Artykuły w czasopismach: „McCarthy scales of children's abilities (MSCA)”

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Hutagalung, Fonny Dameaty, Chew Fong Peng, Donnie Adams i Nina Fitriana. "A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CHILDREN’S COGNITIVE ABILITY IN MALAYSIAN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE PRE-SCHOOLS". Journal of Nusantara Studies (JONUS) 7, nr 2 (30.06.2022): 377–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol7iss2pp377-398.

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Background and Purpose: A child’s cognitive, physical, and socioeconomic development must be stimulated as early as possible to ensure it is on the right path. However, only a few studies have been conducted to investigate the difference in cognitive abilities between public and private pre-schoolers in Malaysia. Methodology: A total of 121 students aged five to six were selected from public and private pre-schools in Kuala Lumpur using a purposive sampling method. The children's general cognitive abilities were assessed using the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (MSCA). Findings: The findings showed that the general cognitive abilities of public and private pre-school children are at a moderate level. The results also indicated no statistically significant effect of the type of pre-school, parents’ level of education, and parents’ income level on children’s cognitive ability. Contributions: This research provides insights into the children’s cognitive ability in some selected public and private preschools in Malaysia. The outcome is essential in determining the general cognitive abilities of the children. Possible future works are suggested to explore the topic from different perspectives in order to improve children’s cognitive ability. Keywords: Cognitive abilities, pre-school children, type of pre-school, parents’ education, parents’ income. Cite as: Hutagalung, F. D., Chew, F. P., Adams, D., & Fitriana, N. (2022). A comparative study of children’s cognitive ability in Malaysian public and private pre-schools. Journal of Nusantara Studies, 7(2), 377-398. http://dx.doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol7iss2pp377-398

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O’Connor, Giselle, Jordi Julvez, Silvia Fernandez-Barrés, Eva Mᵃ Navarrete-Muñoz, Mario Murcia, Adonina Tardón, Isolina Riaño Galán i in. "Association of Lifestyle Factors and Neuropsychological Development of 4-Year-Old Children". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, nr 16 (5.08.2020): 5668. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17165668.

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Background: We aimed to assess how lifestyle factors such as diet, sleep, screen viewing, and physical activity, individually, as well as in a combined score, were associated with neuropsychological development in pre-school age children. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study in 1650 children of 4 years of age, from the Environment and Childhood Project (INMA) population-based birth cohorts in four regions of Spain. Children were classified per a childhood healthy lifestyle score (CHLS) with a range of 0 to 4 that included eating in concordance with the Mediterranean diet (1 point); reaching recommended sleep time (1 point); watching a maximum recommended screen time (1 point); and being physically active (1 point). The McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (MSCA) were used to test neuropsychological development. Multi-adjusted linear regression models were created to assess the association with the lifestyle factors individually and as a combined score. Results: CHLS was not associated with MSCA general cognitive score (1-point increment = −0.5, 95% CI: −1.2, 0.2). Analyzed by separate lifestyle factors, physical activity had a significant negative association with MSCA score and less TV/screen time had a negative association with MSCA score. Conclusion: In this cross-sectional study, a combined score of lifestyle factors is not related to neuropsychological development at pre-school age.

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Torres-Olascoaga, Libni A., Deborah Watkins, Lourdes Schnaas, John D. Meeker, Maritsa Solano-Gonzalez, Erika Osorio-Valencia, Karen E. Peterson, Martha María Tellez-Rojo i Marcela Tamayo-Ortiz. "Early Gestational Exposure to High-Molecular-Weight Phthalates and Its Association with 48-Month-Old Children’s Motor and Cognitive Scores". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, nr 21 (4.11.2020): 8150. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17218150.

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In utero phthalate exposure has been associated with neurodevelopmental disorders, nevertheless, trimester-specific susceptibility remains understudied. Our aim was to identify susceptible windows to the effects of gestational High-Molecular-Weight Phthalates (HMWP) exposure on 48 months’ neurodevelopment. We measured six HMWP metabolites (MEHP, MEHHP, MEOHP, MECPP, MBzP and MCPP) in urine samples collected during each trimester from women in the Early Life Exposure in Mexico to Environmental Toxicants (ELEMENT) cohort (n = 218). We assessed children’s motor (MS), cognitive (GCI) and memory (MeS) abilities using McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (MSCA). We used linear regression models to examine associations between trimester-specific phthalate metabolites and MSCA scores, adjusted for sex, gestational age, breastfeeding, and maternal IQ. Although phthalate concentrations were similar across trimesters, first and second trimester phthalates were inversely associated with MS and GCI, with first trimester associations with MS being the strongest and statistically significant. Stronger associations were seen with MS and GCI among boys compared to girls, however interaction terms were not statistically significant. Our results suggest that early gestation is a sensitive window of exposure to HMWP for neurodevelopment, particularly in boys. Regulations on phthalate content in food as well as pregnancy consumption guidelines are necessary to protect future generations.

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Leventakou, Vasiliki, Theano Roumeliotaki, Katerina Sarri, Katerina Koutra, Mariza Kampouri, Andriani Kyriklaki, Maria Vassilaki, Manolis Kogevinas i Leda Chatzi. "Dietary patterns in early childhood and child cognitive and psychomotor development: the Rhea mother–child cohort study in Crete". British Journal of Nutrition 115, nr 8 (18.02.2016): 1431–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007114516000246.

