these edifices remain deeply rooted in the urban fabric of their host cities. They continue exerting an impact on these cities’ urban morphology and modern-time functions as well as the way in which the concept of city is understood. Cities nowadays face some new challenges,the increasing awareness of urban sprawl and its consequences, coupled with an urge to promote a renewed and sustainable urbanism, invites us to adopt new approaches to study urban fortifications. In addition to their symbolic aspect, fortifications are characterized by their out-of-the-common spatial measure (location, volume and geometry),requiring researchers to use methodologies and geographical concepts for their academic endeavour. Against this background : how can urban fortifications be used to create urban space that is spatially, socially and symbolically coherent with their historical heritage and that also satisfies the functional need of modern cities ?The first part of this doctoral dissertation present modern-day challenges that fortified cities face (modernisation,urban expansion and sprawl, etc.), and the ways in which their “heavy buildings” are affected. The second part sheds light on the relationships between cities and their fortifications, thanks to descriptive, empirical and statistical analyses. The statistical study noticeably builds on a database to examine the rationale and rules underpinning there habilitation of ancient military edifices. The last part of the dissertation proposes an evaluation of the potential of rehabilitating ancient military edifices and spaces for modern urban usage. For this purpose the impact of transforming these fortifications into residential blocks is assessed in a fortified French city (Besançon). This assessment aims at evaluating the consequences of such urban planning measures on urban morphology and functions. Overall, the analysis provided in that doctoral dissertation demonstrates that ancient military buildings have their place in contemporary urban planning. They help to achieve a renewed and sustainable urban design in line with the urban morphology,modern social and functional requirements and the development perspectives in their host cities

Cette thèse doctorale consiste en une investigation sur la pénétration des différentes formes et types d’influence française sur la politique stratégique de l’Ordre de Saint Jean, et la perte graduelle de la domination espagnole à Malte. Elle examine l’influence française consécutive sur l’architecture maltaise au cours du XVIIᵉ siècle qui résulta de ce changement d’allégeance. À cette fin, les facteurs politiques, stratégiques, sociaux et esthétiques, ainsi que la formation et les carrières des différentes personnalités concernées, en particulier les ingénieurs militaires français, sont examinés afin de comprendre l’importance de leur rôle sur le développement des fortifications des îles maltaises et sur l’idiome architectural local. Les relations des chevaliers appartenant aux trois Langues françaises avec la Cour de France sont étudiées dans leur contexte historique. Cet aspect est aussi examiné à travers la fréquente correspondance entre les Grands Maîtres et les rois Louis XIII et Louis XIV. L’étude montre comment l’arrivée sur la scène locale d’ingénieurs militaires eminents, durant l’été 1645, signale le passage de l’Ordre de la sphère d’influence de l’Empire espagnol à la française. Les ingénieurs militaires français s’activent dans l’archipel maltais depuis que Vauban avait donné à la France la primauté du développement de l’architecture militaire dans la seconde moitié du XVIIᵉ siècle. L’importance de Médéric Blondel, le premier ingénieur résident français, comme catalyseur du développement de l’influence française sur l’architecture maltaise est démontrée. Ce travail examine comment son influence se reflètera sur les architectes maltais de la fin du XVIIᵉ siècle et sur les éléments classiques qui sont introduits dans l’architecture baroque maltaise imprégnée de l’école classique d’architecture française très appréciée par Louis XIV
This doctoral thesis consists of a research-based investigation on the different forms and types of French influence within the strategic politics of the Order of St. John and the gradual loss of Spanish domination in Malta. It examines the French influence on Maltese architecture during the seventeenth century that resulted from this change of allegiance. For this purpose the political, strategic, social and aesthetic factors, as well as the study of the formation and careers of the different personalities involved, are analysed in order to understand the importance of their role on the development of seventeenth century fortifications of the Maltese Islands and on the local architectural idiom. The various connections of the Knights belonging to the three French Langues with the French Court are therefore investigated in their historical context. This is also examined through the frequent correspondence between the Grand Masters and Kings Louis XIII and Louis XIV. The study shows how the arrival on the local scene of eminent French military engineers during the summer of 1645, marks the passage of the Order from the Spanish sphere of influence to the French. The French military engineers were active in the Maltese archipelago since Vauban had put France at the helm of the development of military architecture in the second half of the seventeenth century. The importance of Médéric Blondel, the first French resident engineer, as a catalyst of the development of French influence on Maltese architecture is investigated. The study examines how his influence is reflected on the work of Maltese architects at the end of the seventeenth century and on the classical elements which are introduced into Maltese baroque architecture that is highly influenced by the classical school of French architecture so greatly appreciated by Louis XIV

Conflict archaeology is a fairly new discipline and is in the process of defining its methods and theories. Recently, the American Battlefield Protection Program has started requiring that grant applicants perform a KOCOA analysis. KOCOA is a modern military technique and stands for Key terrain, Obstacle, Cover and Concealment, Observation, and Avenues of Approach. However, this method was developed for modern warfare, and its adoption by the archaeological community has not yet been analyzed. I argue that this method needs a few modifications to make it more applicable to historical research and that it can be broadened to investigate more complex questions regarding decision-making processes. In its current form, KOCOA only looks at how a landscape was used during conflict based on the results of what happened. I contend we can use this method to analyze the landscape and look at the decisions that went into selecting it. Employing KOCOA in this manner will allow us to understand how militaries adapted, or failed to adapt, to a given landscape. The Second Seminole War in Florida (1835-1842) can serve as an ideal case study. For one thing, the military had never experienced the Florida environment, and therefore adaptations to landscape utilization will be readily apparent. Also, in the early 19th-century, the military as a cultural institution indoctrinated its members through extensive training at the United States Military Academy in West Point, NY, and I propose this standardized education had a significant negative effect on the shape, direction, and outcome of the Second Seminole War due to the gap between the knowledge gained through training and the knowledge needed in the field when fighting a war with Indians in the swamps and hammocks of Florida. Using modern military theory, the purpose of this research is to develop tools to measure how traditional European educational methods, which officers received while at the Military Academy, hindered their ability to adapt to the unique and challenging environment they encountered while trying to remove the Seminole Indians from the Florida territory. Conflict archaeology is also well suited to investigate the more human side, such as the decision-making processes and adaptations required, moving beyond the "what" and "how" aspects of conflict to the "why." One traditional approach to conflict archaeology is KOCOA. As used archaeologically, KOCOA employs modern cartographic information. Those participating in the conflict, however, would not have had access to this level of detail. Therefore, I propose that KOCOA be revised to incorporate the knowledge that would have been available to the decision makers at the time of the conflict. The aim of this research is to expand the methodologies of conflict archaeology to include indirect expressions of warfare and to incorporate them into a meaningful discussion of their role in the outcome of conflict. To accomplish this, I have developed a model against which hypotheses about the decision-making processes and their effectiveness can be compared.

