Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Low temperature heat engine”

Large amounts of energy from heat sources such as waste-eat and geothermal energy are available worldwide but their potential for useful power-generation is largely untapped. This is because they are relatively low temperature difference (LTD) sources, in the range from 100 to 200 °C, and it is thermodynamically diffcult, for theoretical and practical reasons, to extract useful work at these temperatures. This work explores the suitability of a Stirling engine (SE) to exploit these heat sources. Elsewhere much work has been done to optimise Stirling engines for high temperature heat sources, but little is known about suitable engine layouts, and their optimal design and operational aspects at lower temperature differences. With the reduced temperature difference, changes from conventional engine designs become necessary and robust solutions for this novel application have to be identified. This has been achieved in four major steps: identification of a suitable engine type; thermodynamic optimisation of operating and engine parameters; optimisation of mechanical efficiency; and the development of conceptual designs for the engine and its components informed by the preceding analysis. For the optimisation of engine and operating parameters a model was set up in the commercial Stirling software package, Sage, which also has been validated in this thesis; suitable parameter combinations have been identified. This work makes key contributions in several areas. This first is the identification of methods for better simulating the thermodynamic behaviour of these engines. At low temperature differences the performance of Stirling engines is very sensitive to losses by fluid friction (and thus frequency), adiabatic temperature rise during compression, and the heat transfer from and to the surroundings. Consequently the usual isothermal analytical approaches produce results that can be misleading. It is necessary to use a non-isothermal approach, and the work shows how this may be achieved. A second contribution is the identification of the important design variables and their causal effects on system performance. The primary design variable is engine layout. For an engine having inherently low efficiency due to the low temperature difference it is important to choose the engine layout that provides the highest power density possible in order to minimise engine size and to save costs. From this analysis the double-acting alpha-type configuration has been identified as being the most suitable, as opposed to the beta or gamma configurations. An-other key design variable is working fluid, and the results identify helium and hydrogen as suitable, and air and nitrogen as unsuitable. Frequency and phase angle are other design variables, and the work identifies favourable values. A sensitivity analysis identifies the phase angle, regenerator porosity, and temperature levels as the most sensitive parameters for power and efficiency. It has also been shown that the compression work in low-temperature difference Stirling engines is of similar magnitude as the expansion work. By compounding suitable working spaces on one piston the net forces on the piston rod can be reduced significantly. In double-acting alpha-engines this can be achieved by choosing the Siemens as opposed to the Franchot arrangement. As a result friction and piston seal leakage which are two important loss mechanisms are reduced significantly and longevity and mechanical efficiency is enhanced. Design implications are identified for various components, including pistons, seals, heat exchangers, regenerator, power extraction, and crankcase. The peculiarities of the heat source are also taken into account in these design recommendations. A third key contribution is the extraction of novel insights from the modelling process. For the heat exchangers it has been shown that the hot and cold heat exchangers can be identical in their design without any negative impact on performance for the low-temperature difference situation. In comparison the high temperature applications invariably require different materials and designs for the two heat exchangers. Also, frequency and phase angle are found to be quite different (lower frequency and higher phase angle) from the optimum parameters found in high temperature engines. Contrary to common belief the role of dead volume has been found to play a crucial and not necessary detrimental role at low temperature differentials. Taken together, the work is positioned at the intersection of thermodynamic analysis and engineering design, for the challenging area of Stirling engines at low temperature differences. The work extracts thermodynamic insights and extends these into design implications. Together these help create a robust theoretical and design foundation for further research and development in the important area of energy recovery.

There are many sources of free energy available in the form of heat that is often simply wasted for want of an effective way to convert it into useful energy such as electricity. The aim of this research project is to design and build a low temperature differential Stirling engine capable of generating electric power from heat sources such as waste hot water or geothermal springs. The engine that has been developed is a research prototype model of a new type of design featuring a rotating displacer which is actuated by a pair of stepper motors. The rotating displacer design enables the use of readily available and comparatively cheap and robust steam pipe as the housing for the engine, and it also avoids problems associated with sealing and heat exchange that would be present in a large engine of a more traditional configuration. Owing to the fact that this engine is a research prototype, it has the ability to have some of its critical operating parameters such as phase angle and stroke length adjusted to investigate the effects on performance. When the next phase of development takes place most of these parameters will be fixed at the optimum values which will make manufacture cheaper and easier. Unfortunately, construction of the prototype engine has not been completed at the time of writing so no power producing results have been achieved; however thorough results are presented on the operation of the control system for the stepper motors which actuate the displacer. Additionally, after a thorough history and background of Stirling engines was researched, the understanding gained of how these engines work has enabled a design process to take place which has hopefully led to a successful design. Analysis of various aspects of the engine have been carried out and results look promising for the engine to produce around 500 Watts of electrical power output whilst running on hot water up to around 90°C.

Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) heat engines convert low-grade heat to other forms of energy such as electrical and mechanical energy. They achieve this by vaporizing and expanding the organic fluid at high pressure, turning the turbine which can be employed to run an alternator or any other mechanism as desired. Conventional Rankine Cycles operate with steam at temperatures above 400 ℃. The broad aspect of the research focussed on the generation of electricity to cater for household needs. Solar energy would be used to heat air which would in turn heat rocks in an insulated vessel. This would act as an energy storage in form of heat from which a heat transfer fluid would collect heat to supply the ORC heat engine for the generation of electricity. The objective of the research was to optimize power output of the ORC heat engine operating at temperatures between 25℃ at the condenser and 90 to 150℃ at the heat source. This was achieved by analysis of thermal energy, mechanical power, electrical power and physical parameters in connection with flow rate of working fluid and heat transfer fluids.

Low grade heat (LGH) sources, here defined as below 80ºC, are one group of abundant energy sources that are under-utilised in the production of electricity. Industrial waste heat provides a convenient source of concentrated LGH, while solar ponds and geothermal resources are examples of sustainable sources of this energy. For a number of years RMIT has had two ongoing, parallel heat engine research projects aimed at the conversion of LGH into electricity. The Thermosyphon Rankine Engine (TSR) is a heat engine that uses water under considerable vacuum. The other research stream uses a hydrocarbon based working fluid in a heat engine employing the Trilateral Flash Cycle (TFC). The TSR Mk V was designed and built as a low cost heat engine for the conversion of LGH into electricity. Its main design advantages are its cost and the employment of only one moving part. Using the data gained from the experimental rig, deviations from the expected results (those derived theoretically) were explored to gain insight for further development. The results from the TSR rig were well below those expected from the design specifications. Although the experimental apparatus was able to process the required heat energy, the efficiency of conversion fell well below the expected 3% and was approximately 0.2%. The inefficiency was explained by a number of contributing factors, the major being form drag upon the rotor that contributed around 2/3 of the losses. Although this was the major cause of the power loss, other factors such as the interference with the rotor by the condensate on its return path contributed to the overall poor performance of the TSR Mk V. The RMIT TFC project came about from exploration of the available academic literature on the subject of LGH conversion. Early work by researchers into applying Carnot's theory to finite heat sources led them to explore the merits of sensible heat transfer combined with a cycle that passes a liquid (instead of a gas) though an expander. The results showed that it was theoretically possible to extract and convert more energy from a heat source of this type using this method than using any other alternative. This previous research was targeted at heat sources above 80ºC and so exploration of the theoretical and empirical results for sources below this temperature was needed. Computer models and an experimental rig using isopentane (with a 28ºC boiling point at atmospheric pressure) were produced to assess the outcomes of employing low temperature heat sources using a TFC. The experimental results from the TFC research proved promising with the efficiency of conversion ranging from 0.8% to 2.4%. Although s uch figures seem poor in isolation, it should be noted that the 2.4% efficiency represents an achievement of 47% of the theoretical ideal conversion efficiency in a rig that uses mainly off-the-shelf components. It also confirms that the TFC shows promise when applied to heat sources less than 80ºC.