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AbstractEarly-life nutrition is critical for optimal brain development; however, few studies have evaluated the impact of diet as a whole in early childhood on neurological development with inconsistent results. The present analysis is a cross-sectional study nested within an ongoing prospective birth cohort, the Rhea study, and aims to examine the association of dietary patterns with cognitive and psychomotor development in 804 preschool (mean age 4·2 years) children. Parents completed a validated FFQ, and dietary patterns were identified using principal component analysis. Child cognitive and psychomotor development was assessed by the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (MSCA). Multivariable linear regression models were used to investigate the associations of dietary patterns with the MSCA scales. After adjustment for a large number of confounding factors, the ‘Snacky’ pattern (potatoes and other starchy roots, salty snacks, sugar products and eggs) was negatively associated with the scales of verbal ability (β=−1·31; 95 % CI −2·47, −0·16), general cognitive ability (β=−1·13; 95 % CI −2·25, −0·02) and cognitive functions of the posterior cortex (β=−1·20; 95 % CI −2·34, −0·07). Further adjustment for maternal intelligence, folic acid supplementation and alcohol use during pregnancy attenuated the observed associations, but effect estimates remained at the same direction. The ‘Western’ and the ‘Mediterranean’ patterns were not associated with child neurodevelopmental scales. The present findings suggest that poorer food choices at preschool age characterised by foods high in fat, salt and sugar are associated with reduced scores in verbal and cognitive ability.

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Hsu, Hsiao-Hsien Leon, Jamil M. Lane, Lourdes Schnaas, Brent A. Coull, Erika Osorio-Valencia, Yueh-Hsiu Mathilda Chiu, Ander Wilson i in. "Sensitive development windows of prenatal air pollution and cognitive functioning in preschool age Mexican children". Environmental Epidemiology 8, nr 1 (9.01.2024): e291. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ee9.0000000000000291.

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Introduction: Neurotoxicity resulting from air pollution is of increasing concern. Considering exposure timing effects on neurodevelopmental impairments may be as important as the exposure dose. We used distributed lag regression to determine the sensitive windows of prenatal exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) on children’s cognition in a birth cohort in Mexico. Methods: Analysis included 553 full-term (≥37 weeks gestation) children. Prenatal daily PM2.5 exposure was estimated using a validated satellite-based spatiotemporal model. McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (MSCA) were used to assess children’s cognitive function at 4–5 years old (lower scores indicate poorer performance). To identify susceptibility windows, we used Bayesian distributed lag interaction models to examine associations between prenatal PM2.5 levels and MSCA. This allowed us to estimate vulnerable windows while testing for effect modification. Results: After adjusting for maternal age, socioeconomic status, child age, and sex, Bayesian distributed lag interaction models showed significant associations between increased PM2.5 levels and decreased general cognitive index scores at 31–35 gestation weeks, decreased quantitative scale scores at 30–36 weeks, decreased motor scale scores at 30–36 weeks, and decreased verbal scale scores at 37–38 weeks. Estimated cumulative effects (CE) of PM2.5 across pregnancy showed significant associations with general cognitive index ( = −0.35, 95% confidence interval [CI] = −0.68, −0.01), quantitative scale ( = −0.27, 95% CI = −0.74, −0.02), motor scale ( = −0.25, 95% CI = −0.44, −0.05), and verbal scale ( = −0.2, 95% CI = −0.43, −0.02). No significant sex interactions were observed. Conclusions: Prenatal exposure to PM2.5, particularly late pregnancy, was inversely associated with subscales of MSCA. Using data-driven methods to identify sensitive window may provide insight into the mechanisms of neurodevelopmental impairment due to pollution.

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Tahaei, Hana, Florence Gignac, Ariadna Pinar, Silvia Fernandez-Barrés, Dora Romaguera, Jesus Vioque, Loreto Santa-Marina i in. "Omega-3 Fatty Acid Intake during Pregnancy and Child Neuropsychological Development: A Multi-Centre Population-Based Birth Cohort Study in Spain". Nutrients 14, nr 3 (25.01.2022): 518. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu14030518.

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Background: There are few studies that look at the intake of all types of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) during the different stages of pregnancy along with a long-term neuropsychological follow-up of the child. This study aims to explore the association between maternal n-3 PUFA intake during two periods of pregnancy and the child’s neuropsychological scores at different ages. Methods: Prospective data were obtained for 2644 pregnant women recruited between 2004 and 2008 in population-based birth cohorts in Spain. Maternal n-3 PUFA intake during the first and third trimester of pregnancy was estimated using validated food frequency questionnaires. Child neuropsychological functions were assessed using Bayley Scales of Infant Development version one (BSID) at 1 year old, the McCarthy Scale of Children’s Abilities (MSCA) at 4 years old, and the Attention Network Test (ANT) at 7 years old. Data were analysed using multivariate linear regression models and adjusted for potential covariates, such as maternal social class, education, cohort location, alcohol consumption, smoking, breastfeeding duration, and energy intake. Results: Compared to participants in the lowest quartile (<1.262 g/day) of n-3 PUFA consumption during the first trimester, those in the highest quartile (>1.657 g/day) had a 2.26 points (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.41, 4.11) higher MSCA general cognitive score, a 2.48 points (95% CI: 0.53, 4.43) higher MSCA verbal score, and a 2.06 points (95% CI: 0.166, 3.95) higher MSCA executive function score, and a 11.52 milliseconds (95% CI: −22.95, −0.09) lower ANT hit reaction time standard error. In the third pregnancy trimester, the associations were weaker. Conclusions: Positive associations between n-3 PUFA intake during early pregnancy and child neuropsychological functions at 4 and 7 years of age were found, and further clinical research is needed to confirm these findings.

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Malin, Ashley J., Stefanie A. Busgang, Alejandra J. Cantoral, Katherine Svensson, Manuela A. Orjuela, Ivan Pantic, Lourdes Schnaas i in. "Quality of Prenatal and Childhood Diet Predicts Neurodevelopmental Outcomes among Children in Mexico City". Nutrients 10, nr 8 (15.08.2018): 1093. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu10081093.

