Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Metallic joints”

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2003.
Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains viii, 89 p. : ill. (some col.). Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 79-80).

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2003.
Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains xii, 79 p. : ill. (some col.). Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 78-79).

Radiography is an extensively used NDT method, especially in nuclear, aerospace and automotive industries where optimal designs call for greater reliability. The rules corresponding to industrial radiography are defined in a system of radiographic standards. The standards related to the radiographic testing of metallic welded joints had been harmonised in all over the Europe and at the end in 1997, the standard "
EN 1435"
was established and published. Since then, this standard has become the most widely used standard where the radiographic applications are necessary. To eliminate the person based errors during application of the standard, moreover to save time, cost and effort in radiographic exposures, in this study it was aimed to write a computer program which is able to calculate all necessary parameters for a radiographic exposure related to this standard EN 1435. In the programming stage, Visual Basic 6.0 &
#61651
was used. The program consists of many windows, each giving and controlling separate parameters related to the exposure. Besides giving all the needed parameters, the evolved program is able to prepare a report with these parameters. So, both radiography technicians and experts can use it. It is believed that this study constructs a basis for developing other computerised test procedures for any kind of non-destructive testing methods used in industry today.

La migration de joint de grains couplée au cisaillement dans des bicristaux d'aluminium a été étudiée à l'échelle microscopique par une double approche mêlant des simulations atomistiques de dynamique moléculaire et des expériences de déformation in-situ dans le microscope électronique en transmission (MET). Les simulations ont consisté en la caractérisation de l'effet de l'introduction d'un dipôle de disconnections sessiles sur la migration du joint de flexion symétrique SIGMA41[001](450) à 0 K. L'utilisation de la technique Nudged Elastic Band a permis de déterminer le chemin d'énergie minimum de la migration et de révéler le mécanisme microscopique sous-jacent. La description de ce dernier en terme de composition / décomposition et propagation des disconnections s'avère fructueuse et montre en particulier que le dipôle introduit agit comme un site de nucléation préférentiel pour les disconnections mobiles réalisant la migration. Bien que l'introduction du dipôle ait peu d'effet sur la contrainte critique de migration il apparaît en revanche que l'impact sur l'énergie d'activation est plus conséquent avec une diminution pouvant être de l'ordre de 0,65 par rapport à la valeur calculée pour la migration du joint idéal. Par ailleurs il est aussi montré qu'une disconnection préexistante glissant dans le joint subit une force de friction de la part du dipôle soulignant l'ambivalence de ce défaut sur la dynamique du joint. Les expériences de déformation in-situ MET sont conduites sur des lames minces extraites de deux bicristaux différents : le SIGMA3[110](111) (joint de macle) et le SIGMA41[001](450). Au microscope les lames sont sollicitées en traction sous des températures situées entre 200°C et 480°C. Le joint SIGMA3[110](111) se montre globalement assez peu mobile malgré l'observation de macro-marches associées à des dislocations intergranulaires se déplaçant occasionnellement. D'un autre côté une intense activité de plusieurs familles de disconnections en mouvement dans le joint est observée dont une famille de type 1/6 < 211 > identifiée par l'analyse de l'asymétrie de leur contraste pour différents vecteurs de diffraction (g). Ces résultats sont compatibles avec la présence d'un mélange de marches de signe et hauteur différents au sein d'une même famille. La traction du joint SIGMA41[001](450) a parfois montré des évènements de migration couplée au cisaillement dont la valeur du couplage mesuré est proche de prédictions effectuées à partir du modèle des disconnections. Dans les deux bicristaux étudiés il est remarqué que la dynamique du joint ainsi que la distribution des disconnections dans son plan sont corrélés aux interactions avec les défauts environnants tels que les dislocations intragranulaires ou les sous-joints.[...]
The shear coupled grain boundary migration of aluminum bicrystals has been investigated at the microscopic level using a double approach combining atomistic simulations of molecular dynamic and in-situ straining experiments in the transmission electron microscope (TEM). With the simulations we have characterized the effect of the introduction of a sessile disconnections dipole in a SIGMA41[001](450) symmetric tilt grain boundary (GB). The minimum energy path as well as the microscopic mechanism of the GB migration has been revealed using the Nudged Elastic Band method. The description of the migration mechanism through disconnection composition / decomposition and propagation has proven fruitful. In particular it shows that the disconnections dipole acts as a favored site for the nucleation of mobile disconnections that carry the GB migration. Despite the fact that only a tiny effect on the yield stress of the GB migration is calculated it appears that the activation energy is significantly lowered by a factor that can be of the order of 0,65 comparing to the value of the ideal GB migration case. Moreover it is also shown that a preexisting disconnection gliding in the GB experience a friction force from the disconnection dipole emphasizing the ambivalent role of this defect concerning the GB dynamic. In-situ TEM straining experiments have been performed using thin foils extracted from two different bicrystals : the SIGMA3[110](111) (known as a twin boundary) and the SIGMA41[001](450). The samples were deformed under tensile stress in the microscope at temperatures ranging from 280°C to 480°C. Globally the SIGMA3[110](111) GB showed a very low mobility, however some macro-steps associated with intergranular dislocations were seen to occasionally move in the GB. Yet an intense activity of several disconnections families has been observed among which the 1/6 < 211 > type family that has been identified using the asymmetry of their TEM contrast under several diffraction vectors (g). These results are compatible with the presence in the GB of a combination of steps of different height and sign. The straining of the SIGMA41[001](450) GB sometimes results in its shear coupled migration with a measured coupling factor close to a predicted value of the disconnection model. In both bicrystals it appears that the GB dynamic and its disconnection distribution are correlated to the interactions with the neighboring defects like sub-grain boundaries and intragranular dislocations. [...]

Due to the lack of capacity design principles as well as of appropriate structural details, most of the reinforced concrete building designed primarily for gravity loads as typical of pre- 1970s code provisions, are expected and has been demonstrate to suffer sever damage or total collapse under the earthquake excitation. Due to the use of plain round bar and inadequate reinforcing details, critical shear failure in the joint connection region could occur, leading to sever damage when not total collapse of the building. In this research project, a comprehensive experimental programme was carried to investigate the seismic performance of existing beam column joints prior and after retrofit intervention with a recently proposed low-invasive retrofit technique based on a metallic haunch system. The joint performance was evaluated in terms of the principal tensile stresses that caused the joint shear cracks in the joint panel zone. Quasi-static cyclic tests under uni-directional or bidirection loading regime were carried out to record the response of a series of under-designed beam column joints (with either a wide-beam or a deep-beam solution, deformed or plain round bars with end hooks). The experimental results were used to investigate the effect of structural detailing and loading regime on the seismic performance. To retrofit the potential deficiencies in the existing beam-column joints, the feasibility and efficiency of a low invasive retrofit solution based on a diagonal metallic haunch was investigated. The proposed haunch retrofit solution aims to provides an economic, ease of implementation alternative to protect the joint from the brittle shear failure by relocating the beam plastic hinge away form the joint panel zone. To achieve the desired capacity design (hierarchy of strength) and sequence of event, a simplified analytical formulation has been adopted to account for the joint shear strength in terms of principle tensile/compression stresses prior and after the retrofit intervention. A useful visualization tool based on a M-N (moment-axial load) performance domain can be adopted to evaluate the actual performance point and events, by comparing demand vs. capacity. Designed charts are proposed based on displacement compatibility conditions to evaluate the efficiency of the haunch solution. In addition, a complete step-by step design procedure to implement the retrofit strategy and intervention to achieve the desired hierarchy of strength, by using the proposed diagonal metallic haunch solution, is derived and presented. The effectiveness of the proposed haunch solution and reliability of the derived analytical design/assessment procedure, were validated through experimental tests of 2-D and 3-D subassemblies, shown in the first experimental part to have the most vulnerable behaviour in the joint panel zone. Conceptual issues related to the design of the retrofit intervention, when moving from a 2-D to a 3-D behaviour are discussed. The experimental results showed an excellent performance of the proposed intervention, able to protect the panel zone region (by limiting the principle tensile stress demand), while enforcing the formation of a plastic hinge in the beam, far away from the joint interface. As a result, a much more stable inelastic response could be developed, confirming the high potential of such a low-invasive, low-cost retrofit intervention on under-designed frame systems. In conclusion, a simple numerical model, based on a lumped plasticity approach, was developed and validated on the experimental results to capture the full response of the subassembly prior and after the retrofit intervention.