In-cylinder thermal barrier materials have been thoroughly investigated for their potential improvements in thermal efficiency in reciprocating internal combustion engines. These materials show improvements both directly in indicated work and indirectly through reduced demand on the cooling system. Many experimental and analytical sources have shown reductions in heat losses to the combustion chamber walls, but converting the additional thermal energy to indicated work has proven more difficult. Gains in indicated work over the expansion stroke could be made, but these were negated by increased compression work and reduced volumetric efficiency due to charge heating. Typically, the only improvements in brake work would come from the pumping loop in turbocharged engines, or from additional exhaust energy extraction through turbine-compounding devices. The concept of inter-cycle wall-temperature-swing holds promise to reap the benefits of insulation during combustion and expansion, while not suffering the penalties incurred with hotter walls during intake and compression. The combination of low volumetric heat capacity and low thermal conductivity would allow the combustion chamber surface temperature to quickly respond to the gas temperature throughout combustion. Surface temperatures are capable of rising in response to the spike in heat flux, thereby minimizing the temperature difference between the gas and wall early in the expansion stroke when the greatest conversion of thermal energy to mechanical work is possible. The combination of low heat capacity and thermal conductivity is essential in allowing this temperature increase during combustion, and in enabling the surface to cool during expansion and exhaust to avoid harmfully affecting engine volumetric efficiency during the intake stroke and minimizing compression work performed on the next stroke. In this thesis, thermal and thermodynamic models are constructed in an attempt to predict the effects of material properties in the walls, and to characterize the effects of heat transfer at different portions of the cycle on indicated work, volumetric efficiency, exhaust energy and gas temperatures of a reciprocating internal combustion engine. The expected impact on combustion knock in spark-ignited engines was also considered, as this combustion mode was the basis for the experimental engine testing performed. Conventional insulating materials were evaluated to benchmark the current state-of-the-art, and to gain experience in the analysis of materials with temperature-swing capability. Unfortunately, the effects of permeable porosity within the conventional coating on heat losses, fuel absorption and compression ratio tended to mask the effects of temperature swing. The individual impact of each of these loss mechanisms on engine performance was analyzed, and the experience helped to further refine the necessary traits of a successful temperature-swing material Finally, from the learnings of this analysis phase, a novel material was created and applied to the piston surface, intake valve faces, and exhaust valve faces. Engine data was taken with these coated components and compared to an un-coated baseline. While some of the test pieces physically survived the testing, analysis of the data suggests that they were not fully sealed and suffered from the same permeability losses that affected the conventional insulation. Further development is necessary to arrive at a robust, effective solution for minimizing heat transfer through wall temperature swing in reciprocating internal combustion engines. The success of temperature-swing thermal barrier materials requires very low thermal conductivity, heat capacity, and appropriate insulation thickness, as well as resilient sealing of any porous volume within the coating to avoid additional heat and fuel energy losses throughout the cycle.<br>Los materiales aislantes han sido investigados a fondo por sus posibles mejoras en la eficiencia térmica de los motores de combustión interna alternativos. Estas mejoras se ven reflejadas tanto directamente en el trabajo indicado como indirectamente a través de la reducción del sistema de refrigeración del propio motor. Diferentes estudios, tanto experimentales como analíticos, han mostrado la reducción en la transferencia de calor a través de las paredes de la cámara de combustión mediante la utilización de estos materiales. Sin embargo, demostrar la conversión de la energía térmica adicional en trabajo indicado ha resultado más difícil. En ciertos estudios se pudieron obtener mejoras en el trabajo indicado durante la carrera de expansión, pero éstas fueron reducidas debido a un menor rendimiento volumétrico debido al calentamiento de la carga durante el proceso de admisión y un mayor trabajo en la carrera de compresión. Típicamente, las únicas mejoras en el trabajo al freno provendrían de la reducción de pérdidas por bombeo en los motores turboalimentados, o de la extracción de la energía adicional de los gases de escape a través de turbinas. El concepto de los materiales con oscilación de la temperatura durante el ciclo motor intenta aprovechar los beneficios del aislamiento durante los procesos de combustión y expansión, mitigando las perdidas por el incremento de la temperatura de las paredes durante la admisión y la compresión. La combinación de baja capacidad calorífica y baja conductividad térmica permitiría que la temperatura de la superficie de la cámara de combustión respondiera rápidamente a la temperatura del gas durante el proceso de combustión. Las temperaturas de la superficie son capaces de aumentar en respuesta al pico de flujo de calor, minimizando así la diferencia de temperatura entre el gas y la pared en la carrera de expansión cuando es posible la mayor conversión de energía térmica en trabajo mecánico. La combinación de baja capacidad calorífica y conductividad térmica es también esencial para permitir este aumento de temperatura durante la combustión y para permitir que la superficie se enfríe durante la expansión y el escape para no perjudicar así el rendimiento volumétrico del motor durante la carrera de admisión y minimizar el trabajo de compresión realizado en el siguiente ciclo. En esta tesis se han desarrollado modelos térmicos y termodinámicos para predecir los efectos de las propiedades de los materiales en las paredes y caracterizar los efectos de la transferencia de calor en diferentes partes del ciclo sobre el trabajo indicado, el rendimiento volumétrico, la energía en los gases de escape y las temperaturas del gas para un motor de combustión interna alternativo. También se ha evaluado el impacto del uso de estos materiales en el knock en motores de combustión de encendido provocado, ya que los estudios experimentales de esta tesis se realizaron en un motor de estas características. Durante la investigación se evaluaron materiales aislantes convencionales para comprender el estado actual de esta técnica y para adquirir también experiencia en el análisis de materiales aislantes con oscilación de temperatura. Desafortunadamente, los efectos de la permeabilidad a través de la porosidad del material en los recubrimientos convencionales, la absorción de combustible y la relación de compresión tendieron a ocultar los efectos de la oscilación de la temperatura y la reducción de la transferencia de calor a través de las paredes. Así pues, se analizó el impacto individual de cada uno de estos mecanismos y su influencia en el rendimiento del motor para así definir un nuevo material con las características necesarias que mejorasen el aislante con de oscilación de temperatura. Finalmente, a partir de los estudios de esta fase de análisis, se creó un nuevo material y se aplicó a la superficie del pistón y a la supe<br>Els materials aïllants han estat investigats a fons per les seves possibles millores en l'eficiència tèrmica en el motors de combustió interna alternatius. Aquestes millores es veuen reflectides tant directament en el treball indicat com indirectament a través de la reducció del sistema de refrigeració del propi motor. Diferents estudis, tant experimentals com analítics, han mostrat la reducció en la transferència de calor a través de les parets de la cambra de combustió mitjançant la utilització d'aquests materials. No obstant això, demostrar la conversió de l'energia tèrmica addicional en treball indicat ha resultat més difícil. En certs estudis es van poder obtenir millores en el treball indicat durant la carrera d'expansió, però aquestes van ser reduïdes a causa d'un menor rendiment volumètric causat de l'escalfament de la càrrega durant el procés d'admissió i un major treball en la carrera de compressió. Típicament, les úniques millores en el treball al fre provindrien de la reducció de pèrdues per bombeig en els motors turbo alimentats, o de l'extracció addicional de l'energia dels gasos d'escapament a través de turbines. El concepte dels materials amb oscil·lació de la temperatura durant el cicle motor intenta aprofitar els beneficis de l'aïllament durant els processos de combustió i expansió, mitigant les perdudes per l'increment de la temperatura de les parets durant l'admissió i la compressió. La combinació de baixa capacitat calorífica i baixa conductivitat tèrmica permetria que la temperatura de la superfície de la cambra de combustió respongués ràpidament a la temperatura del gas durant el procés de combustió. Les temperatures de la superfície són capaços d'augmentar en resposta al flux de calor, minimitzant així la diferència de temperatura entre el gas i la paret en la carrera d'expansió quan és possible la major conversió d'energia tèrmica en treball mecànic. La combinació de baixa capacitat calorífica i conductivitat tèrmica és també essencial per permetre aquest augment de temperatura durant la combustió i el refredament de la superfície durant l'expansió i l'escapament per no perjudicar així el rendiment volumètric del motor durant la carrera d'admissió i minimitzar el treball de compressió realitzat en el següent cicle. En aquesta tesi s'han desenvolupat models tèrmics i termodinàmics per predir els efectes de les propietats dels materials en les parets i caracteritzar els efectes de la transferència de calor en diferents parts del cicle sobre el treball indicat, el rendiment volumètric, l'energia en els gasos d'escapament i les temperatures del gas per un motor de combustió interna alternatiu. També s'ha avaluat l'impacte d'aquests materials en el knock en motors de combustió d'encesa provocada, ja que les proves experimentals d'aquesta tesi es van realitzar en un motor d'aquestes característiques. Durant la investigació es van avaluar materials aïllants convencionals per comprendre l'estat actual d'aquesta tècnica i per adquirir també experiència en l'anàlisi de materials aïllants amb oscil·lació de temperatura. Desafortunadament, els efectes de la permeabilitat a través de la porositat del material en el recobriment convencional, l'absorció de combustible i la relació de compressió van tendir a ocultar els efectes de l'oscil·lació de la temperatura i la reducció de la transferència de calor a través de les parets. Així doncs, es va analitzar l'impacte individual de cada un d'aquests mecanismes i la seva influència en el rendiment del motor per així definir un nou material amb les característiques necessàries que milloressin el aïllant d'oscil·lació de temperatura. Finalment, a partir dels estudis d'aquesta fase d'anàlisi, es va crear un nou material i es va aplicar a la superfície del pistó i a la superfície interna de les vàlvules d'admissió i d'escapament. Les dades de motor es van prendre a<br>Andruskiewicz, PP. (2017). ANALYTICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF TEMPERATURE-SWING INSULATION ON ENGINE PERFORMANCE [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/90467<br>TESIS