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Adequate nutrition is important for neurodevelopment. Although nutrients are ingested in combination, the impact of specific nutrients within the context of a nutrient mixture has not been studied with respect to health, such as neurodevelopment. Therefore, we examined the impact of prenatal and childhood nutrient mixtures on neurodevelopmental outcomes. Participants included mother–child pairs in the Programming Research in Obesity, Growth, Environment, and Social Stress (PROGRESS) prospective birth cohort in Mexico City. We assessed prenatal and child micro- and macronutrient profiles among 65 and 329 children, respectively, via food frequency questionnaires. Neurodevelopmental outcomes of 4–6-year-old children were measured using the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (MSCA). We conducted weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression analyses to calculate indices reflecting “good” and “poor” prenatal and childhood nutrition. After adjusting for maternal education, socioeconomic status, the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) score, and total caloric intake, the good prenatal and childhood nutrition indices predicted more favorable neurodevelopment, while both poor nutrition indices predicted poorer neurodevelopment. These associations were stronger in prenatal than childhood models. Monounsaturated fats predicted various neurodevelopmental abilities relatively strongly in both models. Prenatal and childhood consumption of combinations of beneficial nutrients may contribute to more favorable neurodevelopment.

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Freire, Carmen, Rosa Ramos, Esperanza Amaya, Mariana F. Fernández, Piedad Santiago-Fernández, Maria-Jose Lopez-Espinosa, Juan-Pedro Arrebola i Nicolas Olea. "Newborn TSH concentration and its association with cognitive development in healthy boys". European Journal of Endocrinology 163, nr 6 (grudzień 2010): 901–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/eje-10-0495.

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ObjectiveAn association between thyroid function during pregnancy or infancy and neurodevelopment in children has been demonstrated. We aimed to investigate whether newborn TSH concentrations are related to subsequent neurocognitive development.DesignWe conducted a longitudinal study on 178 children from a general population birth cohort in Granada (Spain) born in 2000–2002.MethodsTSH concentrations were measured in umbilical cord blood, and cognitive functions were assessed at 4 years of age using the McCarthy's scales of children's abilities (MSCA). Organochlorine (OC) compound concentrations and the combined oestrogenicity (total effective xeno-oestrogenic burden (TEXB)) were also determined in the placentae.ResultsMean newborn TSH was 3.55 mU/l (range=0.24–17 mU/l). In multivariate regression analyses, adjusting for maternal and child characteristics, higher newborn TSH concentrations showed a decrease of 3.51 and 3.15 points on the MSCA general cognitive and executive function scores respectively and were associated with a higher risk of scoring below the 20th percentile (P20) on the quantitative score (odds ratio (OR)=2.64). Children with TSH in the upper quartile (4.19–17.0 mU/l) were at higher risk of scoring <P20 on span memory (OR=5.73), whereas children with TSH in the second quartile (2.05–2.95 mU/l) were at lower risk of scoring <P20 on the verbal scale (OR=0.24). Neonatal TSH status was also associated with general cognitive and executive function outcomes when controlling for prenatal exposure to OCs or placental TEXB.ConclusionsNewborn thyroid hormone status expressed by TSH in cord blood may adversely affect later cognitive function. A more thorough screening for neonatal thyroid deficiency is warranted.

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Ginsburg, Harvey J., Roque Mendez, Efraim Padilla, Martin Arocena, Emily Vargas Adams i Paul Davis. "Perceptual Development and Early Childhood Injuries: A Prospective Pilot Study". Perceptual and Motor Skills 76, nr 1 (luty 1993): 125–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1993.76.1.125.

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A prospective pilot study of 172 Hispanic children was performed to identify developmental predictors of 9 maternal reports of childhood injuries that required medical attention during the following year. The 1972 McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities was administered near the children's third birthday and maternal reports of injuries were obtained the following year. Multiple regression analysis indicated that the Verbal, Perceptual, Quantitative, Memory, and Motor Subscales of the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities accounted for a small but statistically significant proportion of variance. Within the model, children who showed advanced abilities on the Perceptual Subscale were more likely to be reported as having an injury requiring medical attention during the subsequent 12-month period.

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Karr, Sharon K., Howard Carvajal, Denise Elser, Kim Bays, Robert A. Logan i Gregory L. Page. "Concurrent Validity of the WPPSI—R and the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities". Psychological Reports 72, nr 3 (czerwiec 1993): 940–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1993.72.3.940.

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The concurrent validity of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—Revised (WPPSI—R) and the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities was assessed with 32 preschool and kindergarten children. The correlations of .70, .73, and .81 between the McCarthy General Cognitive Index and WPPSI—R IQs on the Verbal, Performance, and Full Scales were significantly different from zero. There were no differences among the three WPPSI—R means and the McCarthy General Cognitive Index mean for the total group, or for gender means.

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Moon, Soo-Back, Toshinori Ishikuma i Alan S. Kaufman. "Joint Factor Analysis of the K-ABC and Mc Carthy Scales". Perceptual and Motor Skills 65, nr 3 (grudzień 1987): 699–704. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1987.65.3.699.

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A joint-factor analysis was conducted using three major scales of the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities and eight Kaufman-ABC subtests as variables. Subjects were 90 children ages 4 to 8 1/2 yr. The scree test produced three significant factors, each interpretable from the Kaufman-ABC model. McCarthy Verbal scale was closely associated with the Achievement/Verbal factor; McCarthy Perceptual performance scale loaded highly on the Simultaneous Processing dimension; and McCarthy Quantitative was associated with all three factors. These results provide useful guidelines for interpreting a child's performance on each Index of the McCarthy scales in terms of the mental processing approach used to solve the task. However, the psychometric results must be coordinated with the examiner's clinical observations of the child's problem-solving strategies during administration of the McCarthy scales to understand more completely the processing demands of the Verbal, Perceptual performance, and Quantitative Scales.

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Karr, Sharon K., Howard Carvajal i Bettye L. Palmer. "Comparison of Kaufman's Short Form of the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities and the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales—Fourth Edition". Perceptual and Motor Skills 74, nr 3_suppl (czerwiec 1992): 1120–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1992.74.3c.1120.