This thesis aims to develop knowledge of non-metallic connections in order to develop and change the Swedish wood architecture as well as wood structures. The main question being "Are metal-free connections suitable for contemporary timber buildings?". In the theory chapter, facts about wood are introduced, followed by literature studies and previous research. Through literature research in the university database and conducting interviews with an architect, a designer and a carpenter, data was collected for the design process and for the calculation of the dimensions for one of the selected glulam connections. The result showed that there is a lack of knowledge in Sweden regarding non-metallic connections, other countries such as Switzerland are more developed in the area and has accepted the idea of this concept. The result also showed that the lack of strength in wooden connections lead to large dimensions of the timber elements, but an aesthetic advantage can be developed. Finally, the results are discussed and analyzed according to the different requirements set on appearance, durability and manufacturability.
Detta examensarbete syftar till att utveckla kunskap om metallfria knutpunkter för att möjliggöra en mer varierad svensk träarkitektur. Den övergripande frågan har varit ”Hur väl lämpar sig metallfria knutpunkter för nutida byggande av träkonstruktioner?”. I teorikapitlet beskrivs fakta om materialet trä, följt av beskrivning av litteratur och tidigare forskning som är relevant för denna studie. Genom en litteraturstudie via universitetets databaser samt intervjuer med en arkitekt, en konstruktör och en möbeldesigner samlades data för gestaltningsprocessen och dimensionering av en knutpunkt i limträ. Resultatet visade att det finns kunskapsbrist i Sverige gällande metallfria knutpunkter, andra länder som Schweiz är mer utvecklade inom området samt har accepterat tanken på detta koncept. Resultatet visade även att frågor kring hållfasthet leder till stora dimensioner för de ingående träelementen, men att en estetisk fördel kan utvecklas. Slutligen diskuteras och analyseras resultaten utefter olika krav som ställts på utseende, hållfasthet och tillverkning.

Press fitting is a commonly used method in the assembly of shafts and gearwheels in gearboxes andare using the friction created between them to hold them together. To increase productivity Scania CVAB in Södertälje, Sweden, are going to replace the current hard machining method for layshafts. Whiletesting the new methods in rig it occurred that the gearwheel slipped in tangential direction towardsthe layshaft at a lower torque then with the current method even through all requirements on thelayshafts surface was meet. The purpose and aim with this study is to investigate differences betweenthe methods and to find new requirements for the layshaft. The torque of slip, (Ms) established in atorque test rig and analysis of surface roughness, hardness and microstructure conducted of both thelayshafts and gearwheels. The characteristics of the layshaft surface was also analysed and comparedbetween the different hard machining methods. The study concludes that no correlation between thesurface parameters and the Ms occurred and no major differences in the material between themethods. The study also concluded that the Ms between the layshaft and gearwheel is lower if thelayshaft surface is harder and smoother than the gearwheel surface.

Punktförmige Verbindungen, wie das Clinchen, bieten vorteilhafte Eigenschaften und werden in zunehmendem Maße in der Dünnblech verarbeitenden Industrie für metallische Verbindungen eingesetzt. Sie spielen gegenwärtig für Metall-Kunststoff-Verbindungen eine untergeordnete beziehungsweise gar keine Rolle. Dies ist wahrscheinlich der Tatsache geschuldet, dass Kunststoffe aufgrund ihrer mechanischen Eigenschaften ungeeignet für das Clinchen scheinen. In der vorliegenden Dissertation werden die Grundlagen für das Clinchen von Metall-Kunststoff-Verbindungen erarbeitet und qualifiziert, so dass es möglich ist, damit eine Verbindung dieser Werkstoffe reproduzierbar herzustellen. Im Speziellen werden Prozessmerkmale und mechanische Verbindungseigenschaften des Clinchens von Metall-Kunststoff-Verbindungen sowie der Feuchtigkeitseinfluss des Kunststofffügepartners und der Einfluss von Wärme vor und/oder nach dem Fügen untersucht
Because of its advantageous properties there is an extended utilization of point-shaped joints, like the clinching, in the sheet processing industry for metal-metal joints. These joining technologies are not relevant for metal-thermoplastic joints currently. The main reason for this could be the fact that the clinching process seems not to be eligible for thermoplastic materials. In the present thesis the fundamentals for clinching metal to thermoplastics were worked out and qualified. The results allow creating reproducible joints out of these materials. Process features and mechanical properties of clinched metal-thermoplastic joints were investigated. Also the influence of moisture and heat input during and after the clinching process was in focus

Punktförmige Verbindungen, wie das Clinchen, bieten vorteilhafte Eigenschaften und werden in zunehmendem Maße in der Dünnblech verarbeitenden Industrie für metallische Verbindungen eingesetzt. Sie spielen gegenwärtig für Metall-Kunststoff-Verbindungen eine untergeordnete beziehungsweise gar keine Rolle. Dies ist wahrscheinlich der Tatsache geschuldet, dass Kunststoffe aufgrund ihrer mechanischen Eigenschaften ungeeignet für das Clinchen scheinen. In der vorliegenden Dissertation werden die Grundlagen für das Clinchen von Metall-Kunststoff-Verbindungen erarbeitet und qualifiziert, so dass es möglich ist, damit eine Verbindung dieser Werkstoffe reproduzierbar herzustellen. Im Speziellen werden Prozessmerkmale und mechanische Verbindungseigenschaften des Clinchens von Metall-Kunststoff-Verbindungen sowie der Feuchtigkeitseinfluss des Kunststofffügepartners und der Einfluss von Wärme vor und/oder nach dem Fügen untersucht.
Because of its advantageous properties there is an extended utilization of point-shaped joints, like the clinching, in the sheet processing industry for metal-metal joints. These joining technologies are not relevant for metal-thermoplastic joints currently. The main reason for this could be the fact that the clinching process seems not to be eligible for thermoplastic materials. In the present thesis the fundamentals for clinching metal to thermoplastics were worked out and qualified. The results allow creating reproducible joints out of these materials. Process features and mechanical properties of clinched metal-thermoplastic joints were investigated. Also the influence of moisture and heat input during and after the clinching process was in focus.

Die moderne Architektur ist durch gläserne Fassaden und ausgefallene Konstruktionen aus Glas geprägt. Dabei wird Glas nicht nur als raumabschließendes Element verwendet, sondern auch konstruktiv eingesetzt und zunehmend an der Lastabtragung beteiligt. Die Integration von Glaselementen in die Baukonstruktion erfolgt über linien- oder punktförmige Lagerungen. Dabei können mechanisch ausgeführte Halterungen lokale Beanspruchungen und damit Glasversagen verursachen. Eine Alternative bilden Klebverbindungen, welche ein materialgerechtes Konstruieren im Glasbau ermöglichen. Kommerziell wird hierfür eine Vielzahl von Klebstoffen angeboten. Neben der Auswahl eines geeigneten Klebstoffsystems können dauerhafte adhäsive Verbindungen aber meist nur mit Hilfe von Oberflächenvorbehandlungen der Fügeteile gewährleistet werden. Aufgrund der langen Standzeiten von Bauwerken sind große Beständigkeiten von geklebten Verbindungen notwendig, welche nur durch den Aufbau von möglichst hohen Haftungskräften zwischen Fügeteiloberflächen und Klebstoffpolymer erreichbar sind. Spezielle Vorbehandlungsverfahren sorgen für eine bessere Benetzbarkeit der Oberflächen und schaffen zudem energetisch aktive Zentren, die mit den Klebstoffen in Wechselwirkung treten können. Viele der insbesondere für metallische Materialien industriell etablierten Oberflächenvorbehandlungen sind allerdings wenig zukunftsträchtig, da diese Verfahren häufig den Einsatz ätzender, hochgiftiger und umweltgefährdender Substanzen notwendig machen. Hierin liegt der Ansatzpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit. In verschiedenen Industriebereichen, wie dem Automobilbau, der Elektrotechnik und der Dentalmedizin werden bereits neu entwickelte Oberflächenvorbehandlungsverfahren auf Basis von Plasma- und Abscheidungstechnologien eingesetzt. Daraus ergibt sich die Fragestellung nach der Anwendbarkeit solcher Verfahren auf Fügeteilmaterialien des Konstruktiven Glasbaus und nach dem Nutzen dieser Oberflächenvorbehandlungen in Bezug auf die Optimierung von strukturellen Klebungen. Für die Ermittlung optimaler Eigenschaften von Oberflächen für den klebtechnischen Prozess werden ausgewählte Fügeteile aus Edelstahl, Aluminium und Messing sowie Einscheibensicherheitglas aus Kalk-Natronsilikatglas physikalischen und chemischen Oberflächenanalysen vor und nach der Anwendung von vier verschiedenen Oberflächenvorbehandlungsverfahren unterzogen. Zudem werden die Haftungseigenschaften nach der Vorbehandlung an geklebten Prüfkörpern vor und nach Alterung untersucht. Aus den daraus erhaltenen Ergebnissen wird der Einfluss der Oberflächenbeschaffenheit auf die Festigkeit der Klebverbindungen bestimmt. Die durchgeführten Untersuchungen ergeben sehr unterschiedliche, stark substrat- und klebstoffabhängige Wirkungsweisen der einzelnen Oberflächenvorbehandlungen. Als geeignetes Verfahren in Bezug auf die Verbesserungen des Adhäsionsvermögens und der Alterungsbeständigkeit, die Integrierbarkeit in maschinelle Herstellungsprozesse und die Vermeidung optischer Veränderung der Oberflächen stellt sich die Flammensilikatisierung heraus. Die mit dieser Oberflächenvorbehandlung aufgebrachte, dichte Silikatschicht und deren chemische Aktivität sowie deren vollständige Benetzbarkeit bieten beste Voraussetzungen für die Verklebung verschiedener Fügeteilmaterialien mit unterschiedlichsten Klebstoffen
The modern architecture is affected by glass facades and novel glass structures. Therein glass is not only used as space enclosing element, rather it finds more and more constructive application and it is increasingly involved in load transfer. State of the art for the integration of glass elements in buildings are mechanically designed point and linear fixings. But they may cause local stresses followed by glass breakage. An alternative to these fixations are adhesive joints which more respect the specific requirements of the fragile material glass. A wide variety of adhesives is already available for this purpose. For strong adhesive joints not only the selection of a suitable adhesive is essential. The surface quality, which can be enhanced by surface treatments, is just as important for a very good adhesion. Due to the long life expectancy of buildings, a permanently aging resistance of the adhesive joints is necessary. For that, a formation of the highest possible adhesion forces between adhesive polymer and adherend surface is essential. Special surface treatment processes ensure a better wettability of the surfaces and also create energetically active sites that can interact with the adhesive molecules. However, many of the industrially established surface pretreatments, especially those for metallic materials, are not sustainable, since these methods often use corrosive, highly toxic and environmentally hazardous substances. This is the basis of the present dissertation. In various industries, such as automotive, electrical engineering and dentistry, newly developed surface treatment methods based on plasma and deposition technologies are already used. This raises the question of the applicability of such methods on materials for glass constructions and of their benefit to the optimization of structural adhesive joints. The effect of four different surface treatment methods used on the surfaces of stainless steel, aluminum, brass and toughened safety glass made from soda-lime glass is investigated in experimental studies. Physical and chemical surface analyses are performed before and after the applications. In addition, the adhesion properties of bonded specimens with pretreated surfaces are examined before and after aging. The influence of the surface conditions on the strength of the adhesive joints is determined from the obtained results. The results show very different effects of the individual surface treatment methods with high dependences on substrate and adhesive. With regard to an increase of adhesion strength, a good aging resistance, an uncomplicated integration into automated production processes and an avoidance of changing the optical surface properties, the investigated combustion chemical vapour deposition is the most suitable method. With this pretreatment, a dense silicate layer is deposite on the surface. Its high chemical activity and its complete wettability offer the best conditions for bonding a variety of materials with different adhesives