La regulación mundial de emisiones contaminantes en el sector de la automoción está siendo cada día más estricta. La implantación de nuevos procedimientos está presionando la industria hacia la búsqueda de nuevas tecnologías que cumplan los objetivos de reducción de emisiones contaminantes. En el medio plazo se espera que las pruebas de emisiones a baja temperatura ambiente sean obligatorias en el proceso de homologación. La combustión a bajas temperaturas influye de forma importante en la velocidad de la reacción conllevando un aumento de las emisiones y finalmente al apagado de llama. Bajo estas condiciones, se produce un aumento de las emisiones de hidrocarburos (HC) y monóxido de carbono (CO) así como un aumento del consumo de combustible. Además, en condiciones de baja temperatura ambiente las emisiones de óxidos de nitrógeno (NOx) pueden aumentar debido a la desactivación de los sistemas de recirculación de gases de escape. En la presente tesis, se ha analizado el efecto de la baja temperatura ambiente en un motor diesel HSDI. Los ensayos fueron realizados en ciclos de conducción NEDC y WLTC. La influencia directa de las bajas temperaturas en las emisiones se analizó por medio de las medida bruta de contaminantes, aguas arriba de los sistemas de postratamiento. El funcionamiento de los sistemas de postratamiento también fue evaluado a bajas temperaturas mediante la eficiencia de la oxidación catalítica de HC y CO. Los resultados de este estudio mostraron un deterioro de las emisiones y del rendimiento efectivo a bajas temperaturas. El efecto de las bajas temperaturas varió dependiendo de condiciones de carga. El ciclo NEDC se consolida como el peor escenario de conducción, para la realización de pruebas a baja temperatura, con un incremento del 270% en HC, 250% en NOx, 125% en CO y 20% en consumo específico. El mayor grado de carga junto con el carácter más transitorio del ciclo WLTC mostraron un efecto menor de las bajas temperaturas ambiente con un aumento del 150% en HC y 250% en NOx. A diferencia del ciclo NEDC, las emisiones de CO se redujeron en un 20% y no se detectó un aumento del consumo de combustible. Además del aumento de la formación de contaminates, el análisis del catalizador de oxidación mostró una reducción de la eficiencia en ambos ciclos de conducción NEDC y WLTC. El presente trabajo tiene por objetivo comparar dos sistemas de gestión térmica para la mejora del funcionamiento de MCIA a bajas temperaturas. El primer sistema estaba basado en la gestión del flujo de refrigerante para evitar subenfriamiento en condiciones de funcionamiento en frío. Por un lado, se propusieron estrategias de bajo y nulo flujo en el circuito de refrigerante motor. Por otro lado, se realizaron ensayos con 0 flujo en el circuito de refrigerante del WCAC para evitar el subenfriamiento del aire de admisión durante puntos de baja carga en condiciones de funcionamiento en frío. El otro sistema incluía la recuperación de energía térmica del escape (EGHR). El refrigerante del WCAC se empleó como fluido de recuperación conectándose con un intercambiador de escape. La primera parte de los resultados de la gestión térmica están centrados en el análisis individual de los distintos sistemas de gestión. En las conclusiones se comparan todos los sistemas propuestas explicando las diferencias entre ellos. Mediante el uso del EGHR las emisiones de HC fueron reducidas, durante los puntos de baja carga, en comparación con el resto de estrategias térmicas planteadas. El análisis energético del EGHR se centró en la eficiencia y en el estudio la recuperación por cambio de fase. El papel que la entalpia de cambio de fase juega en la recuperación de calor residual fue estudiado por medio de la medición de concentración de vapor de agua en el gas de escape en la entrada y salida del intercambiador del EGHR. La condensación del vapor de agua de escape representó el 25% de toda la<br>Automotive world-wide pollutant emissions regulations are getting more stringent every day. New testing procedures are pushing the automotive industry towards researching new technologies to accomplish the emissions targets. In the mid-term future is expected that low ambient temperature emissions testing will become mandatory for any engine model type approval. Low ignition temperature greatly influences on combustion rate leading to emissions increase and eventually to misfiring events. In these conditions, high emissions of unburned hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) are released along with fuel consumption penalties. In addition, nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions may rise under cold conditions owing to the disabling of Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) systems at cold conditions. In this thesis the effect of low ambient temperature in a High Speed Direct Injection (HSDI) Light Duty (LD) engine is analysed. Tests were performed in New European Driving Cycles (NEDC) and Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Tests (WLTC). Direct influence of low temperature on engine emissions was addressed by engine out pollutants sampling. The effect on aftertreatment systems was also evaluated by the CO and HC oxidation efficiency. The results of this survey indicated a general detriment of pollutant emissions and brake thermal efficiency at low ambient temperatures. The effect of low temperature varied depending on the engine load test conditions. NEDC comes up as the worst scenario for low temperature testing with an increase of 270% in HC, 250% in NOx, 125% in CO and 20% in Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC). Running at higher engine loads and transient conditions, as it's performed in WLTC tests, showed a lower effect of ambient temperature with an increase of 150% in HC and 250% in NOx. In contrast to NEDC, CO emissions were reduced in 20% and no engine efficiency penalty was spotted. In addition to the pollutant emission formation increase, the aftertreatment analysis showed a significant reduction of the Diesel Oxidative Catalyst (DOC) efficiency in both NEDC and WLTC. This work is aimed to analyse and compare two different thermal management approaches for engine enhancement running at low ambient temperature. The first approach relied on coolant management aimed to avoid overcooling when running at cold conditions. On one hand, low flow and 0 flow engine coolant strategies were performed while Water Charge Air Cooled (WCAC) coolant is recirculated. On the other hand, WCAC 0 flow was applied for avoiding overcooling at low ambient temperatures. The other layout was based on an exhaust gas heat recovery system (EGHR). WCAC coolant was directed to an exhaust tail pipe heat exchanger for waste heat recovery. Recovered heat was released in the WCAC for speeding up the intake air temperature increase. The first part of the thermal management results is focused on the analysis by thermal layout. Comparison of both thermal management is discussed in the conclusions section of that chapter. By enabling an EGHR system, HC emissions were reduced during low load driving phases in comparison with the other of layouts. EGHR energy analysis was also conducted, focusing on energy efficiency and phase change recovery analysis. The role that latent enthalpy plays on waste heat recovery was addressed by measuring the water vapour concentration in the exhaust stream at both EGHR heat exchanger inlet and outlet. Water vapour condensation represented the 25% of the total recovered energy.<br>La regulació mundial d'emissions contaminants en el sector de l'automoció està sent cada vegada més estricta. La implantació de nous procediments està pressionant la indústria cap a la cerca de noves tecnologies que complisquen els objectius de reducció d'emissions contaminants. En el mig termini s'espera que les proves d'emissions a baixa temperatura ambient siguen obligatòries en el procés d'homologació. La combustió a baixes temperatures influeix de forma important en la velocitat de la reacció comportant un augment de les emissions i finalment a l'apagat de flama. Sota aquestes condicions, es produeix un augment de les emissions d'hidrocarburs (HC) i monòxid de carboni (CO) així com un augment del consum de combustible. A més, en condicions de baixa temperatura ambiente les emissions d'òxids de nitrogen (NOx) poden augmentar a causa de la desactivació dels sistemes de recirculació de gasos d'escapament. En la present tesi, s'ha analitzat l'efecte de la baixa temperatura ambiente en un motor dièsel HSDI. Els assajos van ser realitzats en cicles de conducció NEDC i WLTC. La influència directa de les baixes temperatures en les emissions es va analitzar per mitjà de la mesura bruta de contaminants, aigües a dalt dels sistemes de postractament. El funcionament dels sistemes de postractament també va ser avaluat a baixes temperatures mitjançant l'eficiència de la oxidació catalítica de HC i CO. Els resultats d'aquest estudi van mostrar una deterioració de les emissions i del rendiment efectiu a baixes temperatures. L'efecte de les baixes temperatures variava depenent de les condicions de càrrega. El cicle NEDC es consolida com el pitjor escenari de conducció, per a la realització de proves a baixa temperatura, amb un increment del 270% en HC, 250% en NOx, 125% en CO i 20% en consum específic. El major grau de càrrega juntament amb el caràcter més transitori del cicle WLTC van mostrar un efecte menor de les baixes temperatures ambient amb un augment del 150% en HC i 250% en NOx. A diferència del cicle NEDC, les emissions de CO es van reduir en un 20% i no es va detectar un augment del consum de combustible. A més de l'augment de la formació de contaminants, l'anàlisi del catalitzador d' oxidació va mostrar una reducció de l'eficiència en tots dos cicles de conducció NEDC i WLTC. El present treball té per objectiu comparar dos sistemes de gestió tèrmica per a la millora del funcionament dels MCIA a baixes temperatures. El primer sistema estava basat en la gestió del flux de refrigerant per a evitar subrefredament en condicions de funcionament en fred. D'una banda, es van proposar estratègies de baix i nul flux en el circuit de refrigerant motor. D'altra banda, es van realitzar assajos amb 0 flux en el circuit de refrigerant del WCAC per a evitar el subrefredament de l'aire d'admissió durant punts de baixa càrrega en condicions de funcionament en fred. L'altre sistema incloïa la recuperació d'energia tèrmica de l'escapament (EGHR). El refrigerant del WCAC es va emprar com fluït de recuperació connectant-se amb un bescanviador d'escapament. La primera part dels resultats de la gestió tèrmica estan centrats en l'anàlisi individual dels diferents sistemes de gestió. En les conclusions es comparen tots els sistemes proposats explicant les diferències entre ells. Mitjançant l'ús del EGHR les emissions de HC van ser reduïdes, durant els punts de baixa càrrega, en comparació de la resta d'estratègies tèrmiques plantejades. L'anàlisi energètic del EGHR es va centrar en l'eficiència i en l'estudi de la recuperació per canvi de fase. El paper que l'entalpia de canvi de fase juga en la recuperació de calor residual va ser estudiat per mitjà del mesurament de concentració de vapor d'aigua en el gas d'escapament en l'entrada i eixida del bescanviador del EGHR. La condensació del vapor d'aigua de l'escapament va representar el 25% de tota l'energia recuperada.<br>Moratal Martínez, AA. (2018). EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF THERMAL MANAGEMENT INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS IN DIESEL ENGINES AT LOW AMBIENT TEMPERATURE [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/111950<br>TESIS