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21 kindergarten children completed the Stanford-Binet-IV (Binet-IV) and the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities. Kaufman's (1977) estimated General Cognitive Index (GCI) was computed from the entire McCarthy scales. There was only one significant difference among the Binet-IV and estimated GCI scores. Abstract/Visual Reasoning was significantly lower than the Kaufman GCI. Correlations of the five Binet-IV Standard Age Scores and the Kaufman GCI ranged from .29 to .67. The correlation between the GCI and the Kaufman estimated GCI was .91.

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Chermak, Gail D., i Julie M. Fisher. "Association between Paired Subtests of Auditory Sequential Memory Administered to Preschool Children". Perceptual and Motor Skills 68, nr 1 (luty 1989): 255–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1989.68.1.255.

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Auditory sequential memory subtests of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence and the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities were administered individually to 20 normal preschool children. Poor performance on the McCarthy words/sentences subtest suggests retention difficulties associated with isolated words in the absence of linguistic context. Correlations of only moderate strength and large unexplained variance indicate poor predictability between subtests despite similarities in content and procedural details.

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Trueman, Mark, i Alan Branthwaite. "Finding fault with criticisms of the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities". Educational Research 27, nr 3 (listopad 1985): 183–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0013188850270304.

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Harrington, Robert G., i Valerie Jennings. "A Comparison of three short forms of the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities". Contemporary Educational Psychology 11, nr 2 (kwiecień 1986): 109–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0361-476x(86)90001-9.

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Branthwaite, Alan, i Mark Trueman. "Ambiguities in Watkins and Wiebe's Regression Analysis of the Mccarthy Scales of Children's Abilities". Educational and Psychological Measurement 45, nr 2 (lipiec 1985): 425–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001316448504500231.

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Riyanto, Pulung, Harani Fitrianti, Ni Nyoman Rediani i Cristiana Normalita De Lima. "Keterampilan Motorik Kasar Anak Prasekolah: Analisis Program Intervensi Motorik". Jurnal Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pendidikan 6, nr 3 (10.11.2022): 432–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.23887/jppp.v6i3.53617.

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Masih rendahnya keterampilan motorik anak pra-sekolah menuntut pendidikan menerapakan sebuah program yang dapat menstimulasi keterampilan motorik. Tujuan penelitian ini untuk menganalisis program kegiatan gerakan terstruktur terhadap perkembangan motorik anak usia tiga sampai lima tahun yang bersekolah di prasekolah. Metode yang digunakan kuasi eksperimen dengan pendekatan kuantitatif. Sampel yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini 72 anak Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini (PAUD). Instrumen yang digunakan dari McCarthy Children's Psychomotricity and Aptitude Scales (MSCA, USA) dan koordinasi lengan. Analisis menggunakan MANOVA 2×2 faktorial. Hasil penelitian menunjukan anak-anak prasekolah pada kedua kelompok mendapat peningkatan yang signifikan dalam kontras pra-intervensi dengan pasca-intervensi dalam koordinasi anggota badan. Perbedaan yang signifikan secara statistik dalam pengukuran pasca-intervensi antara kelompok pembanding dan kelompok intervensi pada koordinasi lengan dan kaki diamati, dimana kelompok intervensi menunjukkan nilai koordinasi lengan yang lebih tinggi dan nilai koordinasi kaki yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan kelompok pembanding. Pendidikan aktivitas fisik terstruktur adalah metodologi pendidikan yang lebih baik daripada bermain bebas untuk mencapai perkembangan motorik yang memadai pada anak-anak prasekolah.

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Morgan, Robert L., Brenda Dawson i David Kerby. "The performance of preschoolers with speech/language disorders on the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities". Psychology in the Schools 29, nr 1 (styczeń 1992): 11–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1520-6807(199201)29:1<11::aid-pits2310290103>3.0.co;2-z.

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Jennings, Kay Donahue, i Robin E. Connors. "Mothers' Interactional Style and Children's Competence at 3 Years". International Journal of Behavioral Development 12, nr 2 (czerwiec 1989): 155–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/016502548901200202.

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This study asked how mothers' style of interaction related to their children's competence-both competence on traditional cognitive tests and competence during play. Forty-four mothers and their 3-year-old children were observed in their homes while engaged in structured and unstructured tasks and unstructured play. Maternal directiveness and affective tone were assessed, as well as maternal perceptions of their children's intrinsic motivation. At school the children were given the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities, and their play was observed. Results indicated that both maternal directiveness and affective tone related to children's cognition, particularly nonverbal cognition; in addition, maternal affective tone related to children's play. Theoretical models of the development of children's competence were evaluated by means of path analysis. For perceptual performance ability, direct paths of influence were found for maternal directiveness and socioeconomic status (SES); whereas for children's verbal ability, direct paths were found for maternal affective tone, maternal perceptions, and SES. Direct paths of influence were also found from maternal affective tone and directiveness to children's play.

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Rieck, Miriam, Ilan Arad i Dvorah Netzer. "Developmental Evaluation of Very-low-birthweight Infants: Longitudinal and Cross-sectional Studies". International Journal of Behavioral Development 19, nr 3 (wrzesień 1996): 549–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/016502549601900306.

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The cognitive development of 83 children of very-low-birthweight (VLBW; birthweight - 1500 grams), ages three to seven years, was evaluated in longitudinal and cross-sectional studies on the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities. In the longitudinal study, head circumference had the strongest association with cognitive scores. Other factors related to cognitive scores included neurological complications during hospitalisation in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), the child's age at the present investigation, and mother's level of education. In the cross-sectional study, the VLBW children were compared with control groups of children from middle class families (MC) and lower class families (LC). The VLBW group scored significantly lower than the MC group on all the McCarthy scales, but did not differ from the LC group. When level of mother's education was partialled out, group differences remained significant, except for the perceptual-performance scale. Evaluation of the increase in VLBW children's raw scores on the subtests, from age three to seven, demonstrated that VLBW advanced significantly less than the MC children in Word Knowledge, Conceptual Grouping, and Numerical Memory Backwards. Furthermore, the gap between the scores of VLBW and MC children increased over time. These results demonstrate that VLBW children with normal levels of IQ score significantly lower than the MC group on many cognitive tasks, and that on some of these the gap increased over age.