The use of temporary, prefabricated buildings in Britain during the twentieth century arose from wartime need to provide better, and perhaps more importantly, portable shelter for troops and equipment. This thesis provides the first comprehensive list of hut designs for the First and Second World Wars. The full lists and descriptions of each hut are given in the appendices. These lists, 20 types for the First World War and 52 from the Second World War, show the huge range and scope of the huts used and is the major contribution of this thesis. The concentration here is on generic types. Some huts were designed as one-offs and there is no possible way to catalogue these. This thesis has focused instead on those designs or industrially-produced types, which were meant to be produced en-masse as generic solutions to the problem: the sort of hut that might justifiably be given a name (such as a ‘Tarran’, a ‘Seco’, etc.). This thesis provides essential information enabling historians to be able to identify these types. It uses primary and secondary sources to trace the development of these huts and the effect that wartime shortages had on their design. Beginning with the earliest examples of temporary military building, it then focuses on the huts of the First and Second World Wars followed by a study of huts grouped in chapters by material. This research shows that the wartime period pushed industry to make giant leaps forward with construction methods and materials in just a few short years, where otherwise it may have taken decades. This thesis aims to provide the first overview of this process and to enable future researchers to identify and understand the development of these important wartime structures, many of which survive to this day.

Cette thèse concerne l’histoire, l’archéologie et la géographie historique de la Chine ancienne. Elle porte sur les formations des commanderies impériales formées aux frontières de la dynastie des Han occidentaux (206 av. J.-C. – 9 apr. J.-C.). À la charnière des IIe et Ier siècles av. J.-C., le maintien des territoires conquis passait par une stratégie impériale complexe allant d’une phase d’occupation militaire jusqu’à la mise en place d’une politique migratoire de populations civiles issues du centre de l’empire. En nous concentrant sur Dunhuang (province du Gansu), la plus lointaine des commanderies formées aux marches occidentales du territoire, nous suivons localement ces stratégies d’acquisition et d’occupation. L’analyse se fonde sur les missions de terrain menées par l’auteur, sur la relecture des Histoires dynastiques, la prise en compte des données matérielles issues des fouilles et prospections archéologiques et l’exploitation de sources épigraphiques inédites. Par le biais d’une nouvelle méthodologie, nous parvenons à individualiser son développement au sein d’un territoire situé au carrefour commercial et diplomatique avec les royaumes et cultures centre-asiatiques. De la mise à jour de sa cartographie antique et de sa chronologie, il résulte une révision complète des premières phases de développements des principaux centres administratifs militaires et civils de Dunhuang
This dissertation centers on the history, archeology and historical geography of Early China. It examines the steps of establishment of the imperial commanderies founded in the vicinity of the Western Han dynasty boundaries (206 BCE – 9 AD). At the turn of the second and the first centuries BCE, the imperial strategical efforts made to stabilize of newly conquered territories passed through a complex system. Starting from the military occupation il lead to the migration of populations from the center of the empire. Focusing on Dunhuang (Gansu Province) – the westernmost commandery established with the Empire borders – we follow at regional scale those strategies of conquest and occupation. In addition of various fieldwork performed by the author, this research is based on a different approach of the Dynastic Histories, the use of archaeological data and the exploitation of untrodden epigraphic material. By using a new methodology, we have managed to individualize its development within a territory located at the crossroads of commercial and diplomatic highways with the Central-Asian kingdoms and cultures. As a result of its cartography and chronology being put up to date, we have obtained a complete revision of the first steps of organization of the main military and civilian centers of Dunhuang

Numerous studies, books, and articles have been written on Britains retreat from its former empire in the 1960s. Journalists wrote about it at the time, many people who were involved wrote about it in the immediate years that followed, and historians have tried to put it all together. The issues of foreign policy at the strategic level and the military operations that took place in this period have been especially well covered. However, the question of military strategic alternatives in this important era of British foreign policy has been less studied. This dissertation discusses such high-profile projects as the TSR.2 and F.111, prospective VTOL aircraft and not least the CVA-01 fleet carrier, but most of all it focuses on the issue of military strategy. The rivalry between the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force was largely about the questions of carrier aviation versus land-based air power – and which strategic option would best answer the British need to maintain influence as the garrisons were being scaled down. The Royal Navy argued for replacement fleet carriers for their mobile seaborne strategy, while the Royal Air Force argued that land-based air power would be as effective and far less costly. By using this underlying strategic debate as the framework for understanding more specific debates on aircraft, ships and weapon systems, this dissertation aims to bring new light to our understanding of the dramatic restructuring and altered priorities these two military services saw during the 1960s. The story may be divided into three broad periods: From 1960 until mid 1963, it was a conceptual debate on ‘Carrier Task Forces’ and a concrete alternative ‘Island Strategy’. This ended in July 1963 with a Cabinet decision in favour of new fleet carriers. However, the Royal Air Force and the Treasury kept fighting this decision. Their continued resistance, together with the new Labour Government with Denis Healey as Secretary of State for Defence, changed the decision of 1963. The highpoint of the debate on carrier aviation and land-based air power came during 1965-66, ending with the decision of February 1966 to cancel the CVA-01 and gradually phase out the existing carrier fleet. Denis Healey then used the arguments for land-based air power as a rationale for the decision. The dissertation rounds off with a discussion of the planned phase-out of the existing carrier fleet. However, the story saw a different end than planned, as new strategic challenges in home waters came about and the evolving VTOL Harrier aircraft and the ‘through-deck cruisers’ gave new possibilities. This is a historical study of the British debate about maritime air power and strategic alternatives in the 1960s. However, the detailed story and arguments used for and against both alternatives should clearly have relevance to any conceptual debates on carrier and land-based air power.