In the aeronautics industry, the propulsion systems stand among the most advanced and critical components. Over the last 50 years, gas turbine aeroengines were subjected to intensive research to increase efficiency and reduce weight, noise and harmful emissions. Together with design optimization, breakthrough in materials science for structural applications triggered the development of the most advanced gas turbine engines. For low temperatures, basically ahead of the combustion section, lightweight Ti alloys are preferred for their good mechanical properties. For high temperatures instead, Ni-based superalloys exhibit outstanding properties up to very high temperatures despite a rather high material’s density. Research have focused on enhancing to the maximum the potential of materials in gas turbine engines. According to the application, the components experience various mechanical and environmental constraints. Special designs, manufacturing process, material compositions and protective coatings have been developed to push the limits of advanced materials. Nowadays, the attention is focused on innovative materials to replace the existing Ti and Ni based alloys leading to substantial benefits. Light weight composite materials in particular were found very attractive to replace some components’ Ti alloys. At higher temperatures, it is of great interest to replace Ni-based superalloys by materials with lower density and/or higher temperatures applications, which in turn would lead to substantial weight reduction and increase efficiency. At the highest temperatures range, in particular in the combustion chamber and high pressure turbine sections, ceramic based materials offer promising balance of properties. Research are dedicated to overcome the drawbacks of ceramics for such structural applications, and in particular their brittle fracture behavior, by addition of reinforcing fibers. At lower temperatures range, TiAl based intermetallics emerged as very promising materials at half the density of Ni-based superalloys. Significant weight reduction could be achieved by the introduction of TiAl based alloys for rotating components of the compressor and low pressure turbine. 2nd generation γ-TiAl alloys were lately introduced in GE’s GEnx and CFM’s LEAP engines. The present work concerns the fabrication by the additive manufacturing technique Electron Beam Melting of 3rd generation γ-TiAl alloys for high temperatures application in gas turbine aeroengines. EBM, building parts layer by layer according to CAD, offers many advantages compared to other manufacturing processes like casting and forging. Reported by Avio, 2nd generation γ-TiAl alloys have been successfully fabricated by EBM. To increase the material’s potential, the production of 3rd generation γ-TiAl alloys Ti-(45-46)Al-2Cr-8Nb was therefore studied. The optimization of the EBM parameters led to high homogeneity and very low post-processing residual porosity ≤ 1%. The fine equiaxed microstructure after EBM could be tailored towards the desired mechanical properties by simple heat treatment, from equiaxed to duplex to fully lamellar. In particular, a duplex microstructure composed by about 80 % lamellar grains pinned at grain boundaries by fine equiaxed grains was obtained after heat treatment slightly over the α transus temperature. The study showed that addition of a higher amount of Nb significantly increased the oxidation resistance of the material, thus increasing the application temperature range of these γ-TiAl alloys.