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Massoth, Neil A. "The McCarthy scales of Children's Abilities as a predictor of achievement: A five-year follow-up". Psychology in the Schools 22, nr 1 (styczeń 1985): 10–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1520-6807(198501)22:1<10::aid-pits2310220103>3.0.co;2-l.

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Lewis, Michael, John Worobey, Douglas S. Ramsay i Michael K. McCormack. "Prenatal Exposure to Heavy Metals: Effect on Childhood Cognitive Skills and Health Status". Pediatrics 89, nr 6 (1.06.1992): 1010–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.89.6.1010.

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Prenatal exposure to seven heavy metals (cadmium, chromium, cobalt, lead, mercury, nickel, and silver) was determined for amniotic fluid taken from 92 pregnant women undergoing amniocentesis at approximately 16 to 18 weeks' gestation. Follow-up assessment of their children's cognitive skills and health status was conducted when the children were approximately 3 years of age. The presence of these metals co-occurred in amniotic fluid. A prenatal toxic risk score was derived which was a weighted score reflecting the presence of the various metals in amniotic fluid. The toxic risk score was negatively related to performance on the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities and positively related to the number of child illnesses reported. These results suggest the need for further prospective research on the adverse effects of prenatal exposure to various metals in combination.

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Caplan, H. L., S. R. Cogill, Heather Alexandra, Kay Mordecai Robson, R. Katz i R. Kumar. "Maternal Depression and the Emotional Development of the Child". British Journal of Psychiatry 154, nr 6 (czerwiec 1989): 818–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.154.6.818.

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Ninety-two women and their first-born children took part in a longitudinal survey of maternal mental health. When the children were four years old, their mothers were interviewed by means of the Behavioural Screening Questionnaire, and the children's problems were rated by a psychiatrist, who was unaware of the mothers' psychiatric histories or of assessments of their current health. As expected, mothers who were concurrently depressed reported significantly more behavioural difficulties in their children. Marital disharmony during pregnancy and a history of paternal psychiatric problems were also associated with later childhood behavioural difficulties. Children who scored below average on the McCarthy scales of cognitive abilities were also reported by their mothers to have more behavioural problems, but the children's behavioural difficulties at four showed no clear links with postnatal depression.

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Bond, Gayle Goldstein. "An Assessment of Cognitive Abilities in Hearing and Hearing-Impaired Preschool Children". Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders 52, nr 4 (listopad 1987): 319–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/jshd.5204.319.

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There have been many investigations of cognitive development in older hearing-impaired children, but few with preschool hearing-impaired children. The performance of 40 hearing and 40 hearing-impaired children of preschool age (2 ½ to 5 ½ years) was compared on five nonverbal cognitive tasks and three subtests from the Perceptual Performance subscale of the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities (1972). For this set of tasks there was a significant effect of age consistent with a developmental change. A one-way MANCOVA on all dependent measures with age as the covariate revealed no significant differences between the hearing-impaired and hearing children. The results suggest that despite a deficiency in language abilities, the cognitive development of young hearing-impaired children is comparable to that of hearing children of the same age.

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Lynn, Richard, i Susan Hampson. "Intellectual abilities of Japanese children: An assessment of 212–812-year-olds derived from the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities". Intelligence 10, nr 1 (styczeń 1986): 41–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0160-2896(86)90026-7.

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Valencia, Richard R. "Erratum to “stability of the McCarthy Scales of Children's abilities over a one-year period for Mexican-American Children”". Psychology in the Schools 22, nr 2 (kwiecień 1985): 231. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1520-6807(198504)22:2<231::aid-pits2310220217>3.0.co;2-j.

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Willoughby, Anne, Howard A. Moss, Van S. Hubbard, Barry B. Bercu, Barry I. Graubard, Peter M. Vietze, Charles C. Chang i Heinz W. Berendes. "Developmental Outcome in Children Exposed to Chloride-Deficient Formula". Pediatrics 79, nr 6 (1.06.1987): 851–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.79.6.851.

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The developmental outcome of 2- and 4-year-old children who had been exposed as infants to chloride-deficient formula was studied. A negative dose-response relationship was demonstrated between use of the formula without additional nutritional supplementation and cognitive outcome as measured by the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (Pearson r = –.55, P = .01) at 2 years of age. A similar negative relationship was demonstrated between this exclusive use of the defective formula and perceptual (Pearson r = –.51, P < .05), motor (Pearson r = –.52, P < .05), and fine motor (Pearson r = –.75, P < .002) ability as measured by the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities at 4 years of age. When other known predictors of developmental outcome were taken into account by means of multiple linear regression analyses, exclusive formula use emerged as an important predictor of the children's cognitive functioning at 2 years (model R2 = .59, P < .005) and of quantitative (model R2 = .58, P < .006), perceptual (model R2 = .63, P < .009), and fine motor ability (model R2 = .74, P < .003) at 4 years of age. These data raise concern about the developmental outcome of the children exposed to chloride-deficient formula.

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Eno, Lawrence, i Paula Woehlke. "Comparison of Achievement in Half-Day, Every-Day and All-Day, Alternate-Day Early Childhood Programs for Handicapped Children". Psychological Reports 60, nr 3 (czerwiec 1987): 923–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1987.60.3.923.

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Because no report gives comparative performance of preschool handicapped children in all-day, alternate-day or half-day, every-day programs, in the present study the performance of 17 handicapped children from all-day, alternate-day programs was examined and 20 from half-day, every-day programs. Each child was given the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—Revised, the California Preschool Social Competency Scale, and the Lollipop Test. Pretesting took place in September, 1984 and posttesting in May of 1985. The half-day, every-day children did not differ from the all-day, alternate-day students on posttest performance after controlling for entering differences. These results agree with reviewed research on the preschool population and suggest that, while instruction of quality is beneficial to preschool children, the delivery schedule of that instruction is of less importance.