Cette thèse consiste en une étude historique et archéologique de la ville de Masyaf (Syrie) et de son château durant les XIIe et XIIIe siècles, alors qu’elle se trouvait sous l'autorité de la communauté ismaʿilienne nizârite. Cette ville, qui se situe sur le versant oriental de la montagne côtière de la Syrie occidentale, est connue comme siège et capitale de cette communauté. La présente recherche porte sur le développement de cette minorité religieuse syrienne, connue en Occident durant les Croisades comme celle des Assassins (ou Hachchachines en arabe). L’Etat qu’elle a fondé a joué un rôle important dans le conflit politique et militaire qui a opposé Croisés et Musulmans. Le travail offre pour la première fois une étude archéologique approfondie des bâtiments et des complexes architecturaux qui forment le tissu de la ville de Masyaf et participent à sa configuration ; il analyse le rempart et ses portes, les rues principales qui dessinent le plan urbain, les monuments importants, en particulier la grande mosquée, le bain, le souq, les mausolées de plusieurs personnages historiques. Les résultats préliminaires de l'étude du château y sont également exposés de manière détaillée. Ils révèlent deux phases principales de construction : la première comprise entre le Xe siècle et le milieu du XIIe siècle, la deuxième comprise entre le milieu du XIIe siècle et la fin du XIIIe siècle, qui correspond à la période des Ismaʿiliens nizarites. Grâce à l’apport de la céramique, de la numismatique et de l’épigraphie, l’archéologie permet de mettre en évidence, pour la première fois, l'activité édilitaire de Rašid al-Din Sinan, le « Vieux de la montagne », entre 1162 à 1192
This thesis is a historical and archaeological study of the city of Masyaf (Syria) and its castle during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when it was under the authority of the Ismā'īlī.Nizari community. This city, which lies on the eastern slopes of the coastal mountains of Western Syria, is known as the seat and capital of this community. This research focuses on the development of a Syrian religious minority, known in the West during the Crusades as the Assassins (or Hachchachines in Arabic). The State she founded has played an important role in the political and military conflict between Crusaders and Muslims. The work provides for the first time a thorough archaeological survey of buildings and architectural complexes that form the fabric of the city of Masyaf and participate in its configuration; it analyzes the ramparts and gates, the main streets that draw the urban plan, important monuments, especially the great mosque, the bath, the suq, the mausoleums of several historical figures. Preliminary results of the study of the castle are also exposed in detail. They reveal two main phases of construction: the first between the tenth century and the mid-twelfth century, the second between the mid-twelfth century and the late thirteenth century, which is the period of Nizari Isma'ilis. Thanks to the contribution of ceramics, numismatics and epigraphy, archeology helps to reveal, for the first time, the building activity of Rasid al-Din Sinan, the "Old Man of the Mountain", between 1162-1192

La presente tesi si prefigge di colmare una lacuna nella conoscenza sulle scelte patrimoniali, in età moderna, di un grande attore territoriale, il Sovrano Militare Ordine Ospedaliero di San Giovanni di Gerusalemme di Rodi e di Malta. La storiografia sulle vicende di quest’Ordine in periodo medioevale è cospicua e storici di grande rilievo si sono adoperati nella ricostruzione delle sue caratteristiche e dei meccanismi amministrativi fin dai suoi albori, da Gerusalemme a Rodi. Lo studio della storia dei cavalieri in età moderna è, al contrario, lacunoso: in parte per il fatto che molti documenti sono andati perduti prima dell’arrivo dell’Ordine a Malta nel 1530 e in parte perché vi è più difficoltà nel reperimento delle fonti, andate disperse negli Archivi di Stato di tutta Europa. Nel secolo scorso su quest’ordine dalla preminente vocazione ospedaliera numerosi sono stati gli approfondimenti da differenti punti di vista, spesso puntuali e non sistematici: da qui l’opportunità e l’interesse scientifico per un progetto organico volto a ricostruire origine, sviluppo e trasformazione dei beni architettonici e territoriali degli ospedalieri durante la fase moderna, ai fini di una loro valorizzazione. In tale periodo storico quasi ogni Stato si è dotato di ordini laici cavallereschi o religioso-militari, ma quelli che hanno mantenuto una loro propria aderenza al modello originale sono in prevalenza di origine medievale. Alcuni di questi sono sopravvissuti sino ai giorni nostri, rinunciando all’aspetto militare e trovando nuova vita nello spirito caritatevole: tra questi, l’Ordine dei Cavalieri di Malta è uno dei pochi, se non quasi l’unico, che ha saputo completamente riconvertirsi. Rispetto agli altri ordini religioso-militari, l’Ordine di Malta si caratterizza sia per la sua solida struttura gerarchico-amministrativa, che rimane pressoché intatta nei secoli, sia per il suo carattere patrimoniale e territoriale, che gli consente di allargare continuamente il suo dominio a livello internazionale, da Gerusalemme a Rodi e a Malta, fino a tutta l’Europa allora conosciuta. Comprendere la gerarchia amministrativa dell’ordine è molto importante per ricostruire le ricadute dirette sui beni a livello territoriale attraverso il sistema essenzialmente commendatizio. Il consolidamento di quest’ultimo, a partire dall’età moderna, è un aspetto fondamentale per i Cavalieri di Malta al fine di ottenere le risorse economiche necessarie per portare a termine la costruzione della cosiddetta “città dell’Ordine”, La Valletta, a partire dal 1565. Le relazioni intercorse poi tra i Gran Maestri, i papi e i principi italiani e stranieri a fine Cinquecento trovano un riscontro diretto anche di carattere architettonico: gli scambi epistolari tra l’imperatore Carlo V e l’ordine religioso-militare a seguito della donazione di Malta nel 1530, e quello tra il Gran Maestro Jean de La Valette e Cosimo I de’ Medici concorrono all’ideazione di una città che rispecchi, anche da un punto di vista architettonico, la potenza cristiana nel Mediterraneo, quale era diventata allora quella in capo all’Ordine di Malta. A fine Cinquecento proliferano le idee sul tema delle città ideali: basti pensare a Vitry-le François (1545), Carlentini (1551) e Palmanova (1593). I più grandi ingegneri militari dell’epoca vengono chiamati nei maggiori Stati italiani e stranieri per realizzare le ambizioni di papi, duchi, principi e imperatori, facilitando la migrazione di stile del linguaggio architettonico del Rinascimento tardivo in tutta Europa. I viaggi di questi celebri ingegneri militari da una città all’altra comportano una diretta ricaduta sia sulle scelte linguistiche dell’architettura, sia nella misura di un costante scambio con le maestranze del luogo, così come accade nella capitale dell’ordine a La Valletta. Vi è, inoltre, un rapporto simbiotico tra gli ingegneri scelti dall'ordine, che portano nuovi modelli architettonico-urbanistici, e le maestranze maltesi, formate nella loro tradizione, che trasmettono lo stile del tardo Rinascimento anche agli insediamenti più minuti del luogo. Con questa tesi si è cercato, dunque, di fare luce sul patrimonio dell’Ordine di Malta in età moderna, un patrimonio ancora presente oggi come monumentum: lo studio ha mostrato quanto sia necessario conoscere per evitare di cancellare, a volte inconsapevolmente, la traccia di una presenza antica, profondamente legata alla storia locale, ma facente capo al contempo a una più ampia storia europea. Hanno contribuito a questa lettura integrata, a scala europea, la cotutela con l’École Pratique des Hautes Études della Sorbonne di Parigi e la collaborazione costante da parte degli enti di tutela di Malta.