<p>As part of the energy recovery part of the ROMA (Resource Optimization and recovery in the Materials industry) project, a laboratory prototype power production system is being built and completed in 2009. The laboratory prototype is based on a new technology for power production from low to medium temperature heat sources (the off gas from electrolysis cells in the aluminum industry) where CO2 is used as a working medium in a trans-critical Rankine cycle. The laboratory rig consists of the power cycle with a prototype expander as the core unit, an air loop to provide the heat, and an ethylene glycol loop to provide condensation of the working fluid in the power cycle. As a preparation to the assembling and instrumentation of the prototype rig, a simulation and an uncertainty analysis were conducted for the prototype rig in the autumn of 2008. This report focuses on the continuation of that work by an experimental investigation of the individual loops and the components of the prototype rig. The emphasis of this investigation has been put on the air loop and the expander unit of the power cycle. This is basically because these are of great importance to the performance of the power production prototype rig. The air loop was thoroughly tested, and from the investigations it was discovered that there was an unfavorable temperature distribution of the air going into the air-to-CO2 heat exchanger. This is the heat exchanger where heat is provided to the power cycle. The source for this temperature maldistribution was identified, and solutions were investigated to improve on the problem without results. The reduced performance of the air loop was incorporated in a new simulation of the power cycle in order to quantify the consequences for the optimization of the power cycle. The simulation was carried out for warm air temperature of 80 °C. The new calculations showed a reduction in maximum net work output of 27 % compared to the original simulation. The optimal conditions for the power cycle were also changed as a consequence of the reduced air loop performance. The investigation of the expander unit revealed that the expander isentropic efficiency was a strong function of the pressure difference across the expander, and a weak function of the expander inlet pressure. It also revealed that overall the isentropic efficiency was much less than the value of 80 % which was used in the original simulation. A new simulation of the power cycle was carried out where the expander isentropic efficiency was incorporated as a function of the pressure difference across the expander. This function was based on the data from the expander testing. The simulation showed a reduction in maximum net work output from 225 W to about 60 W, for warm air temperature of 80 °C. The new expander characteristics also affected the optimization of the power cycle. The simulation results and the results from the prototype investigation will be important in the optimization and control procedures of the assembled prototype power production system.</p>

SummaryThis Master Thesis is a conclusion on work done as part of the Resource Optimizationand recovery in the Materials industry project (Roma). This project is involved in thedevelopment of a new technology for power production from low temperature heat sourcesfor off gases from aluminum production cells. The technology is based on an transcriticalRankine cycle with CO2 as a working fluid, as the work recovery circuit. The center ofthe test facility is the expander, a prototype provided by Obrist Engineering . 81 testswere perfomed to investigate the behavoir of the expander cycle. Effect of three mainparameters were investigated:&amp;#8226; Effect CO2 massflow rate&amp;#8226; Effect of heat source temperature&amp;#8226; Effect of CO2 condensation pressureFor each parameter combination, the high pressure side of the expander cycle was variedin order to find the maximum power output.This study clearly showed limitation of the turbine which cannot maintain large pressuredifference probably due to large internal leakages. As a result, turbine outlet is highlysuperheated. This superheat is lost energy for the power cycle, and is simply dumpedinto the heat sink. One possible improvement would be to include a recuperator thatrecovers superheat after the pump.The results also indicate that the fan of the air loop is too small: increasing the CO2 flowrate to limit superheat at turbine outlet leads to turbine inlet temperature reduction.Last, for large CO2 mass flow rate (3.5 kgmin) which is required for proper operation ofthe turbine, the power generated is too large for the generator installed on the loop. Itstemperature reached 120 &#176;C for some conditions. A new solution should be seeked.Based on experimental results, a mode of the power cycle was implemented in Pro/IIand simulations were run in order to find an improved design. The main goal is to beable to run the cycle at high CO2 mass flow rate: 3.5 kgmin. It was found that the airloop fan should be able to deliver up to 1 260 m3h . The new generator or braking systemshould be able to absorb up to 297 W.

This thesis describes a study of the low temperature specific heat of LiⅹNbS₂, where x is between 0 and 1. Samples were prepared by intercalating lithium into niobium disulfide in electrochemical cells. Structural data obtained by x-ray diffraction are presented. These, together with electrochemical measurements, show that staged phases exist for some values of x. The electronic specific heat of LiⅹNbS₂, is consistent with complete charge transfer from the intercalated lithium to the bands of the NbS2 host. The lattice specific heat also shows large changes as a function of x. A discussion of the data in terms of continuum elasticity theory suggests that intercalation produces large changes in the shear elastic constant C₄₄ . A brief discussion of superconductivity in LiⅹNbS₂, is also included.<br>Science, Faculty of<br>Physics and Astronomy, Department of<br>Graduate