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Goodman, Michael, Katherine Squibb, Eric Youngstrom, Laura Gutermuth Anthony, Lauren Kenworthy, Paul H. Lipkin, Donald R. Mattison i Judy S. LaKind. "Using systematic reviews and meta-analyses to support regulatory decision making for neurotoxicants: lessons learned from a case study of PCBs". Ciência & Saúde Coletiva 16, nr 7 (lipiec 2011): 3207–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1413-81232011000800020.

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We examined prospective cohort studies evaluating the relation between prenatal and neonatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and neurodevelopment in children to assess the feasibility of conducting a meta-analysis to support decision making. We described studies in terms of exposure and end point categorization, statistical analysis, and reporting of results. We used this evaluation to assess the feasibility of grouping studies into reasonably uniform categories. The most consistently used tests included Brazelton's Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale, the neurologic optimality score in the neonatal period, the Bayley Scales of Infant Development at 5-8months of age, and the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities in 5-year-olds. Despite administering the same tests at similar ages, the studies were too dissimilar to allow a meaningful quantitative examination of outcomes across cohorts. These analyses indicate that our ability to conduct weight-of-evidence assessments of the epidemiologic literature on neurotoxicants may be limited, even in the presence of multiple studies, if the available study methods, data analysis, and reporting lack comparability.

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Bellinger, David, Alan Leviton, Jone Sloman, Michael Rabinowitz, Herbert L. Needleman i Christine Waternaux. "Low-Level Lead Exposure and Children's Cognitive Function in the Preschool Years". Pediatrics 87, nr 2 (1.02.1991): 219–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.87.2.219.

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In a cohort of 170 middle and upper-middle class children participating in a prospective study of child development and low-level lead exposure, higher blood lead levels at age 24 months were associated with lower scores at age 57 months on the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities. The mean blood lead level at age 24 months was 6.8 µg/dL (SD = 6.3; 75th, 90th, and 99th percentiles: 8.8, 13.7, 23.6, respectively) and for all but 1 child was less than 25 µg/dL, the current definition of an "elevated" level. After adjustment for confounding, scores on the General Cognitive Index decreased approximately 3 points (SE = 1.4) for each natural log unit increase in 24-month blood lead level. The inverse association between lead level and performance was especially prominent for visual-spatial and visual-motor integration skills. Higher prenatal exposures were not associated with lower scores at 57 months except in the subgroup of children with "high" concurrent blood lead levels (ie, ≥10 µg/dL). The concentration of lead in the dentine of shed deciduous teeth was not significantly associated with children's performance after adjustment for confounding.

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Utens, Elisabeth M. W. J., Herma J. Versluis-Den Bieman, Maarten Witsenburg, Ad J. J. C. Bogers, Frank C. Verhulst i John Hess. "Cognitive, and behavioural and emotional functioning of young children awaiting elective cardiac surgery or catheter intervention". Cardiology in the Young 11, nr 2 (marzec 2001): 153–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s104795110100004x.

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Aims: To assess the cognitive, and behavioural and emotional functioning of children aged 3 months to 7 years shortly before elective cardiac surgery or elective interventional catheterisation. Methods: We used the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, and the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities, to measure cognitive functioning. The Child Behavior Checklist was used to assess behavioural and emotional problems. Results: We found no significant differences in mean cognitive scores for children scheduled for cardiac surgery or interventional catheterisation when compared with reference groups. This was also the case for children awaiting cardiac surgery as opposed to those awaiting interventional catheterisation, and for those below as compared to those above the age of 2.5 years. Overall, our results regarding behavioural and emotional functioning were comparable to those of normative reference groups. The only difference found was that the children scheduled for cardiac surgery and aged from 2 to 3 years had significantly higher scores on the Child Behavior Checklist than did peers from normative groups. Conclusion: Cognitive, and behavioural and emotional functioning, both for young children awaiting elective cardiac surgery and interventional catheterisation, can be considered as quite favourable.

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Shankaran, Seetha, Eunice Woldt, Jay Nelson, Mary Bedard i Virginia Delaney-Black. "Antenatal Phenobarbital Therapy and Neonatal Outcome II: Neurodevelopmental Outcome at 36 Months". Pediatrics 97, nr 5 (1.05.1996): 649–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.97.5.649.

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Objective. To evaluate the effect of antenatal phenobarbital (PB) therapy on neurodevelopmental outcome at 36 months. Design. Prospective, randomized, controlled trial. Setting. Single-institution study. Subject and Interventions. Children born to women who participated in the study evaluating the effect of antenatal phenobarbital (PB) on neonatal intracranial hemorrhage were prospectively followed to 3 years of age. Outcome Measures. Physical growth, neurologic examinations, and developmental testing (McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities). Comparisons between groups were made on all children and those born to multiple gestations. Results. Forty-one children born to women who received 10 mg/kg PB before delivery and 55 children in the control group were evaluated. Three children, all in the control group, had growth parameters (height, weight, and head circumference) below the fifth percentile. The McCarthy General Cognitive Index (standard, 100 ± 16) was 93 ± 20 in the PB group and 85 ± 18 in the control group. The subscores tended to be higher in the PB group than in the control group, with higher quantitative scores in the PB group (44 ± 11 vs 39 ± 8). Neurologic deficits were noted in 2 of 41 in the PB group and in 6 of 55 in the control group. Conclusions. Infants born to women who received antenatal PB therapy had similar neurodevelopmental outcomes as infants born to women who did not receive PB. No adverse effects of PB exposure were detected.

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Sturner, Raymond A., Sandra G. Funk i James A. Green. "Simultaneous Technique for Acuity and Readiness Testing (START): Further Concurrent Validation of an Aid for Developmental Surveillance". Pediatrics 93, nr 1 (1.01.1994): 82–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.93.1.82.