This dissertation aims to fill the knowledge gap about the property choices – during the Modern Age – of a great territorial mover, the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta. The historiography about the events of this Order during the Middle Ages is considerable and very prominent historians have worked to reconstruct its features and administrative machinery from its dawning, from Jerusalem to Rhodes. On the contrary, the research of Knights’ history during the Modern Age is full of lacunae: partly because a lot of documents are lost before the Order arrival in Malta on 1530 and partly because finding the sources – lost in the State Archives of all Europe – is more difficult. In the past century, many in-depth studies – often accurate and non-systematic – have been made from different points of view: from hence the opportunity and the scientific interest for an organic project intended to reconstruct the origin, the development and transformation of the architectural and territorial goods of the Hospitallers during the Modern period, counting towards their enhancement. During this historical period almost each State has secular orders of knighthood or military-religious orders, but the ones who kept their own adherence to the original model have principally a medieval origin. Some of them survive up to the present day, renouncing the military aspect and finding new life in the charitable spirit: among them, the Order of Malta is one of the few, maybe the only one, that was been able to be completely reconverted. Compared to the other military-religious orders, the Order of Malta is characteristic of both the solid hierarchical administrative structure, all but intact during the centuries, and its property and territorial nature allowing to widen continuously its international rule, from Jerusalem to Rhodes and Malta, and the then known Europe. It is very important to understand the order administrative hierarchy to reconstruct the direct repercussions on the international goods through the system basically of recommendation, which consolidation is – from the Modern Age – an essential aspect for the Knights of Malta to get the economical resources needed to achieve the construction of the so-called “City of the Order”, Valletta, from 1565. The relations existing between the Grand Masters, the popes and the Italian princes to the end of Cinquecento find a direct confirmation in the architectural feature too: the epistolary correspondence between the Emperor Charles V and the military-religious order following the deed of donation of the Maltese Island in 1530, and the one between the Grand Master Jean de Valette and Cosimo I de’ Medici concur to the invention of a city mirroring, also from an architectural point of view, the Christian power in the Mediterranean Sea, as the Order of Malta was. At the end of Cinquecento the ideas about ideal cities topic proliferate: only think about Vitry-le François (1545), Carlentini and Palmanova (1593). The greatest military engineers of the period are called into the more important Italian and foreign States to achieve the ambitions of popes, dukes, princes and emperors, simplifying the style migration of the late Renaissance and Mannerism architectural language in all Europe. The journeys of these famous military engineers from a city to another involve a direct repercussion on the architectural language choices, both in the measure of a constant exchange with the local workers, and as it happens in Valletta, the capital of the order. Moreover, there is a symbiotic relationship between the engineers the order chose, bringing new urban architectural models, and the Maltese workers, grown up in their tradition, handing on the late Renaissance style also to the most minute settlements. By this dissertation we tried then to throw some daylight on the Order of Malta property in the Modern Age, a property still present today as monumentum: the research has showed how is necessary knowing to avoid effacing, sometimes unconsciously, the trace of an ancient presence, deeply connected to the local history, but referred to a wider European history. Having contributed to this integrated reading the co-preservation with the École Pratique des Hautes Études de la Sorbonne in Paris and the constant cooperation with the Board of preservation of Malta.