This work addresses the challenges in design of heat integrated low-temperature separation processes. A novel, systematic and robust methodology is developed, which contributes to the design practice of heat-integrated separation sequence and the refrigeration system in the context of low-temperature separation processes. Moreover, the methodology exploits the interactions between the separation and refrigeration systems systematically in an integrated design context. The synthesis and optimisation of heat-integrated separation processes is complex due to the large number of design options. In this thesis, task representation is applied to the separation system to accommodate both simple and complex distillation columns. The stream conditioning processes are simulated and their associated costs are included in the overall cost of the process. Important design variables in separation systems, such as the separation sequence, type and operating conditions of the separation units (e.g. the operating pressure, feed quality and condenser type) are optimised. Various refrigeration provision strategies, such as expansion of a process stream, pure and mixed multistage refrigeration systems and cascades of multistage refrigeration cycles, are considered in the present work. A novel approach based on refrigeration system database is proposed, which overcomes the complexities and challenges of synthesis and optimisation of refrigeration systems in the context of low-temperature separation processes. The methodology optimises the key design variables in the refrigeration system, including the refrigerant composition, the number of compression stages, the refrigeration and rejection temperature levels, cascading strategy and the partition temperature in multistage cascaded refrigeration systems. The present approach has selected a matrix based approach for assessing the heat integration potentials of separation and refrigeration systems in the screening procedure. Non-isothermal streams are not considered isothermal and stream splitting and heat exchangers in series are taken into account. Moreover, heat integration of reboiler and condenser of a distillation column through an open loop heat pump system can be considered in this work. This work combines an enhanced simulated annealing algorithm with MILP optimisation method and develops a framework for simultaneously optimising different degrees of freedom in the heat integrated separation and refrigeration processes. Case studies extend the approach to the design of heat integrated separation sequences in above ambient temperature processes. The robustness of the developed framework is further demonstrated when it is utilised to design the LNG and ethylene plant fractionation trains.

An experimental investigation has been undertaken to study operating temperatures and heat fluxes in the cylinder walls and cylinder head of a modern diesel engine. Temperatures were measured under a wide range of speed and torque at more than one hundred locations in the block and cylinder head of the engine employing conventional thermocouples arranged to obtain one-dimensional metal thermal gradients and subsequently deduce the corresponding heat fluxes and surface temperatures. Results observed in the cylinder bores revealed that in addition to heat transferred by convection and radiation from combustion gases, the temperature and heat flux distributions are considerably affected by heat conduction from piston rings and skirt through the oil film, and by frictional heat generated at these components. The heat fluxes and surface temperatures obtained in the cylinder head combined with gas pressure measurements were used to evaluate existing formulae to predict heat transfer coefficients from combustion gases to the chamber walls. The evaluation confirmed the significant variation previously observed between the various methods. As a consequence, a modified correlation has been proposed to estimate the gas-side heat transfer coefficient. This new correlation is considered to be an improved tool for estimating the heat transfer coefficients from combustion gases in modern diesel engines. Additionally, the results observed in the cylinder bores were used to develop a simple model from first principles to estimate the heat transferred from piston rings and skirt to the cylinder wall.

The purpose of this project was to optimise a diesel engine converted to operate on natural gas, to suit the requirements for: low emissions, a high efficiency and sufficient power delivery within the constraints of cogeneration (combined heat and power) systems. Cogeneration Installations seek to improve the efficiency of power generation by utilising waste heat from the prime mover, as well as the production of electricity. Many small scale systems are based on open chamber gas engines, and, to reduce the payback time for the installation, the overall engine efficiency is of prime importance. Stationary engines can be subject to strict standards for emissions, the greatest challenge being presented by the control of NO emissions. The main difficulty is that the highest efficiency operating point of a spark ignition engine is also the point of maximum NO emissions. The extent of this problem was analysed by conducting tests across the entire operating map of the baseline engine at the required speed of 1500 rpm. The solution, in the form of a new high compression ratio combustion system was based on the following: An extensive literature review, the previous Brunel experience with gas engines, an evaluation of the baseline combustion and emissions performance, and the predictions of the Integrated Spark Ignition engine Simulation (ISIS) thermodynamic model. Tests were conducted on the new Fast Bum High Compression Ratio combustion system at compression ratios of 15:1 and 13:1, which demonstrated an extended lean burn capability such that an operating point was identified, that satisfied the conflicting requirements of: low emissions (less than 1g NOx/kWh or 360mg/m3), and a high brake efficiency (above 30%), as well as particular cogeneration criteria. The bmep was mostly above 6 bar. After further tuning and calibration with experimental data, the ISIS model was used to predict the engine power output, efficiency and emissions (NOx and CO) for the compression ratio of 15:1, across the entire operating map for both naturally aspirated and turbocharged configurations. The naturally aspirated results showed good agreement with the results of the experimental 15:1 FBHCR combustion system. The turbocharged engine was simulated with a bmep of 10 bar. The results identified much larger operating areas and all emissions limits were met above a brake efficiency of 36%. The conclusions are, that an open chamber fast bum high compression ratio combustion system can achieve very low emissions, particularly of NOx, and a high efficiency by having the capability of operating with lean enough mixtures. Further improvement in the efficiency is likely if other engine parameters (such as the valve timing) were to be optimised for 1500 rpm. The results from the turbocharged simulation show that turbocharging, whilst restoring the output can also achieve low emissions, and a higher efficiency than a naturally aspirated engine.

A new heat spreader that operates on a principle similar to heat pipes has been developed in Low Temperature Cofired Ceramic (LTCC) substrate. The heat spreader use sintered metal powder as the wick structure and water as the working fluid. Key topics related to the fabrication of embedded heat spreaders in LTCC substrate were studied. The conventional LTCC procedure has been improved to suit the requirement of heat spreader. A novel sintered porous silver powder has been developed to provide high capillary pressure and permeability for the wick structure. The maximum mass transport rate of the wick was about 0.692 (g/min) at wick height of 4.5cm. The thermal performance test demonstrated that the prototype heat spreader could work properly at power density of more than 70 W/cm2 without any sign of dry out occur. The successful fabrication of the prototype integrated heat spreader provides concept validation of using advanced two-phase heat management system to greatly improve the effective thermal conductivity of LTCC substrate.

The European Union is planning to greatly decrease energy consumption during the coming decades. The ultimate goal is to create sustainable communities that are energy neutral. One way of achieving this challenging goal may be to use efficient hydronic (water-based) heating systems supported by heat pumps. The main objective of the research reported in this work was to improve the thermal performance of wall-mounted hydronic space heaters (radiators). By improving the thermal efficiency of the radiators, their operating temperatures can be lowered without decreasing their thermal outputs. This would significantly improve efficiency of the heat pumps, and thereby most probably also reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases. Thus, by improving the efficiency of radiators, energy sustainability of our society would also increase. The objective was also to investigate how much the temperature of the supply water to the radiators could be lowered without decreasing human thermal comfort. Both numerical and analytical modeling was used to map and improve the thermal efficiency of the analyzed radiator system. Analyses have shown that it is possible to cover space heat losses at low outdoor temperatures with the proposed heating-ventilation systems using low-temperature supplies. The proposed systems were able to give the same heat output as conventional radiator systems but at considerably lower supply water temperature. Accordingly, the heat pump efficiency in the proposed systems was in the same proportion higher than in conventional radiator systems. The human thermal comfort could also be maintained at acceptable level at low-temperature supplies with the proposed systems. In order to avoid possible draught discomfort in spaces served by these systems, it was suggested to direct the pre-heated ventilation air towards cold glazed areas. By doing so the draught discomfort could be efficiently neutralized.     Results presented in this work clearly highlight the advantage of forced convection and high temperature gradients inside and alongside radiators - especially for low-temperature supplies. Thus by a proper combination of incoming air supply and existing radiators a significant decrease in supply water temperature could be achieved without decreasing the thermal output from the system. This was confirmed in several studies in this work. It was also shown that existing radiator systems could successfully be combined with efficient air heaters. This also allowed a considerable reduction in supply water temperature without lowering the heat output of the systems. Thus, by employing the proposed methods, a significant improvement of thermal efficiency of existing radiator systems could be accomplished. A wider use of such combined systems in our society would reduce the distribution heat losses from district heating networks, improve heat pump efficiency and thereby most probably also lower carbon dioxide emissions.<br><p>QC 20131029</p>