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Study objective. A brief (8-minute) procedure, now called Simultaneous Technique for Acuity and Readiness Testing or START, has been shown to be efficacious for predicting developmental outcomes and a cost-effective screen for visual acuity. The objective of the two studies reported here was to examine the ability of this procedure to predict concurrent developmental outcome by using a new simplified scoring system. Design. A prospective design was used. Subjects were screened using START, and then samples were stratified on the basis of developmental screening results (START in study 1 and the revised Denver Developmental Screening Test and a shortened version of the Minnesota Child Development Inventory in study 2) into subsamples (n = 118 and 120) which were administered the standard criterion test (McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities in one cohort and the Stanford-Binet in the other). Setting. Prekindergarten registration for a rural school system in North Carolina. Subjects. Two county-wide cohorts of preschool children (n = 352 and 362). Measurements and main results. Results for prediction of the McCarthy outcomes were as follows: sensitivity, 0.76; specificity, 0.99; predictive value, 0.81; underreferral, 1.3%; overreferral, 1.0%; and percent agreement, 98%. Prediction of Stanford-Binet results was as follows: sensitivity, 0.94; specificity, 0.83; predictive value, 0.22; underreferral, 0.3%; overreferral, 16%; and percent agreement, 84%. Most of the overreferrals for the Stanford-Binet were in the clinically important borderline category. Conclusion. These results provide further support for the concurrent validity of START. The results illustrate how routine health procedures can be restructured to obtain clinically useful data on specific child developmental functioning.

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Takser, Larissa, Georges Dellatolas, Rosemarie Bowler, Nathalie Laplante i Guy Huel. "Predictive Factors of Manual Dexterity and Cognitive Performance at 17 Years: A 10-Year Longitudinal Study in a Rural Area of France". Perceptual and Motor Skills 95, nr 1 (sierpień 2002): 15–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.2002.95.1.15.

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Studies of predictive factors of manual dexterity in adolescents and young adults are lacking. The present longitudinal study reports the relationships between cognitive and behavioural assessments at age 7 years and the schooling, cognitive performance, and manual dexterity at age 17 years. The participants were 65 schoolchildren, 30 boys and 35 girls, from a rural area in France. Assessment at age 7 years included the McCarthy scales and questionnaires measuring the behavior of the child, completed by the mother, the teacher, and the assessing psychologist. Assessment at age 17 years included schooling situation (whether they were in high school or not), cognitive testing (WAIS-R, Trail Making, Verbal Fluency, Cancel H. Stroop, Memory Assessment Scales), and manual dexterity resting (dynamometer, Finger Tapping, Santa Ana Test, Purdue Pegboard). After controlling for effects of parental education and IQ, a negative teachers' rating of children's behaviour and abilities in first-grade (7 years) was correlated with early cessation of schooling, but also, unexpectedly, with higher scores for manual dexterity at 17 years. Manual dexterity was not related to cognitive performance at 17 years. It is suggested that the relationship between manual and cognitive performance varies during development. Although manual exploratory behaviour is an important correlate of early cognitive development, manual dexterity is probably not related to later academic performance.

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Cole, Kevin N., Ilene S. Schwartz, Angela R. Notari, Philip S. Dale i Paulette E. Mills. "Examination of the stability of two methods of defining specific language impairment". Applied Psycholinguistics 16, nr 1 (styczeń 1995): 103–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716400006445.

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ABSTRACTTwo commonly applied methods of differentially classifying language-delayed children as either specifically language impaired or developmental lag language impaired (i.e., children with low IQ and low language performance) were examined for stability over 1-and 2-year periods. One classification method, following the DSM III.R guidelines, was based on an absolute cut-off level for performance on a measure of cognitive ability, in conjunction with other exclusionary criteria (i.e., language delay that is not the result of hearing loss, social– emotional disorder, etc.). The second classification method included the same absolute cut-off for cognitive ability as the DSM III-R guidelines, but it also required that a minimum relative difference be present between the general cognitive performance and the language performance. These two methods were examined for differences in classification of children, as well as for stability of classification across time. We used the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities Perceptual-Performance Index as the cognitive measure and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised and the Test of Early Language Development as language performance measures. Results indicated significant differences in classification between the two methods of defining SLI, as well as substantial changes in classification over time using either method. Alternative classification systems are discussed.

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Funk, Sandra G., Raymond A. Sturner i James A. Green. "Preschool prediction of early school performance: Relationship of McCarthy scales of children's abilities prior to school entry to achievement in kindergarten, first, and second grades". Journal of School Psychology 24, nr 2 (czerwiec 1986): 181–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-4405(86)90009-9.

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Willoughby, Anne, Barry I. Graubard, Anita Hocker, Carla Storr, Peter Vietze, Joan M. Thackaberry, Mary Ann Gerry i in. "Population-Based Study of the Developmental Outcome of Children Exposed to Chloride-Deficient Infant Formula". Pediatrics 85, nr 4 (1.04.1990): 485–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.85.4.485.

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In 1978 and 1979 a large number of US children were fed chloride-deficient soy-based infant formula. A representative sample of such children was identified in a southern county through a mailing to the homes of 3639 first- and second-grade children in the public schools. Of the 2329 (64%) who responded, 56 reported use of deficient formula and were invited to have developmental testing by one of four study psychologists at their school. Of the 310 users of other soy formulas, 112 were selected for testing as matched controls on the basis of their sex, feeding history, age, birth weight, and socioeconomic status (as indicated by school attended). After exclusions and refusals, 42 children who used deficient formula and 66 control children were tested using the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities. Examiners were unaware of the child's history of formula use. The mean General Cognitive Index was 102.8 in those using deficient formula and 105.4 in controls. After adjustment for demographic differences the children who used chloride-deficient formula were found to average 4.9 points less than the controls (P = .04, 1-tailed). The largest difference was in the Quantitative subscale (P = .005). These data show a statistically significant although small effect of chloride-deficient formula on the long-term developmental outcome of exposed children; however, further study of these results is needed for full confirmation.