Für den Prozeß des Fügens von Keramik bzw. Keramik mit Metall ergeben sich zahlreiche Probleme, die aus den Eigenschaften der Keramik und den Eigenschaftsdifferenzen zwischen Keramik und Metall resultieren. Unterschiedliche physikalische und mechanische Werkstoffkennwerte bewirken ein zumeist hohes Eigenspannungsniveau des Verbundes, welches in Verbindung mit dem spröden Bruchverhalten keramischer Materialien deren Fügbarkeit verhindert oder einschränkt. Als aussichtsreicher Ansatz bietet sich die Eigenschaftsanpassung des Aktivlotes durch dessen Modifikation mit verstärkenden Materialien an. Es wird ein Konzept für die Herstellung und den Einsatz verstärkter Aktivlote vorgestellt. Theoretische Grundlagen werden durch die Berechnung der Eigenschaften derartiger Lote auf der Basis bewährter Methoden der Verbundwerkstofftheorien geschaffen. Die Simulation mechanisch-thermischer Eigenschaften von Lötverbindungen mit verstärkten Aktivloten unter Einsatz der Methode der finiten Elemente dient dem Erfassen des Spannungsverhaltens. Richtlinien für die Wahl geeigneter Verstärkungskomponenten werden festgelegt. Es wird ein Überblick über geeignete Herstellungsmethoden, deren praktische Realisierung und die Wechselwirkung mit dem Prozeß des Aktivlötens gegeben. Die Bewertung von Aktivlötverbindungen mit verstärkten Loten im Vergleich zu herkömmlichen Verfahren wird auf Grundlage der Ergebnisse von Festigkeitsuntersuchungen vorgenommen.

Für den Prozeß des Fügens von Keramik bzw. Keramik mit Metall ergeben sich zahlreiche Probleme, die aus den Eigenschaften der Keramik und den Eigenschaftsdifferenzen zwischen Keramik und Metall resultieren. Unterschiedliche physikalische und mechanische Werkstoffkennwerte bewirken ein zumeist hohes Eigenspannungsniveau des Verbundes, welches in Verbindung mit dem spröden Bruchverhalten keramischer Materialien deren Fügbarkeit verhindert oder einschränkt. Als aussichtsreicher Ansatz bietet sich die Eigenschaftsanpassung des Aktivlotes durch dessen Modifikation mit verstärkenden Materialien an. Es wird ein Konzept für die Herstellung und den Einsatz verstärkter Aktivlote vorgestellt. Theoretische Grundlagen werden durch die Berechnung der Eigenschaften derartiger Lote auf der Basis bewährter Methoden der Verbundwerkstofftheorien geschaffen. Die Simulation mechanisch-thermischer Eigenschaften von Lötverbindungen mit verstärkten Aktivloten unter Einsatz der Methode der finiten Elemente dient dem Erfassen des Spannungsverhaltens. Richtlinien für die Wahl geeigneter Verstärkungskomponenten werden festgelegt. Es wird ein Überblick über geeignete Herstellungsmethoden, deren praktische Realisierung und die Wechselwirkung mit dem Prozeß des Aktivlötens gegeben. Die Bewertung von Aktivlötverbindungen mit verstärkten Loten im Vergleich zu herkömmlichen Verfahren wird auf Grundlage der Ergebnisse von Festigkeitsuntersuchungen vorgenommen.

Die rheumatoide Arthritis ist eine chronisch-entzündliche Bindegewebserkrankung mit symmetrischem Befall der Gelenke. Die genaue Ätiologie ist bisher unbekannt. Aktivierte synoviale Fibroblasten sollen durch gesteigerte Adhäsion und Produktion von proinflammatorischen Zytokinen und Matrix-lysierenden Proteasen maßgeblich an der Gelenkdestruktion beteiligt sein. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, ein neues in-vivo-Knorpeldestruktions-Modell zu etablieren, in welchem unter immunkompetenten Bedingungen, die Invasion und Destruktion von Gelenkknorpel durch die Fibroblasten-Zelllinie LS48 über einen längeren Zeitraum simuliert werden kann. Die am Institut für klinische Immunologie der Medizinischen Fakultät der Universität Leipzig etablierte Zelllinie LS48 wurde in die ipsilateralen Kniegelenke von BALB/c-Mäusen injiziert. Die dadurch induzierte Gewebsdestruktion wurde über zehn Wochen in zweiwöchigem Abstand histopathologisch beurteilt und klassifiziert. Als vergleichende Fibroblasten-Zelllinie wurden nicht-invasive NIH/3T3-Zellen eingesetzt. An Hand der Score-Parameter Zellinvasion, Pannusformation und Knorpeldestruktion wurde eine mäßige bis schwer-wiegende Gewebsdestruktion durch die LS48-Zellen bereits ab der zweiten Untersuchungswoche lichtmikroskopisch nachgewiesen, ohne dass dabei pathologische Effekte in den kontralateralen Kniegelenken aufgetreten sind. Polarisationsmikroskopisch wurden für den Parameter Knorpeldestruktion vergleichbare Ergebnisse erzielt. Damit wurde gezeigt, dass das Modell BALB/c LS48 ein erfolgversprechendes Instrument darstellt, das zur Testung neuer therapeutischer Strategien gegen die Gelenkdestruktion verwendet werden kann. Inwieweit die Auseinandersetzung der LS48-Zellen mit dem spezifischen Immunsystem der BALB/c-Maus Auswirkungen auf den Verlauf der Gewebsdestruktion hat, sollte in weiterführenden Experimenten untersucht werden.