La recherche, qui fait l'objet de cette thèse, a pour but de combler une lacune au sujet de la connaissance des choix patrimoniaux à l’époque moderne d’un grand acteur territorial, l’Ordre souverain militaire hospitalier de Saint-Jean de Jérusalem, de Rhodes et de Malte. L’historiographie relative au cheminement de cet Ordre à l’époque médiévale est considérable et des historiens de grande envergure se sont occupés d’en reconstruire les caractéristiques et les mécanismes administratifs dès son commencement, de Jérusalem à Rhodes. Au contraire, l’étude de l’histoire des chevaliers à l’époque moderne souffre de lacunes, d’une part à cause du fait que de nombreux documents se sont perdus avant l’arrivée de l’Ordre à Malte en 1530, d’autre part, parce qu’il y a de considérables difficultés à repérer les sources parsemées dans les Archives d’État de toute l'Europe. Au cours du siècle dernier, nombreux ont été les approfondissements sous différents points de vue, souvent ponctuels et donc non systématiques, sur cet ordre à vocation majoritairement hospitalière : donc l'occasion et l’intérêt scientifique pour l’élaboration d’un projet organique consacré à la reconstruction de l’origine, du développement et de la transformation des biens architecturaux et territoriaux des hospitaliers à l’époque moderne avec comme finalité leur valorisation. Durant la première modernité, quasiment chaque État se précautionnait d’ordres laïcs chevaleresques ou religieux-militaires, mais ceux qui demeurèrent fidèles au modèle original sont prioritairement ceux d’origine médiévale. Certains d’entre eux ont survécu jusqu’à nos jours, en renonçant au versant militaire et en trouvant une nouvelle substance dans l’action charitable : l’Ordre des Chevaliers de Malte est l'un des rares Ordres, sinon le seul, qui a dû se reconstruire entièrement. Par rapport aux autres ordres religieux-militaires, l’Ordre de Malte se caractérise tant par sa solide structure hiérarchique administrative, qui se maintient inaltérée pendant des siècles, que par sa nature patrimoniale et territoriale, qui lui permet d’accroître sans cesse sa domination au niveau international, de Jérusalem à Rhodes et Malte, jusqu’à atteindre toute l’Europe de cette époque. Appréhender la hiérarchie administrative de l’Ordre est très important pour reconstruire les retombées directes sur les biens à au niveau territorial, notamment à travers le système des commanderies. La consolidation de ce dernier, à partir de l’époque moderne, est, pour les chevaliers de Malte, un aspect fondamental afin d’obtenir les ressources économiques nécessaires pour mener à son terme la construction de « la ville de l’Ordre », La Valette, à partir de 1565. Les relations établies entre les Grands Maîtres, les papes et les princes italiens et étrangers à la fin du XVIe siècle trouvent une démonstration directe même sous sur le plan de l’architecture : les échanges épistolaires entre l’empereur Charles Quint et l’Ordre religieux militaire suite à la donation de Malte en 1530, et celui entre le Grand Maître, Jean de La Valette, et Cosme Ier de Toscane, concourent à l’idéation d’une ville qui réfléchisse, même sous l’angle architectural, la puissance chrétienne dans la Méditerranée, tel que la manifestait l’Ordre de Malte. À la fin du XVIe siècle, il y a un foisonnement d’idées autour du thème de la ville idéale : il suffit de penser à Vitry-le-François (1545), Carlentini (1551) e Palmanova (1593). Les plus grands ingénieurs militaires de l’époque furent appelés dans les plus importants États italiens et étrangers afin de réaliser les ambitions des papes, ducs, princes et empereurs, en facilitant en Europe la migration de style du langage architectural de la Renaissance tardive. Les voyages d’une ville à l’autre, de ces célèbres ingénieurs militaires, ont une conséquence directe autant sur les choix du langage architectural, que pour ce qui concerne l’échange constant de main-d’œuvre locale, comme c’est le cas pour la capitale de l’Ordre, La Valette. De plus, il y a un rapport symbiotique entre les ingénieurs choisis par l’Ordre qui portent de nouveaux modèles architecturaux et urbanistiques et la main-d’œuvre maltaise, formée dans la tradition, qui transmettent le style de la Renaissance tardive même aux plus petites agglomérations. Cette thèse a donc voulu chercher à faire la lumière sur le patrimoine de l’Ordre de Malte à l’époque moderne, un patrimoine encore existant à ce jour comme un monumentum : la recherche a démontré à quel point il est nécessaire de le connaître pour éviter d’effacer, parfois sans s’en rendre compte, la trace d’une présence vénérable, profondément liée à l’histoire locale, tout en étant à la tête d’une plus ample histoire européenne. Cette lecture intégrée à échelle européenne a été menée en cotutelle avec l’École Pratique des Hautes Études de la Sorbonne de Paris, sous la constante collaboration des organismes de tutelle de Malte.