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Kapp-Simon, Kathleen A. "Mental Development and Learning Disorders in Children with Single Suture Craniosynostosis". Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal 35, nr 3 (maj 1998): 197–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1597/1545-1569_1998_035_0197_mdaldi_2.3.co_2.

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Objective This study examined the global intellectual development and presence/absence of learning disorders in children with nonsyndromic metopic, sagittal, and unilateral coronal synostosis who had early surgery (under 1 year of age), late surgery (over 1 year of age), or no surgery to correct the synos-tosis across three time periods. Design The design was longitudinal. Children were assessed at initial team evaluation, 1 year after surgery or initial evaluation if surgery was not performed, and annually thereafter. Participants Participants included 84 consecutively evaluated patients. Seventy-two children were evaluated at Time 1 (T1), 8 months; 57 at Time 2 (T2), 21 months; and 39 at Time 3 (T3), 50 months. Data on learning disorders or mental retardation were available on 34 children who were school age. Main Outcome Measures The Mental Development Index from the Bayley Scales of Infant Development was the main outcome measure for T1 and T2. The General Cognitive Index from the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities was the main outcome measure for T3. Learning disorders were determined from school and clinical records. Results Repeated measures analyses of variance found no statistical differences in the development of children based on diagnosis or surgical status across time. Base rate of mental retardation at T1 was consistent with normative data; however, the incidence of retardation was two to three times the expected rate at T2 and T3. Learning disorders were present in 47% of school-age children who were not retarded. Chi-square analysis showed no significant differences between rates of retardation or learning disorders based on surgical status. Conclusions Most children with nonsyndromic craniosynostosis obtain developmental quotients within the normal range in infancy. Rates of retardation may increase relative to normative expectations as children mature. A high rate of learning disorders was identified. Results are preliminary due to sample size.

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Halsey, Carey L., Craig L. Anderson i Marc F. Collin. "Extremely Low Birth Weight Children and Their Peers: A Comparison of Preschool Performance". Pediatrics 91, nr 4 (1.04.1993): 807–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.91.4.807.

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Though not well studied, extremely low birth weight (ELBW; (1000 g) appears to be a major risk factor for developmental disability, with most affected children experiencing school problems (40% to 64%) rather than severe handicap (25%). This study marks the first published US attempt to document prospectively the developmental/educational progress of a cohort of predominantly white, middle-class ELBW children with randomly selected and matched heavier birth weight (1500 through 2500 g and >2500 g) peer comparison groups. Sixty ELBW children and 60 peers were administered a test battery at age 4 years, including the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, and Beery Test of Visual-Motor Integration. The ELBW group mean scores were significantly lower than those of the peer groups on every measure, although generally still within 1 SD of the test mean. Twenty-three percent were clearly disabled; 26% had optimal development, having attained at least average scores on all measures; and 51% attained borderline scores globally or had an average cognitive score, but specifically poor performance in one or more areas. Comparison groups were 2½ times more likely to have optimal development and had mean cognitive scores 15 to 18 points higher than the ELBW group. In summary, weaker performance on all measures exists prior to school entry among nondisabled ELBW children compared with their peers. It is unclear whether these data portend emerging school-based disabilities or describe a continuing recovery process to be completed in middle childhood. Continued follow-up of this cohort at 7 and 10 years of age will address these questions.

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Moreno-Villagómez, Julieta, Guillermina Yáñez-Téllez, Belén Prieto-Corona, Ana N. Seubert-Ravelo i Antonio García. "Cognitive performance of preschool children with different types of non-syndromic craniosynostosis". Brain Impairment, 15.06.2020, 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/brimp.2020.7.

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Abstract Background: Craniosynostosis is defined as a premature fusion of one or more cranial sutures. Several studies have revealed cognitive deficits in some children who had undergone surgery to treat craniosynostosis. However, no general distinction has been drawn in the cognitive abilities between the various types of craniosynostosis. The purpose of the present study was to analyze if there is a difference in cognitive and motor function among the different types of non-syndromic craniosynostosis in preschool children. Methods: Twenty-seven children with different types of non-syndromic craniosynostosis were assessed using the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence – Third Edition, as well as the Quantitative, Memory and Motor scales of McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (MSCA). The children were aged between 3 and 5 years and 11 months. The various types of craniosynostosis were compared. Results: The unicoronal synostosis group performed significantly worse than the multisuture synostosis group on the MSCA Motor scale. No differences in cognitive functions were found between the various types of craniosynostosis. Conclusions: Children with unicoronal synostosis may experience impaired motor skills and screening of their motor ability is recommended.

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Andiarena, Ainara, Nekane Balluerka, Arantxa Gorostiaga i Jesús Ibarluzea. "Neuropsychological Assessment at Preschool Age: Adaptation and Validation of the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities to 4 Year-old Basque-speaking Children". Spanish Journal of Psychology 20 (2017). http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2017.49.

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AbstractEarly neuropsychological assessment provides important information for clinical practice and research. As previously no tool for neuropsychological assessment has been developed in or adapted to Basque, the aim of this study was to adapt and validate the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities for 4 years old children. The adaptation and validation of the original instrument followed the methodological steps established by the International Test Commission. We examined the psychometric properties of the adapted instrument in 273 Basque preschool children (aged between 4 years and 4 months and 4 years and 11 months; 52.2% boys). Confirmatory factor analysis showed satisfactory fit indexes except for the General Cognitive and Memory scales. Most scales presented adequate internal consistency (Reliability coefficients ranged between .55 and .81). The Basque version also showed evidence of validity based on the relationship between neuropsychological development and sex, parental education, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder-like behaviours and early neurodevelopment (p < .05; effect sizes ranged between Cohen’s d = .26 and .52 and r = .15 and 39). The Basque MSCA can be regarded as a useful tool to evaluate cognitive and psychomotor development in preschool children.

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