Ultra-sensitive photodetectors on-board space missions need very low temperatures to keep a good resolution. Cryo-coolers, such as pulse-tubes, help maintaining these conditions within a cryostat. In return however, they generate micro-vibrations. These micro-vibrations dissipate enough heat to cause temperature fluctuations at the detector's support, thus lowering the detector's resolution. The first objective is to establish a test bench almost from scratch. The test bench includes a dummy representing the detector's support. The next objectives is to verify that we can measure heat dissipation at the dummy, corresponding to very low values of power ; and finally, to find a link between mechanics and heat dissipation. The dummy consists of a mass suspended by Kevlar chords and is mounted on the cold plate of a cryostat. From the cryostat enclosure, we were able to generate micro-vibrations at the suspended mass and to carry out acceleration and temperature measurements. At 4 K, we were able to measure heat dissipation only around the suspended mass resonance modes. As a first quantitative result, we found that an acceleration of thousands µg (g is the gravitational acceleration) on the cold plate dissipates hundreds of nano-watts. However, these are preliminary results and we will need to improve the test bench for future measurement campaigns.<br>Ultrakänsliga fotodetektorer ombord rymduppdrag behover mycket låga temperaturer för att hålla en rätt upplösning. Kryokylare, såsom pulse-tubes, hjälper att upprätthålla dessa förhållanden i en kryostat. I gengäld genererar de dock mikrovibrationer. Dessa mikrovibrationer släpper ut tillräckligt med värme för att orsaka temperatursvängningar vid detektorns stöd, vilket sänker detektorns upplösning. Det första målet är att upprätta en testbänk från grunden. Testbänken innehåller en dummy som representerar detektorns stöd. Nästa mål är att kontrollera att vi kan mäta värmeavledning vid dummy, vilket motsvarar mycket låga effektvärden. Sista mål är att hitta en länk mellan mekanik och värmeavledning. Dummy består av en massa som är upphängd av Kevlar och är monterad på en kryostats kallplatta. Från kryostathöljet kunde vi generera mikrovibrationer vid den upphängda massan och genomföra accelerations- och temperaturmätningar. Vid 4 K kunde vi bara mäta värmeavledning runt upphängda massans resonanslägen. Som ett första kvantitativt resultat, upptäckte vi att en acceleration på tusentals µg (g är tyngdaccelerationen) på kylplattan försvinner hundratals nanowatt. Detta är dock preliminära resultat och vi kommer att behöva förbättra testbänken för framtida mätkampanjer.

Increased efficiency and reduced emissions demands from users and legislative organisations have lead to the development of advanced combustion technologies for diesel engines. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is a widely used technology to control diesel combustion and emissions, primarily to reduce emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Implementation of high levels of EGR (> 50%) is able to simultaneously reduce both emissions of NOx and particulate matter (PM) to ultra low levels. However, high EGR combustion is subject to reduced combustion efficiency and stability with increased total hydrocarbon (THC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions. This thesis presents research into low temperature diesel combustion (LTC) operation and the effects on combustion and emissions when the engine is operated under air, fuel and EGR rates encountered during transitions between LTC and conventional diesel operation modes. This has resulted in an improved understanding of the diesel combustion process and pollutant emissions with high rates of EGR, different fuel injection pressures and timings, post fuel injection and exhaust back pressures. The sensitivity of LTC to variations in engine speed, fuel injection quantity, and EGR rate and intake manifold temperature were investigated. Pseudo-transient operation of the engine was studied to interpret the transient performance of a diesel engine during transients within LTC and from LTC to conventional diesel combustion in a new European driving-cycle (NEDC) test. Experimental investigations were conducted on a single cylinder research diesel engine. Cylinder pressure, fuel consumption and gaseous and particulate emissions (filter smoke number, size distribution, and total number) were measured. The results showed that an increase in EGR rate can realise LTC on the research engine. Fuel injection parameters influenced the combustion phasing, and control of this was able to improve the combustion stability and to reduce the THC and CO emissions. The low smoke number for the LTC diesel combustion was a result of reduced mean particle size with possible changes in particulate composition. EGR is the most critical parameter influencing the LTC combustion and emissions. Transient simulation of an engine exhibits significant discrepancies in EGR rate and boost pressure. Pseudo-transient points at intermediate load condition showed significantly increased emissions, particularly smoke number. Retarded fuel injection timing and increased boost pressure were demonstrated to be an effective strategy to reduce smoke emissions for these pseudo-transient operating points.

An accurate estimate of the gasturbine inlet air temperature is essential to the stability of the engine since its control depends on it. Most supersonic military aircrafts have a design with the engine integrated in the fuselage which requires a rather long inlet duct from the inlet opening to the engine face. Such duct can affect the temperature measurement because of the heat flow between the inlet air and the duct skin. This is especially true when the temperature sensor is mounted close to the duct skin, which is the case for most engines. This master thesis project therefore revolved around developing a method to better estimate the engine inlet temperature and to compensate for the disturbances which a temperature sensor near the duct skin can be exposed to. A grey box model of the system was developed based on heat transfer equations between different components in the inlet, as well as predictions of temperature changes based on a temperature model of the atmosphere and thermodynamic laws. The unknown parameters of the grey box model were estimated using flight data and tuned to minimize the mean square of the prediction error. The numerical optimization of the parameters was performed using the Matlab implementations of the BFGS and SQP algorithms. An extended Kalman filter based on the model was also implemented. The two models were then evaluated in terms of how much the mean squared error was reduced compared to just using the sensor measurement to estimate the inlet air temperature. It was also analyzed how much the models reduced the prediction errors. A cross-correlation analysis was also done to see how well the model utilized the input signals. The results show that the engine inlet temperature can be estimated with good accuracy. The two models were shown to reduce the mean square of the prediction error by between 84 % and 89 % if you compare with just using the temperature sensor to estimate the temperature. The model which utilized the Kalman filtering was shown to perform slightly better than the other model. The relevance of different subcomponents of the model were investigated in order to see if the model could be simplified and maintain similar accuracy. Some investigations were also done with the relationship between different temperatures of the inlet to further understand the flow patterns of the inlet and to perhaps improve the model even more in the future.<br>En korrekt uppskattning av lufttemperaturen vid inloppet till turbofläktmotorer är väsentlig för stabil motorfunktion eftersom den direkt påverkar motorregleringen. För militära flygplan där motorn är integrerad i flygplansskrovet krävs ofta en relativt lång luftkanal för att leda luften till motorn. En sådan kanal kan påverka temperaturmätningen på grund av det värmeutbyte som sker mellan luften i kanalen och kanalväggen, speciellt då temperaturgivaren placeras nära kanalväggen eftersom den då kan påverkas av temperaturgränsskiktet nära kanalväggen. Det här examensarbetet handlade därför om att utveckla en metod för att bättre skatta temperaturen i motorinloppet och kompensera för de störningar som en temperaturgivare nära kanalväggen kan utsättas för. En fysikalisk model av systemet togs fram baserat på värmeöverföringen mellan olika komponenter i luftintagskanalen, samt ett sätt att förutse temperaturändringar baserat på en generell temperaturmodell för atmosfären och termodynamiska lagar. Många parametrar i den fysikaliska modellen av systemet var dock okända så dessa skattades baserat på flygdata. Parametrarna anpassades till modellen på ett sådant sätt att den genomsnittliga kvadraten av modellens skattningsfel minimerades. Den numeriska optimeringen av parametrarna utfördes med hjälp av Matlabs implementation av BFGS- och SQP-algoritmerna. Ett utökat kalmanfilter baserat på modellen implementerades också. De två modellerna utvärderades i termer av hur mycket de reducerade kvadraten av skattningsfelet och jämfördes med att endast använda temperaturmätningarna för att skatta temperaturen. Det undersöktes även hur mycket skattningsfelen reducerades. Korskorrelationen mellan skattningsfelet och insignalerna undersöktes även för att se om modellen hade utnyttjat insignalerna på ett bra sätt. Resultaten visar att det går att skatta temperaturen i motorinloppet med god noggrannhet. De två modellerna visade sig reducera den genomsnittliga kvadraten av skattningsfelet med mellan 84 % och 89 % om man jämför med att bara använda temperaturgivaren för att skatta temperaturen. Den modell som utnyttjade kalmanfiltrering visade sig ge något bättre resultat än den andra modellen. Olika delmodellers relevans undersöktes för att se om modellen kunde förenklas utan att modellens noggrannhet äventyrades. Några tester utfördes även för att undersöka förhållandet mellan olika temperaturer i intaget. Detta för att få en bättre förståelse för strömningen i intaget och resultatet skulle eventuellt kunna användas för att förbättra modellen ytterligare i framtiden.