Durant la Guerra Civil Espanyola, la defensa de la costa catalana va jugar un paper destacat i pràcticament oblidat dins del desenvolupament del conflicte. Tot el litoral català acabaria artillant-se com si d'un altre front més es tractés a força de nius de metralladores i bateries de costa amb motiu dels atacs que aquest hauria de patir al llarg de tot el conflicte. Aquesta defensa de la costa s'iniciaria a partir de la desfeta de l'operació de conquesta que els republicans farien sobre Mallorca al setembre de 1936 i que tindria unes conseqüències nefastes per la costa catalana i per tot el Llevant Republicà al esdevenir l'illa de Mallorca una gran base aeronaval al servei dels sollevats; tot i que principalment la defensa del litoral català s'acceleraria a partir del bombardeig naval sobre Roses que realitzaria el creuer franquista Canarias el 30 d'octubre de 1936. I és que a partir d'aquest moment seria destinada a la defensa de la costa un gran nombre de recursos, com forces de defensa (destacant entre elles milicians i forces del cos de carrabiners en un primer moment), així com diferents peces d'artilleria, (tot i que moltes d'elles serien peces obsoletes), davant dels possibles atacs que podia patir la costa o davant d'alguna temptativa de desembarcament que podrien realitzar les tropes franquistes des de Mallorca. Per aquest mateix motiu es realitzarien al llarg de tot el conflicte més de 350 nius de metralladores, establerts a qualsevol lloc de la costa catalana que pogués ser perceptible a rebre un desembarcament, participant activament en alguns casos la pròpia població d'algunes d'aquestes poblacions litorals catalanes. Els franquistes per la seva banda estarien en tot moment informats de totes aquestes defenses que es realitzarien a la costa catalana gràcies al seu servei d'espionatge. Per altra banda, els bombardeigs navals contra la costa catalana protagonitzats pels vaixells i submarins sota el comandament del bàndol sollevat i els bombardeigs aeris que hauria de patir el tràfic marítim, així com els ports catalans, i les indústries, la xarxa ferroviària o els centres militars ubicats al litoral català provocaria la ràpida defensa d'aquest, encara que no seria organitzada de la manera més eficient a causa de la penúria d'armament que patiria el bàndol governamental. A aquesta defensa del litoral i davant de la poca actuació que tindria la Marina Republicana a les aigües catalanes se l'afegiria una petita flota de vaixells pesquers (alguns d'ells armats) que rebria el nom de Flotilla de Vigilància i Defensa Antisubmarina de Catalunya i que realitzaria una gran tasca en la vigilància i protecció del tràfic marítim, però insuficient davant del potencial de l'armament del bàndol sollevat, mentre que també seria creada una Esquadrilla de Defensa de Costes que protegiria els cels de la costa catalana tot i que sempre en inferioritat de condicions respecte al seu rival. Malgrat això, tots aquests elements de defensa de la costa complirien un més que digne paper en la seva tasca i tindrien l'objectiu comú d'evitar qualsevol agressió de la costa o un possible desembarcament de tropes a la costa catalana, una acció aquesta última que mai es duria a terme durant tot el conflicte armat tot i que l'amenaça sempre estaria present.
During the Spanish Civil War, the defense of the Catalan coast played a prominent role and virtually forgotten during the course of the conflict. All the Catalan coast was arming as if it was another front, with bunkers and coastal batteries because of the attacks that it would have to suffer throughout the conflict. The naval bombardments featuring ships and submarines under the command of the insurgent side, as well as aerial bombardments that would suffer the Catalan coast and maritime traffic, cause the rapid defense of it, but it not would be organized efficiently due to the shortage of armaments that the government side would suffer. At this litoral defense forces would add a small coastal defense fleet of fishing boats (some armed) that would be called "Flotilla de Vigilància i Defensa Antisubmarina de Catalunya" and would make a great work in the vigilance and protection of maritime traffic, but insufficient in front of the power armament from the insurgent side. Also, it was created for the coast defense, the "Esquadrilla de Defensa de Costes" with the mission to protect the skies of the Catalan coast, but at a disadvantage compared to his opponent. However, all these elements of coastal defense fulfilled a more than worthy role in the task and had the common target of preventing any attack from the coast or a possible landing of troops on the Catalan coast, however this latter action never take place throughout the armed conflict.