Large scale structures such as those in aerospace flight vehicles are made in parts and assembled. Joints are inevitable in these systems and they are potential threats to the structural integrity of the flight vehicles. Fastener and bonded joints are the most commonly used methods of joining in these structures. Among these, adhesive bonding has become more popular with the advent of composite structures, due to the presence of less number of points of stress concentration and the resulting benefit for static strength and fatigue life. In modern aircraft in which maximum percentage of composite materials are being employed due to several benefits, designers are contemplating to replace discrete joints with adhesively bonded joints wherever possible. A detailed literature survey shows that the field of adhesively bonded joints has been extensively studied in the past. Initial publications appeared in late 1950’s and early 1960's, but many of the initial attempts were based on one dimensional (1-D) approximation of the adherents due to lack of computing power. With the current day emphasis on safety and damage tolerance, there is a definite need to study these joints with 2-D and 3-D idealization. In spite of valuable contributions in the literature from several researchers in past 4-5 decades, one finds that there are gaps to be filled, in particular, with reference to static strength prediction and de-bond growth to failure under fatigue loading. This thesis is intended as a modest contribution in this direction covering the methods of strength prediction and also correlations between de-bond growth and fracture parameters. Most commonly used bonded joints are single lap joints. The primary issue in their analysis is the geometric nonlinearity resulting in large deformations due to eccentricity of load path between the adherents. Further, adhesives have very low yield strength and plastic deformation in thin adhesives could affect the mechanics of load transfer. The current work is initiated by carrying out geometric and material nonlinear analysis of adhesively bonded single lap joints between metal-metal (aluminum-aluminum) adherents using standard NASTRAN finite element software. Modified Newton-Raphson iterative technique has been used to economize the computer time and also achieve fast convergence. A convergence study has been conducted to determine the order of mesh size required. Preliminary results are obtained on configurations analysed by earlier workers and the current results are compared with their results. Later, extensive experimental and numerical studies have been taken up on the numerical strength prediction of these joints correlating them to the experimental values. Cohesive failure along the centre line of the adhesive is assumed under both static and fatigue loading. The bonded joints are studied with both 2-D plane stress and plane strain nonlinear FE analysis. The issue in this type of analysis is the presence of theoretical elastic singularity at the ends of the lap length. The normally used maximum stress criterion can not be used in such circumstances. There were attempts in the past to use point stress or average stress criteria for this purpose. In point stress criterion the shear stress (or von-Mises stress) is picked at a characteristic distance away from the ends of the lap length and compared with the corresponding strength value to predict failure. In the average stress criterion the stresses are averaged over a characteristic distance from the ends of lap length and this is compared with the corresponding strength to predict failure. Determination of the characteristic distance in both the cases needs extensive experimental results on static strength of joints. The static strength data is to be correlated with numerical results to determine the characteristic distance in various specimens. In the current thesis a series of specimens with aluminum-aluminum, aluminum-CFRP composite and CFRP-CFRP composite adherents were tested to determine the static strength. In all the specimens the adhesive used was Redux 319 A. These experimental strength data was used to determine characteristic distance using point stress criterion. The consistency of estimates of the characteristic distances in all the specimens shows that the approach is capable of predicting the static strength. The above approaches are capable of predicting the strength of joints with linear material and nonlinear geometric analysis. But when the adhesive yield strength is low, a novel approach is required to predict the static strength. Numerical analysis is conducted using a combined material and geometric nonlinear analysis in NASTRAN software. The plastic zone size from the ends of the lap length is determined at different load levels. Combining the numerical results with experimental failure load data, a failure criterion based on plastic zone size (PZS) is proposed in this thesis and validated. It has been observed that the validation is with limited testing carried out and further experimental programs are required to complete the validation. To the best of the knowledge of the author PZS criterion is used for the first time for failure prediction of bonded joints. The structural integrity of the joints also requires a study of de-bond growth and damage tolerance assurances in the presence of de-bond type of defects. The first step in this direction is to estimate the fracture parameters at the tips of de-bond in the adhesive of lap joints between various adherents. Modified virtual crack closure integral (MVCCI) technique has been developed in the past for estimating Strain Energy Release Rates (SERR) in several crack problems. Large contributions for developing this technique have come from the group where the author has worked. This technique is simple and has the ability to estimate individual SERR components GI and GII in cases of mixed mode fracture. It is seen clearly that the de-bond growth in bonded joint is one of mixed mode. The mode-II component is because of shear stresses transferring the load across the adherents and mode-I component is due to peel stresses developed during the deformation. The mode I SERR component is primarily responsible for de-bond growth and the effect of mode II component on de-bond growth is insignificant. The mesh details for accurately estimating the SERR components are evaluated and those meshes are used to estimate these values for the cases of aluminum-aluminum, aluminum-CFRP composite and composite-composite joints. Obviously, when the adherents are dissimilar, mode I SERR components are the highest and assist faster de-bond growth. Painstaking fatigue de-bond growth experiments were conducted and de-bond growth rate with number of cycles of fatigue loading was determined. MVCCI method is used to estimate SERR components at maximum load and zero load in the fatigue cycle, to determine the SERR range in the fatigue cycle. Since the stress ratio, R of the loading cycle is -1, the minimum load for estimating SERR components is taken as zero. From the experimental data and numerical estimates, a Paris type of equation was developed for the de-bond growth. The thesis concludes with a summary of the achievements in the current work with respect to the structural integrity of adhesively bonded joints and also with suggestions for future work.

Large scale structures such as those in aerospace flight vehicles are made in parts and assembled. Joints are inevitable in these systems and they are potential threats to the structural integrity of the flight vehicles. Fastener and bonded joints are the most commonly used methods of joining in these structures. Among these, adhesive bonding has become more popular with the advent of composite structures, due to the presence of less number of points of stress concentration and the resulting benefit for static strength and fatigue life. In modern aircraft in which maximum percentage of composite materials are being employed due to several benefits, designers are contemplating to replace discrete joints with adhesively bonded joints wherever possible. A detailed literature survey shows that the field of adhesively bonded joints has been extensively studied in the past. Initial publications appeared in late 1950’s and early 1960's, but many of the initial attempts were based on one dimensional (1-D) approximation of the adherents due to lack of computing power. With the current day emphasis on safety and damage tolerance, there is a definite need to study these joints with 2-D and 3-D idealization. In spite of valuable contributions in the literature from several researchers in past 4-5 decades, one finds that there are gaps to be filled, in particular, with reference to static strength prediction and de-bond growth to failure under fatigue loading. This thesis is intended as a modest contribution in this direction covering the methods of strength prediction and also correlations between de-bond growth and fracture parameters. Most commonly used bonded joints are single lap joints. The primary issue in their analysis is the geometric nonlinearity resulting in large deformations due to eccentricity of load path between the adherents. Further, adhesives have very low yield strength and plastic deformation in thin adhesives could affect the mechanics of load transfer. The current work is initiated by carrying out geometric and material nonlinear analysis of adhesively bonded single lap joints between metal-metal (aluminum-aluminum) adherents using standard NASTRAN finite element software. Modified Newton-Raphson iterative technique has been used to economize the computer time and also achieve fast convergence. A convergence study has been conducted to determine the order of mesh size required. Preliminary results are obtained on configurations analysed by earlier workers and the current results are compared with their results. Later, extensive experimental and numerical studies have been taken up on the numerical strength prediction of these joints correlating them to the experimental values. Cohesive failure along the centre line of the adhesive is assumed under both static and fatigue loading. The bonded joints are studied with both 2-D plane stress and plane strain nonlinear FE analysis. The issue in this type of analysis is the presence of theoretical elastic singularity at the ends of the lap length. The normally used maximum stress criterion can not be used in such circumstances. There were attempts in the past to use point stress or average stress criteria for this purpose. In point stress criterion the shear stress (or von-Mises stress) is picked at a characteristic distance away from the ends of the lap length and compared with the corresponding strength value to predict failure. In the average stress criterion the stresses are averaged over a characteristic distance from the ends of lap length and this is compared with the corresponding strength to predict failure. Determination of the characteristic distance in both the cases needs extensive experimental results on static strength of joints. The static strength data is to be correlated with numerical results to determine the characteristic distance in various specimens. In the current thesis a series of specimens with aluminum-aluminum, aluminum-CFRP composite and CFRP-CFRP composite adherents were tested to determine the static strength. In all the specimens the adhesive used was Redux 319 A. These experimental strength data was used to determine characteristic distance using point stress criterion. The consistency of estimates of the characteristic distances in all the specimens shows that the approach is capable of predicting the static strength. The above approaches are capable of predicting the strength of joints with linear material and nonlinear geometric analysis. But when the adhesive yield strength is low, a novel approach is required to predict the static strength. Numerical analysis is conducted using a combined material and geometric nonlinear analysis in NASTRAN software. The plastic zone size from the ends of the lap length is determined at different load levels. Combining the numerical results with experimental failure load data, a failure criterion based on plastic zone size (PZS) is proposed in this thesis and validated. It has been observed that the validation is with limited testing carried out and further experimental programs are required to complete the validation. To the best of the knowledge of the author PZS criterion is used for the first time for failure prediction of bonded joints. The structural integrity of the joints also requires a study of de-bond growth and damage tolerance assurances in the presence of de-bond type of defects. The first step in this direction is to estimate the fracture parameters at the tips of de-bond in the adhesive of lap joints between various adherents. Modified virtual crack closure integral (MVCCI) technique has been developed in the past for estimating Strain Energy Release Rates (SERR) in several crack problems. Large contributions for developing this technique have come from the group where the author has worked. This technique is simple and has the ability to estimate individual SERR components GI and GII in cases of mixed mode fracture. It is seen clearly that the de-bond growth in bonded joint is one of mixed mode. The mode-II component is because of shear stresses transferring the load across the adherents and mode-I component is due to peel stresses developed during the deformation. The mode I SERR component is primarily responsible for de-bond growth and the effect of mode II component on de-bond growth is insignificant. The mesh details for accurately estimating the SERR components are evaluated and those meshes are used to estimate these values for the cases of aluminum-aluminum, aluminum-CFRP composite and composite-composite joints. Obviously, when the adherents are dissimilar, mode I SERR components are the highest and assist faster de-bond growth. Painstaking fatigue de-bond growth experiments were conducted and de-bond growth rate with number of cycles of fatigue loading was determined. MVCCI method is used to estimate SERR components at maximum load and zero load in the fatigue cycle, to determine the SERR range in the fatigue cycle. Since the stress ratio, R of the loading cycle is -1, the minimum load for estimating SERR components is taken as zero. From the experimental data and numerical estimates, a Paris type of equation was developed for the de-bond growth. The thesis concludes with a summary of the achievements in the current work with respect to the structural integrity of adhesively bonded joints and also with suggestions for future work.

With the ongoing miniaturization of microelectronic devices, the size of compliant solder in microscale solder joints has significantly reduced, proportion of brittle phases has increased, and the microscale joints have become highly constrained to deform because of their geometry and stiffness mismatch with substrates. Due to the varied nature of microstructure, a mere understanding of the mechanical behaviour of bulk alloys cannot be directly extended to judiciously predict the same in miniature joints. Accordingly, the aim of this work is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the effect of microstructure and size of Sn based joints on the mechanical behavior and microstructure from bulk specimens to microscale joints. This was first addressed by investigating the joint size dependence of the tensile properties of Sn-Cu joints. Maximum strength increased as the joint size reduced, and the mode of failure changed from necking in thick joints to constrained necking with cavitation in microscale Sn-Cu joints and solder-IMC failure in miniature Sn-Ag-Cu/Cu joints. The cause of this tensile strengthening was captured by crystal plasticity (CP) modeling along with existing analytical models to capture the size dependence of the tensile strength. Subsequently the effect of length scale on the creep properties of the Sn-Cu joints was investigated. This was addressed by first evaluating the creep behaviour of bulk Sn and Sn-Ag-Cu solder alloys over a range of temperature to compute the activation energy, QC, and stress exponent, n. The creep rate decreased with increasing Ag content. The creep mechanism was dislocation climb controlled by core diffusion at T<150 oC and lattice diffusion at T>150 oC with QC and n changing from 55 kJ/mol and 7 to 100 kJ/mol and 5. Subsequently the size of deformable Sn and solder was reduced by constraining metal layers of different size (from 1.4 mm to ~170 µm) and aspect ratio between Cu substrates as joints. The secondary creep rate decreased by three orders of magnitude with an order of magnitude decrease in joint size at same stress. However, no change in creep mechanism was evident in the joints. Using Finite Element Analysis this creep strengthening can be partly attributed to geometric constraints imposed by Cu which reduces the effective stress and increases the triaxiality in joints. While FE results were in close agreement with experiment in thick joints and bulk specimen, the former overpredicted the creep rate of small joints due to difference in microstructure between bulk Sn which has multiple grains and miniature joints having 2-3 grains, as confirmed by electron backscattered diffraction. This microstructural effect was captured by dislocation based crystal plasticity modeling from which it was evident that orientation anisotropy of Sn and constraints imposed by substrates on dislocation motion can lead to additional strengthening in small joints and reduce the prefactor B in Norton power law. Subsequently, a unified model was developed to quantify both these effects and predict the creep rate of arbitrary joints. In the tertiary creep stage bulk specimens exhibited strain localization by necking in pure Sn along with cavitation in precipitate containing Sn-Ag-Cu alloys. Moreover, the extent of necking and cavitation in Sn-Cu joints was sensitive to the joint size. A combined necking and cavitation based creep failure model was developed and the effect of initial geometry of instability, creep stress exponent and cavity fraction on strain localization was analyzed. The model showed that the strain at the onset of complete localization in neck will be independent of stress in pure Sn whereas it decreases with stress in Sn-Ag-Cu alloy and the predictions were found to qualitatively agree with experiment. The model also was adapted to capture the joint size dependence of tertiary creep due to necking and cavitation in the Sn-Cu and SAC-Cu joints. The model predictions and experiments showed a decrease in strain accumulated in tertiary stage with decrease in joint size, as the strain due to necking reduced and the strain due to cavitation increased from bulk Sn and solders to the very thin joints.

碩士
國立中央大學
機械工程研究所
98
The objective of this study is to investigate the joint strength between a glass-ceramic sealant and metallic interconnect. The applied materials were the GC-9 glass ceramic developed at the Institute of Nuclear Energy Research (INER) and the commercial Crofer 22 H and APU ferritic stainless steels. A methodology of evaluating the joint strength at room temperature (RT) and 800 oC was developed by testing two types of sandwich-like specimens under shear and tensile loading. The effects of joining temperature, pre-oxidization of metallic interconnect, number of initial spreading side, aging treatment, and composition of metallic interconnect on the joint strength at RT and 800 oC were studied. The measured shear strength of the specimens joined at 900 oC was greater than that of those joined at 850 oC. Apparently, an increase of joining temperature could improve the joining performance due to a better wetting behavior of glass ceramic. A pre-oxidization treatment at 900 oC for 2 h did not generate a beneficial effect on the shear and tensile joint strength for all the given testing conditions. The joint strength of specimens with a double-layer of glass-ceramic sealant was greater than that of single-layer ones due to a better wetting behavior of the GC-9 glass-ceramic sealant in contact with the metal slice during joining. Compared to the shear strength at 800 oC for the unaged joint specimens, a 17-19% reduction of joint strength was observed for the aged ones with various aging times. In comparison of the shear joint strength between Crofer 22 H and APU specimens, it is found that an addition of Nb and W elements in the Crofer 22 H steel provides a greater bonding strength with the GC-9 glass-ceramic sealant. Through the analysis of interfacial microstructure, fracture modes of the joint were correlated with the measured strength. Three types of fracture modes were identified for the shear joint specimens. Firstly, the lowest joint strength was accompanied by delamination at the interface between the glass-ceramic substrate and an adjacent oxide layer, chromate (BaCrO4). Secondly, fracture at the interface between the GC-9 glass-ceramic sealant and the chromate layer as well as in the GC-9 layer accompanied a medium joint strength. Thirdly, a high level of joint strength was accompanied by delamination at the interface between the metal substrate and the Cr2O3 layer as well as at the interface between the GC-9 substrate and BaCrO4 layer. For the tensile joint specimens, a greater joint strength accompanied fracture in the glass-ceramic layer. However, delamination at the interface between the GC-9 substrate and BaCrO4 layer was also involved in the fracture in addition to the fracture of the glass-ceramic layer, for a lower level of tensile joint strength.

博士
國立成功大學
材料科學及工程學系碩博士班
100
Piezoelectric inkjet printing technology is a great manufacturing technology to produce micro-joint and micro-conductive line for the need of reduction of costs and environmental impact. The droplet behavior would effects the quality of the micro-joint and micro-conductive line. High temperature inkjet printing and low temperature inkjet printing were applied in this study for the quality of micro-joint and micro-conductive line during different inkjet factors. Micro droplets of molten lead-free solder were ejected at 230oC using a piezoelectric inkjet printing process. The effect of the micro droplet formation of molten lead-free solder was investigated on the pulse time of the waveform. In this study, a computer-aided analytical system for simulating the shape evolution of micro droplet of molten lead-free solder in the inkjet printing process was developed based on computational fluid dynamics techniques. The simulation results were validated with experimental observations. The numerical results were used to understand the mechanisms of the extrusion of the liquid column, the contraction of the liquid thread, and the pinch-off of the liquid thread at the nozzle exit. A commercial software Flow-3D was adopted to simulate the fluid dynamics and thermal transients of molten solders after deposited on the substrate in order to predict the morphology and line width of micro-conductive line during different step sizes or deposition frequencies . Two silver containing solutions were employed in this study for the fabrication of conductive patterns using inkjet printing. Line patterns with various droplet interspaces sizes of 10, 20, 30, and 40 μm were printed and evaluated. Moreover, the morphologies of line patterns were also investigated under different substrate temperatures of 25, 50, and 90℃ in this study. Aqueous silver nitrate inks of 1, 5, and 10 molarity (M) were employed in a piezoelectric inkjet printing apparatus. The actual printing qualities of array and line patterns are then analyzed by variation of dot interval and substrate temperature. Unsteady spreading features of printed array and line patterns on hydrophilic glass are found to be due to silver nitrate crystal during droplet drying, which is dominated by solute concentration and substrate temperature. The characteristics of drying progress for silver nitrate solutions were investigated after measuring contact angle on the prepared glass substrates. Due to the crystallization of silver nitrate, the decrease of local surface tension was induced with decreasing solute concentration.