La pratique de la guerre de l’armée royale sous François Ier et Henri II a longtemps été perçue dans l’historiographie comme peu adaptée à un art militaire moderne vu comme associé à l’usage des armes à feu de l’infanterie. Le poids des traditions chevaleresques ainsi que le manque d’un art militaire approfondi sont vus comme décisifs dans ce manque d’innovation. À l’opposé, un autre courant historiographique perçoit cette pratique de la guerre comme plus violente, car plus moderne avec un emploi de fantassins et de mercenaires laissant libre court à une culture du carnage et à un ensauvagement encore jamais vu. Elle s’oppose ainsi à la guerre médiévale jugée comme plus contrôlée. Ce travail questionne alors toute la praxis de la guerre des gens du roi et de ses peuples afin de trouver la juste mesure de leur engagement. Le choix du théâtre d’opérations des portes de l’Italie, entre le Rhône et le Pô, à la frontière sud-est du royaume de France est arrêté comme espace d’étude. Sa marginalité géographique et l’âpreté de son relief offrent une situation atypique pour envisager le fait guerrier. Comme il y est poussé dans ses retranchements humains, matériels et logistiques, il nous permet d’envisager toutes ses facettes. Le service de tous répond aux impératifs militaires et aux efforts de guerre attendus. Il est surtout intéressé et vécu de façons collective et indivuelle. Il n’est pas improvisé par simple témérité. Il est à comprendre dans les échanges des hommes et des corps constitués avec la Couronne et le roi. Il laisse donc percevoir l’organisation des compétences entre l’État monarchique et les autorités locales. Il met à jour leurs évolutions. Enfin, il concerne la foule des gens engagés dans le métier des armes et des non-combattants qui vivent les épreuves des affrontements. Cette étude est donc celle d’une société en guerre affrontant la conjoncture militaire avec ses héritages et ses innovations et rejetant l’idée d’une opposition binaire entre guerre médiévale et guerre moderne
War in the royal army under Francis I and Henry II has long been perceived in historiography as poorly adapted to modern military requirements, which are closely associated with the use of firearms and the infantry. The weight of the chivalrous traditions and the lack of a complex military art seem decisive in this lack of innovation. On the other hand, another historiographical movement sees this practice of war as more violent and modern, with the use of foot soldiers and mercenaries giving rise to a culture of carnage and a level of savagery never seen before. It is thus opposed to medieval warfare, which was more controlled in appearance.This work questions the praxis of war of the king’s men and population in order to find the right level of their commitment. The Italian border, between the Rhone and the Po, in the southeastern part of the kingdom of France was chosen as the theatre of operations to be studied in this work. Its geographical marginality and the harshness of its relief offer an atypical situation to study the war in its complexity. Human, material, and logistical resources tested to their limits allow us to consider all the aspects of war. Everyone’s service can only be the result of a careful thought process. It mirrors the military imperatives and the expected war effort, and it is lived in both collectively and individually. It is not improvised by mere temerity. It is to be understood through the exchanges between men and State bodies comprising the Crown and the King. It thus reveals the organization of competences between the monarchical State and the local authorities. It updates their evolutions. Lastly, it concerns the crowd of people engaged in the military and non-combatants alike, who experience the ordeals of confrontations. The latter participated in making them live their conflicts through that of the king. This study is therefore that of a society at war confronting military conjunctures with its legacy and innovations, and it rejects the idea of a binary opposition between medieval war and modern war

he title above comprises elements of the strategic studies concept 'foundations of military force'. Military force has been the final arbiter between the political entities of mankind throughout all ages. The prevalence of this social scourge has left a footprint in every dispensation of man's efforts at civilisation. Regrettably, warfare was and remains one of the core characteristics of human nature. The artefacts of antiquity are catalogued in archaeological periods. In nearly every instance each layer of human settlement is separated by the effects of warfare. Rather than a sub-discipline on the periphery it is demonstrated herein that military archaeology, refined with the post-World War Two scientific discipline of polemology, can and ought to be moved onto the centre stage of archaeology. The application of core polemological concepts to IA IIa accurately describes the unfolding of the United Monarchy's capacity to pursue political goals commensurate with its evolutionary war potential.
Religious Studies & Arabic
M.A. (Biblical Studies)

Les fortifications de la Grèce du Nord des époques archaïque, classique et hellénistique n’avaient à ce jour jamais fait l’objet d’une étude de synthèse permettant d’identifier, de décrire et de comparer l’ensemble des remparts de cette région. Mises à part les fortifications des grandes cités bien connues grâce aux fouilles archéologiques et à la bonne préservation des structures, telles Amphipolis, Philippi et Thasos, les autres murailles ou systèmes défensifs du Nord de l’Égée sont pratiquement inconnus, d’où l’intérêt d’une telle recherche. Les seuls ouvrages collectifs en lien avec les fortifications du Nord sont ceux de D. Lazaridis qui, en s’intéressant aux peraia de Thasos et Samothrace, nous laissa les plans topographiques de nombreux établissements fortifiés, sans toutefois en faire la description. Ce mémoire propose donc un catalogue raisonné de l’architecture militaire du Nord de la Grèce, complété par un commentaire exhaustif où les vestiges défensifs seront comparés de façon régionale et, lorsque possible, avec l’ensemble du monde grec. Au total, 37 établissements de plusieurs types (cité, phrourion et emporion) font l’objet de cette étude. Cependant, contrairement aux grandes études sur le sujet qui présentent de magnifiques remparts, cet ouvrage est souvent confronté à des vestiges fragmentaires qui certes, laissent place à l’interprétation et à la discussion, mais provoquent aussi une certaine frustration, puisque parfois, l’état des ruines restreint notre travail. Bien que le développement des fortifications grecques pose encore de nombreux problèmes, on constate une évolution architecturale aux périodes archaïque, classique et hellénistique, également attestée en Grèce du Nord. Mais comme le démontre notre étude, les Grecs établis dans ce territoire colonial provenaient de plusieurs régions et ils ont apporté avec eux leurs traditions et des techniques particulières qui ont largement influencées les ouvrages défensifs de leurs nouvelles cités.