碩士
國立中央大學
機械工程研究所
100
Creep properties at 800 oC are investigated for a newly developed solid oxide fuel cell glass-ceramic sealant (GC-9) in variously aged conditions using a ring-on-ring test technique. Creep properties of sandwich joint specimens made of GC-9 and a interconnect steel (Crofer 22 H) are also investigated at 800 oC under several constant shear and tensile loadings. When subjected to an applied constant load at 800 oC, the 1000 h-aged GC-9 can last longer than the non-aged and 100 h-aged ones before rupture. The 1000 h-aged GC-9 also exhibits a much smaller minimum creep strain rate than do the non-aged and 100 h-aged ones. Therefore, a longer aging time of 1000 h leads to a greater extent of crystallization and creep resistance at 800 oC for the given GC-9 glass-ceramic sealant. The creep strength at 1000 h is about 6 MPa, 9 MPa, and 15 MPa, for the non-aged, 100 h-aged, and 1000 h-aged GC-9, respectively. The creep rupture time of Crofer 22 H/GC-9/Crofer 22 H joint specimens is increased with a decrease in the applied constant load at 800 oC for both shear and tensile loading modes. The creep strength at 1000 h under shear loading is about one quarter of the shear strength at 800 oC. The tensile creep strength at 1000 h is about 9% of the tensile strength at 800 oC. Failure patterns of both shear and tensile joint specimens are similar regardless of the creep rupture time. Cracks initiate at the interface between the spinel layer and chromate (BaCrO4) layer, penetrate through the BaCrO4 layer, and propagate along the interface between the chromate layer and glass-ceramic substrate until final fracture. Final, fast fracture occasionally takes place within the glass-ceramic layer.

碩士
國立中央大學
機械工程研究所
99
Mechanical properties at various temperatures (25 oC-800 oC) were investigated for a newly developed solid oxide fuel cell glass sealant (GC-9) in variously aged conditions. The joint strength between the GC-9 glass-ceramic sealant and an interconnect steel (Crofer 22 H) coated with La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 (LSM) was also investigated at 800 oC. In addition, creep rupture properties of the joint specimens were also investigated at 800 oC under constant loading. For the 1000 h-aged, sintered GC-9 glass, the flexural strength at 650 oC-750 oC was greater than that at 25 oC due to a crack healing effect. From the force-displacement curves of the 1000 h-aged GC-9 glass, the inferred glass transition temperature (Tg) was between 750 oC and 800 oC. Therefore, its flexural strength was significantly reduced at 800 oC due to a viscous effect. However, a greater flexural strength and stiffness of the aged GC-9 glass over the non-aged one was observed at temperature higher than 700 oC due to a greater extent of crystallization. Both the shear and tensile bonding strength at 800 oC of the joint specimens coated with LSM were weaker than those of the non-coated ones. Through analysis of the interfacial microstructure, microvoids and microcracks were found at the BaCrO4 chromate layer. When the LSM coating film and BaCrO4 layer were joined together with incompatible deformation, microvoids/microcracks were formed at the BaCrO4 The creep rupture time of both shear and tensile joint specimens was increased with a decrease in the applied constant load at 800 layer. In this regard, the joint strength was degraded by such a coating. oC. The creep strength at 1000 h under shear loading was about one fifth of the shear strength at 800 oC. The tensile creep strength at 1000 h was about 8% of the tensile strength at 800 oC. The failure pattern of the shear creep joint specimens with a shorter creep rupture time was similar to that of the shear joint strength test specimens while a different failure pattern was found for a longer creep rupture time.

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a rapidly growing solid state welding process and has been a proven method for welding high strength aluminium alloys which were formerly not recommended for joining by conventional fusion welding methods. Based on the information acquired from previous studies, to obtain a defect free Friction Stir (FS) weld with suitable strength, three basic requirements need to be fulfilled (i) Filling of the cavity created behind the tool pin during its traverse and ensuring satisfactory contact of filled material with newly generated surface (on advancing side trailing edge of the pin) (ii) Disrupting and distributing the oxide layer at the initial weld interface (iii) Adequate level of mixing of both side material (Adjacent and Retreating side) in similar welding. In the case of dissimilar welding mixing is desired in controlled amount (to prevent or curtail formation of intermetallics) depending on material combination. Failure to achieve the first precondition results in void. Second and third precondition are interconnected for similar FSW as adequate mixing in weld helps in disruption and distribution of oxide layer at initial weld interface. Failure to achieve this, results in Joint Line Remnant (JLR). Metal to metal contact cannot be established due to the presence of JLR (aligned oxide particles) and subsequently initial interface is left unwelded which deteriorate the static and dynamic strength of friction stir welds. The problem aggravates while friction stir welding materials with tenacious contaminant layer. Therefore, appropriate stirring (which entails large deformation and mixing) of initial weld interface is essential for successful FS welds. Hence, process aspects assisting mixing of adjacent (Advancing and Retreating side) materials need to identified and studied, which are missing in former studies. Experiments are conducted with classical FS tool (possessing frustum shaped/tapered circular pin) to analyse the effect of welding parameters (tool rotation speed, traverse speed, plunge depth, tool tilt and tool position w.r.t initial interface) and tool runout by changing these parameters over a range. Tool rotation speed, traverse speed, plunge depth and tool position with initial interface are changed continuously and tool tilt and tool runout are changed in discrete steps. Tool geometry is considered to be a prime parameter controlling the magnitude of mixing, as interaction of rotating tool with initial abutting base metal interface makes the process mechanism complex, unlike other solid state welding process, namely forge welding, diffusion welding, friction welding, explosive welding, ultrasonic welding and roll bonding. Furthermore, due to asymmetric nature of material flow in FSW process, the material located in different locations with respect to the tool is subjected to different levels of deformation. For this purpose experiments have been carried out to analyse the effect of different tool geometrical aspects on level of mixing and material flow. On the other hand, visualizing flow and mixing in metals is debatable as insertion of marker material in the weld line can alter the nature of material flow in the weld due to different material flow characteristics of the base and marker materials and introduction of additional interfaces. Further, using dissimilar materials for flow studies cannot be considered for comparison with similar friction stir welds as their flow properties are different. Therefore, an alternate experimental strategy is devised in these studies using physical modelling approach which is effective and helps in identifying and quantifying mixing observed under different tooling and process conditions. In the present investigation, plasticine of primary colours is adopted and the hue attribute of colour is used to study and quantify intermixing. Yellow and Blue plasticine are placed on advancing and retreating sides respectively. The degree of mixing is indicated by the intensity of generated green. Digital images of the cross section in weld nugget region are taken. To obtain hue component of these digital images the RGB color-maps are converted to HSV color-maps. Overall, these studies help in formulating the guidelines which are useful during tool design, and administering the process to obtain a defect free well mixed welds. Based on the experimental results following conclusions are derived. 1. Following process aspects: tool geometry, interface offset, tool rotation and tool runout demonstrate a significant impact on material mixing and breaking and dispersion of initial interface in weld nugget. Tool tilt, plunge depth, tool traverse exhibit negligible effect on degree of mixing. 2. Increase in tool rotation speed (with other parameters fixed) improves mixing substantially but can be increased to a certain limit after which voids emerge due to loss of weld nugget material in the form of flash. 3. Reducing the weld pitch (i.e. increasing tool rotation speed for a given tool traverse speed) reduces the size of the weld nugget and vice versa. Tool traverse speed largely affects advancing side material and rotation speed affects retreating side material. Therefore, for higher weld pitch advancing side material (yellow plasticine) dominates the weld nugget, whereas for lower weld pitch retreating side material (blue plasticine) dominates the weld nugget. 4. The extended macro-structural feature commonly observed in FS welds occurs under influence of plunge depth. Consequently, this macro-structural feature serves as the demarcation point between shoulder affected and pin induced material flow in FS weld. 5. The degree of mixing and subsequent elimination of JLR, improves, when original interface is offset on the advancing side w.r.t tool axis for all the tools investigated in the present study. Triangular and square pin generate larger pin induced mixing which intensifies further with interface on advancing side, indicating tools with such profiles to possess larger safe zone with better mixing characteristics 6. At zero interface offset with all the process parameters fixed, tapered triangular and square pin profile tools produce welds with maximum mixing. For pins with faces, material is transported in lumps around the pin. The size of lump increases with lesser number of faces on pin. Material in the vicinity of the pin experiences spinning/whirling movement. The volume of material experiencing spinning in a single tool revolution depends on (a) weld-pitch (lesser volume of material for smaller weld pitch and vice versa) and (b) number of faces on the pin (lesser volume of material for greater number of faces and vice versa). Therefore, circular pin which can be considered to be made of infinite faces, spinning of material occurs at micro level for relatively smaller weld pitch. 7. For classical FS tool (tapered circular/frustum shape), there exists an optimum ratio (shoulder diameter/pin diameter) situated between 2.7 to 3.6 to produce void free well mixed welds. Tools with ratio of 2.7 and below possess a tendency to produce welds with void but with better mixing in weld region. Tools with ratio of 3.6 and above possess a tendency to produce void free welds but with poor mixing in weld region. Voids appear and grow under following circumstances (a) with increase in pin diameter (for a fixed shoulder diameter), (b) with decrease in shoulder diameter (for a fixed pin diameter), (c) with decrease in pin taper (for a fixed shoulder diameter and top diameter of pin). Pin length has no effect on void formation. However, it is obvious, length of root defect increases with decrease in pin length. The tooling guidelines established in this study through plasticine work can be extended to metallic friction stir welds of various thickness plates by proportionately increasing or decreasing the tool dimensions as long as they fall in the recommended range. 8. Smaller pin diameter tools exhibit higher optimum weld pitch (but with lower degree of mixing) when compared to larger pins (but with higher degree of mixing). Optimum weld pitch represents weld pitch resulting in void free welds. Consequently, tools with higher optimum weld pitch help in welding at a better rate. 9. Tool runout is replicated through tools with eccentric pins. It is interesting to note that, all the tools with pin eccentricities do not assist in mixing but tools with only certain eccentricities (0.3 and 0.6mm assisted in mixing in the present investigation). It implies that tool runout of certain values facilitate mixing in weld. On the other hand density of void increases with eccentricity of pin/tool runout. 10. In dissimilar FSW investigated with plasticine A, B, C and D possessing different flow stresses (flow stresses ascending in the order of A, B, C and D) and strain rate sensitivity of 0.24, 0.22, 0.19 and 0.18 respectively, following inferences are drawn (i) For combination A and B, weldability improves when plasticine B is on Advancing Side (AS) and A is on Retreating Side (RS). The level of mixing also improves when interface is on AS (w.r.t tool axis) for this handedness. On the contrary, severe discontinuities emerge when plasticine B is on RS and A is on AS, especially when interface is closer to the tool pin axis. (ii) For combination A and C, weldability improves when C is on AS and A is on RS. The level of mixing also enhances when interface is on AS (w.r.t tool axis) for this handedness. (iii) For combination A and D, joining is poor for both the handedness. However, nature of defect is different in both the combinations. Cracks are observed when A is located on AS and voids emerge when D is located on AS. On the other hand, placing A on AS results in weld thinning. (iv) For combination B and C, there is no appreciable change in terms of weldability and level of mixing. Both the handedness in this combination yielded fairly similar results. (v) For combination B and D, though discontinuities do not emerge with change in handedness, mixing in weld improves when B is on AS unlike to its location on RS. (vi) For combination C and D, there is no appreciable change in terms of defect formation and level of mixing with change in handedness. Both the handedness in this combination yield fairly similar results.

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a rapidly growing solid state welding process and has been a proven method for welding high strength aluminium alloys which were formerly not recommended for joining by conventional fusion welding methods. Based on the information acquired from previous studies, to obtain a defect free Friction Stir (FS) weld with suitable strength, three basic requirements need to be fulfilled (i) Filling of the cavity created behind the tool pin during its traverse and ensuring satisfactory contact of filled material with newly generated surface (on advancing side trailing edge of the pin) (ii) Disrupting and distributing the oxide layer at the initial weld interface (iii) Adequate level of mixing of both side material (Adjacent and Retreating side) in similar welding. In the case of dissimilar welding mixing is desired in controlled amount (to prevent or curtail formation of intermetallics) depending on material combination. Failure to achieve the first precondition results in void. Second and third precondition are interconnected for similar FSW as adequate mixing in weld helps in disruption and distribution of oxide layer at initial weld interface. Failure to achieve this, results in Joint Line Remnant (JLR). Metal to metal contact cannot be established due to the presence of JLR (aligned oxide particles) and subsequently initial interface is left unwelded which deteriorate the static and dynamic strength of friction stir welds. The problem aggravates while friction stir welding materials with tenacious contaminant layer. Therefore, appropriate stirring (which entails large deformation and mixing) of initial weld interface is essential for successful FS welds. Hence, process aspects assisting mixing of adjacent (Advancing and Retreating side) materials need to identified and studied, which are missing in former studies. Experiments are conducted with classical FS tool (possessing frustum shaped/tapered circular pin) to analyse the effect of welding parameters (tool rotation speed, traverse speed, plunge depth, tool tilt and tool position w.r.t initial interface) and tool runout by changing these parameters over a range. Tool rotation speed, traverse speed, plunge depth and tool position with initial interface are changed continuously and tool tilt and tool runout are changed in discrete steps. Tool geometry is considered to be a prime parameter controlling the magnitude of mixing, as interaction of rotating tool with initial abutting base metal interface makes the process mechanism complex, unlike other solid state welding process, namely forge welding, diffusion welding, friction welding, explosive welding, ultrasonic welding and roll bonding. Furthermore, due to asymmetric nature of material flow in FSW process, the material located in different locations with respect to the tool is subjected to different levels of deformation. For this purpose experiments have been carried out to analyse the effect of different tool geometrical aspects on level of mixing and material flow. On the other hand, visualizing flow and mixing in metals is debatable as insertion of marker material in the weld line can alter the nature of material flow in the weld due to different material flow characteristics of the base and marker materials and introduction of additional interfaces. Further, using dissimilar materials for flow studies cannot be considered for comparison with similar friction stir welds as their flow properties are different. Therefore, an alternate experimental strategy is devised in these studies using physical modelling approach which is effective and helps in identifying and quantifying mixing observed under different tooling and process conditions. In the present investigation, plasticine of primary colours is adopted and the hue attribute of colour is used to study and quantify intermixing. Yellow and Blue plasticine are placed on advancing and retreating sides respectively. The degree of mixing is indicated by the intensity of generated green. Digital images of the cross section in weld nugget region are taken. To obtain hue component of these digital images the RGB color-maps are converted to HSV color-maps. Overall, these studies help in formulating the guidelines which are useful during tool design, and administering the process to obtain a defect free well mixed welds. Based on the experimental results following conclusions are derived. 1. Following process aspects: tool geometry, interface offset, tool rotation and tool runout demonstrate a significant impact on material mixing and breaking and dispersion of initial interface in weld nugget. Tool tilt, plunge depth, tool traverse exhibit negligible effect on degree of mixing. 2. Increase in tool rotation speed (with other parameters fixed) improves mixing substantially but can be increased to a certain limit after which voids emerge due to loss of weld nugget material in the form of flash. 3. Reducing the weld pitch (i.e. increasing tool rotation speed for a given tool traverse speed) reduces the size of the weld nugget and vice versa. Tool traverse speed largely affects advancing side material and rotation speed affects retreating side material. Therefore, for higher weld pitch advancing side material (yellow plasticine) dominates the weld nugget, whereas for lower weld pitch retreating side material (blue plasticine) dominates the weld nugget. 4. The extended macro-structural feature commonly observed in FS welds occurs under influence of plunge depth. Consequently, this macro-structural feature serves as the demarcation point between shoulder affected and pin induced material flow in FS weld. 5. The degree of mixing and subsequent elimination of JLR, improves, when original interface is offset on the advancing side w.r.t tool axis for all the tools investigated in the present study. Triangular and square pin generate larger pin induced mixing which intensifies further with interface on advancing side, indicating tools with such profiles to possess larger safe zone with better mixing characteristics 6. At zero interface offset with all the process parameters fixed, tapered triangular and square pin profile tools produce welds with maximum mixing. For pins with faces, material is transported in lumps around the pin. The size of lump increases with lesser number of faces on pin. Material in the vicinity of the pin experiences spinning/whirling movement. The volume of material experiencing spinning in a single tool revolution depends on (a) weld-pitch (lesser volume of material for smaller weld pitch and vice versa) and (b) number of faces on the pin (lesser volume of material for greater number of faces and vice versa). Therefore, circular pin which can be considered to be made of infinite faces, spinning of material occurs at micro level for relatively smaller weld pitch. 7. For classical FS tool (tapered circular/frustum shape), there exists an optimum ratio (shoulder diameter/pin diameter) situated between 2.7 to 3.6 to produce void free well mixed welds. Tools with ratio of 2.7 and below possess a tendency to produce welds with void but with better mixing in weld region. Tools with ratio of 3.6 and above possess a tendency to produce void free welds but with poor mixing in weld region. Voids appear and grow under following circumstances (a) with increase in pin diameter (for a fixed shoulder diameter), (b) with decrease in shoulder diameter (for a fixed pin diameter), (c) with decrease in pin taper (for a fixed shoulder diameter and top diameter of pin). Pin length has no effect on void formation. However, it is obvious, length of root defect increases with decrease in pin length. The tooling guidelines established in this study through plasticine work can be extended to metallic friction stir welds of various thickness plates by proportionately increasing or decreasing the tool dimensions as long as they fall in the recommended range. 8. Smaller pin diameter tools exhibit higher optimum weld pitch (but with lower degree of mixing) when compared to larger pins (but with higher degree of mixing). Optimum weld pitch represents weld pitch resulting in void free welds. Consequently, tools with higher optimum weld pitch help in welding at a better rate. 9. Tool runout is replicated through tools with eccentric pins. It is interesting to note that, all the tools with pin eccentricities do not assist in mixing but tools with only certain eccentricities (0.3 and 0.6mm assisted in mixing in the present investigation). It implies that tool runout of certain values facilitate mixing in weld. On the other hand density of void increases with eccentricity of pin/tool runout. 10. In dissimilar FSW investigated with plasticine A, B, C and D possessing different flow stresses (flow stresses ascending in the order of A, B, C and D) and strain rate sensitivity of 0.24, 0.22, 0.19 and 0.18 respectively, following inferences are drawn (i) For combination A and B, weldability improves when plasticine B is on Advancing Side (AS) and A is on Retreating Side (RS). The level of mixing also improves when interface is on AS (w.r.t tool axis) for this handedness. On the contrary, severe discontinuities emerge when plasticine B is on RS and A is on AS, especially when interface is closer to the tool pin axis. (ii) For combination A and C, weldability improves when C is on AS and A is on RS. The level of mixing also enhances when interface is on AS (w.r.t tool axis) for this handedness. (iii) For combination A and D, joining is poor for both the handedness. However, nature of defect is different in both the combinations. Cracks are observed when A is located on AS and voids emerge when D is located on AS. On the other hand, placing A on AS results in weld thinning. (iv) For combination B and C, there is no appreciable change in terms of weldability and level of mixing. Both the handedness in this combination yielded fairly similar results. (v) For combination B and D, though discontinuities do not emerge with change in handedness, mixing in weld improves when B is on AS unlike to its location on RS. (vi) For combination C and D, there is no appreciable change in terms of defect formation and level of mixing with change in handedness. Both the handedness in this combination yield fairly similar results.