The fortifications of Northern Greece from the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods have so far never been collaboratively studied to identify, describe, and compare the walls of this region. In addition to the larger cities that are well known owing to archaeology and the preservations of the walls found in areas such as Amphipolis, Philippi, and Thasos, other walls and defenses to the north of the Aegean are virtually unknown or briefly mentioned, hence the interest of such an undertaking. The only collective works related with the fortifications of the north are those of D. Lazaridis that, by focusing on the peraia on Thasos and Samothrace, left the topographical plans of many fortified settlements, without giving a description of them. This thesis then proposes a descriptive and analytical catalogue of the military architecture of Northern Greece, as well as an “observation” part where defensive remnants will be compared regionally and, if possible, throughout the Greek world. A total of 37 settlements of all types (city, phrourion, and emporion) will be subject to this study. However, unlike the major studies on the subject that present magnificent ramparts, this work is often confronted with fragmentary remains that certainly leave room for interpretation and discussion, and moreover to desolation, for occasionally, very little can be said on the ruins of a short segment of wall. Although the general history of Greek fortifications is still unclear we can still note that a certain architectural evolution occurs in the Greek ramparts during the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods. It would be normal to find this same phenomenon in Northern Greece particularly. However, we also know that many people from cities all over the Greek world converged on the Thracian coast. Therefore, these colonists arrived with customs and techniques that could characterize the walls of the northern region and even create new regional phenomena.

This Master's degree thesis, named Blood, honour and horror. Representations of siege warfare in journals of British defenders of Bergen-op-zoom in 1747, adheres at specific genre of historical anthropology of war and military. It poses questions regarding ana-lysis of contemporary culture of war and its individual variables, their interdependence and changing configuration during the siege of Bergen-op-zoom in 1747, during culmination point of War of Austrian Succession. Meaning of this text consists of an effort to discover alternative way of treating historical sources and to depart traditional conservative methods of analyzing the war conflict using national or confessional military stereotypes, essential features of key actors or theoretical normative of military science. The text comes to conclusion that most irregular and dramatic character of the siege of Bergen-op-zoom was primarily caused by profound misunderstanding between defenders and attackers regarding culture of war, especially acceptable definition of military honour and of legitimate combat techniques. Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

The comparative experiences of the nineteenth-century British and American Army officer's wives add a central dimension to studies of empire. Sharing their husbands' sense of duty and mission, these women transferred, adopted, and adapted national values and customs, to fashion a new imperial sociability, influencing the course of empire by cutting across and restructuring gender, class, and racial borders. Stationed at isolated stations in British India and the American West, many officers' wives experienced homesickness and disorientation. They reimagined military architecture and connected into the military esprit de corps, to sketch a blueprint of female identity and purpose. On the physical journeys to join their husbands, and post arrival, the feminization of formal and informal military practices produced a new social reality and facilitated the development of an empowered sisterhood that sustained imperialist ambitions. This appropriation of symbols, processes, and rankings facilitated roles as social functionaries and ceremonial performers. Additionally, in utilizing dress, and home decor, military spouses drafted and projected an imperial identity that reflected, yet transformed upper and middle-class gender models. An examination of the social processes of calling and domestic rituals confirms the formation of a distinct and influential imperial female identity. The duty of protecting the social gateway to the imperial community, rested with a hostess?s ability to discriminate ? and convincingly reject parvenus. In focusing on the domestic site it becomes clear that the mistress-servant relationship both formulated and reproduced imperial ideologies. Within the home, the most intimate of inter-racial, inter-ethnic, and inter-class contact zones, the physiological trait of a white skin, and the exhibition of national artifacts signaled identity, status, and authority. Military spouses, then, generated social power as arbiters, promoters, and police officers of an imperial class, reaffirming internal confidence within the Anglo communities, and legitimizing external representations of the power and prestige of empire.

This master thesis deals with the topic of expert systems in the military. In the first part, expert systems are described in general focusing on the theoretical aspects. The creation, types, structure, architecture, advantages, disadvantages and history of expert systems and knowledge acquisition are described. The next part of the thesis deals with the specific military and security (defence) applications of expert systems. There are descriptions of applications from Ground forces (ADRIES, ESROC, KBGIS, PRIDE, TED systems), Air forces (AIRID, LES, TATR), NAVY (systems BATTLE, SIAMES systems), Joint forces (AI-EOD, CMES, GTEX, MBEES, MCTA, SEAT SEC systems) and security areas (EPS-APES, DOC - EXPLOIT, FRIEND - FOE / FIRE DECISION systems). A more detailed description of ADRIES, BATTLE, KBGIS a FRIEND - FOE DETECTION / FIRE DECISION expert systems is included in the final part of the thesis.