Die moderne Architektur ist durch gläserne Fassaden und ausgefallene Konstruktionen aus Glas geprägt. Dabei wird Glas nicht nur als raumabschließendes Element verwendet, sondern auch konstruktiv eingesetzt und zunehmend an der Lastabtragung beteiligt. Die Integration von Glaselementen in die Baukonstruktion erfolgt über linien- oder punktförmige Lagerungen. Dabei können mechanisch ausgeführte Halterungen lokale Beanspruchungen und damit Glasversagen verursachen. Eine Alternative bilden Klebverbindungen, welche ein materialgerechtes Konstruieren im Glasbau ermöglichen. Kommerziell wird hierfür eine Vielzahl von Klebstoffen angeboten. Neben der Auswahl eines geeigneten Klebstoffsystems können dauerhafte adhäsive Verbindungen aber meist nur mit Hilfe von Oberflächenvorbehandlungen der Fügeteile gewährleistet werden. Aufgrund der langen Standzeiten von Bauwerken sind große Beständigkeiten von geklebten Verbindungen notwendig, welche nur durch den Aufbau von möglichst hohen Haftungskräften zwischen Fügeteiloberflächen und Klebstoffpolymer erreichbar sind. Spezielle Vorbehandlungsverfahren sorgen für eine bessere Benetzbarkeit der Oberflächen und schaffen zudem energetisch aktive Zentren, die mit den Klebstoffen in Wechselwirkung treten können. Viele der insbesondere für metallische Materialien industriell etablierten Oberflächenvorbehandlungen sind allerdings wenig zukunftsträchtig, da diese Verfahren häufig den Einsatz ätzender, hochgiftiger und umweltgefährdender Substanzen notwendig machen. Hierin liegt der Ansatzpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit. In verschiedenen Industriebereichen, wie dem Automobilbau, der Elektrotechnik und der Dentalmedizin werden bereits neu entwickelte Oberflächenvorbehandlungsverfahren auf Basis von Plasma- und Abscheidungstechnologien eingesetzt. Daraus ergibt sich die Fragestellung nach der Anwendbarkeit solcher Verfahren auf Fügeteilmaterialien des Konstruktiven Glasbaus und nach dem Nutzen dieser Oberflächenvorbehandlungen in Bezug auf die Optimierung von strukturellen Klebungen. Für die Ermittlung optimaler Eigenschaften von Oberflächen für den klebtechnischen Prozess werden ausgewählte Fügeteile aus Edelstahl, Aluminium und Messing sowie Einscheibensicherheitglas aus Kalk-Natronsilikatglas physikalischen und chemischen Oberflächenanalysen vor und nach der Anwendung von vier verschiedenen Oberflächenvorbehandlungsverfahren unterzogen. Zudem werden die Haftungseigenschaften nach der Vorbehandlung an geklebten Prüfkörpern vor und nach Alterung untersucht. Aus den daraus erhaltenen Ergebnissen wird der Einfluss der Oberflächenbeschaffenheit auf die Festigkeit der Klebverbindungen bestimmt. Die durchgeführten Untersuchungen ergeben sehr unterschiedliche, stark substrat- und klebstoffabhängige Wirkungsweisen der einzelnen Oberflächenvorbehandlungen. Als geeignetes Verfahren in Bezug auf die Verbesserungen des Adhäsionsvermögens und der Alterungsbeständigkeit, die Integrierbarkeit in maschinelle Herstellungsprozesse und die Vermeidung optischer Veränderung der Oberflächen stellt sich die Flammensilikatisierung heraus. Die mit dieser Oberflächenvorbehandlung aufgebrachte, dichte Silikatschicht und deren chemische Aktivität sowie deren vollständige Benetzbarkeit bieten beste Voraussetzungen für die Verklebung verschiedener Fügeteilmaterialien mit unterschiedlichsten Klebstoffen.
The modern architecture is affected by glass facades and novel glass structures. Therein glass is not only used as space enclosing element, rather it finds more and more constructive application and it is increasingly involved in load transfer. State of the art for the integration of glass elements in buildings are mechanically designed point and linear fixings. But they may cause local stresses followed by glass breakage. An alternative to these fixations are adhesive joints which more respect the specific requirements of the fragile material glass. A wide variety of adhesives is already available for this purpose. For strong adhesive joints not only the selection of a suitable adhesive is essential. The surface quality, which can be enhanced by surface treatments, is just as important for a very good adhesion. Due to the long life expectancy of buildings, a permanently aging resistance of the adhesive joints is necessary. For that, a formation of the highest possible adhesion forces between adhesive polymer and adherend surface is essential. Special surface treatment processes ensure a better wettability of the surfaces and also create energetically active sites that can interact with the adhesive molecules. However, many of the industrially established surface pretreatments, especially those for metallic materials, are not sustainable, since these methods often use corrosive, highly toxic and environmentally hazardous substances. This is the basis of the present dissertation. In various industries, such as automotive, electrical engineering and dentistry, newly developed surface treatment methods based on plasma and deposition technologies are already used. This raises the question of the applicability of such methods on materials for glass constructions and of their benefit to the optimization of structural adhesive joints. The effect of four different surface treatment methods used on the surfaces of stainless steel, aluminum, brass and toughened safety glass made from soda-lime glass is investigated in experimental studies. Physical and chemical surface analyses are performed before and after the applications. In addition, the adhesion properties of bonded specimens with pretreated surfaces are examined before and after aging. The influence of the surface conditions on the strength of the adhesive joints is determined from the obtained results. The results show very different effects of the individual surface treatment methods with high dependences on substrate and adhesive. With regard to an increase of adhesion strength, a good aging resistance, an uncomplicated integration into automated production processes and an avoidance of changing the optical surface properties, the investigated combustion chemical vapour deposition is the most suitable method. With this pretreatment, a dense silicate layer is deposite on the surface. Its high chemical activity and its complete wettability offer the best conditions for bonding a variety of materials with different adhesives.