Low-temperature energy systems are processes that operate below ambient temperatures and make use of refrigeration cycles, where the main energy consumption is due to the shaft work required to drive the compressors. Very-low-temperature energy systems, also known as cryogenic processes, operate at around -150°C and below. Due to increasing demand of products from cryogenic processes and tighter environmental regulations, existing plants need to be revamped to increase their energy efficiency or adapt to new processing capacities. So, accurate models of the performance of cryogenic processes are needed in order to optimise their operation. The present work proposes a new approach for optimising the operating conditions of existing refrigeration cycles in cryogenic processes, using pure refrigerants, for different plant operating conditions. In this work, the process conditions are considered as given and not considered as variables during the optimisation. The operational optimisation is achieved by integrating models for the part-load performance of centrifugal compressors and models for the simulation of plate-fin heat exchangers (PFHEs), into a single optimisation approach. An optimisation approach similar to the one proposed in this work was not found in the open literature. The optimisation approach varies the refrigerant evaporation temperatures, flow rates and cooling duties, minimum temperature difference in PFHEs, and rotational speed of compressors. The objective function seeks to minimise shaft work demand and the constraints consider the operational limitations of centrifugal compressors (minimum and maximum flow rates) and PFHEs (no temperature crosses and meeting the target temperatures of the process streams). In order to explore the solution space that is generated by the complex interactions between the variables and find an approximation to a global optimum, a multistart optimisation algorithm is implemented. The part-load centrifugal compressor model implemented in this work uses regressed data from their performance curves together with the fan laws. The proposed simulation model of PFHEs represents these units as a ‘fictitious’ heat exchanger network of two-stream matches. The simulation model accounts for single and two-phase streams and for the temperature-dependent physical properties of pure refrigerants (e.g. viscosity, heat capacity, etc.). In addition to the simulation model, design and rating models for PFHEs with single and two-phase streams are also proposed. The examples presented in this work for the design, simulation and rating of single and two-phase streams in PFHEs show that the models proposed can find feasible designs, and can predict the outlet temperature of the process streams within ±3°C for different inlet conditions. The example presented in this work for the operational optimisation of refrigeration cycles shows that savings of around 3% in shaft work consumption (up to £0.86 million per year), for different process throughput, can be achieved using the proposed methodology.

This thesis presents the design and construction of a low temperature differential (LTD) Stirling engine for electric power generation. The target energy sources were geothermal, industrial waste heat or solar heated water. These sources would supply a source temperature of around 90 °C. Assuming that the sink is kept at around 20 °C, the engine was designed based on a temperature difference of approximately 70 °C. The initial design and basic structure of the engine was completed in a previous project utilising first order design methods. The goal was to develop a low cost prototype engine capable of producing up to 500W electrical output power. A novel gamma type engine was proposed utilising a rotary reciprocating displacer and industrial steam piping to form a low cost pressurised chamber. This project concentrated on advancing the design and construction towards completion with particular emphasis on the electrical control, measurement/instrumentation components, and gas flow through the regenerator. At the completion of this project the displacer piston actuation system has been redesigned. In order to achieve the displacer’s specified 2 ㎐ actuation, both the displacer’s structure and the actuation system were altered. The displacer’s aluminium shell and foam centre were removed and replaced with a pine superstructure coated in depron foam, reducing the moment of inertia from 0.4488 ㎏ ∙ ㎡ to 0.0984 ㎏ ∙ ㎡. A secondary motor was added to the actuation system to increase the actuation power. The gearing ratio was also altered from 10:1 to 2:1 to increase the peak displacer speed. The regenerator was designed and built to suit the unusual wedge shape requirements of the original design. A ribbed structure was conceived to allow fluid flow to be manipulated within separate sections, producing an even pressure drop over varying regenerator lengths. Simulations were run to optimise both the number of sections and the mass of wire wool to be placed in each segment. The final regenerator design has axial ribs placed at radii of 93, 134, 192, 276 and 392mm, creating four sections. These sections are filled with 0.68, 0.97, 1.40 and 1.90kg of #0 mild steel wire wool. As Stirling engines are not self-starting the generator was required to be run as a motor when starting the Stirling engine. To achieve bidirectional flow of current within the starter motor/generator control system, a field oriented control (FOC) inverter from Texas Instruments was purchased and set up to run the 1kW, 3 phase, permanent magnet generator in both motor and generation modes. This will allow the Stirling engine to be brought up to speed with the generator operating as a motor and then switch to generation mode when the motoring current falls below a set limit. Both pressure and temperature measurement systems were developed, constructed and tested in order to collect information about the performance of the engine under operation. Three pressure transducer circuits were designed and constructed with measurement ranges of 10 ㎪, ±0.99 ㎪ and ±6.66 ㎪. These circuits were integrated with a PiocLog1012 analog to digital converter and PicoLog recording software. Eight K-type thermocouples were used for temperature recording. These were sampled with a Pico Technology TC-08 temperature thermocouple data logger which in turn was connected, via USB, to a computer running PicoLog Recorder software. Thus far all component testing has been carried out with test rigs that model the relevant parts of the engine. The displacer actuation system and phase angle control of the displacer and power piston has been tested. Temperature and pressure measurement systems have been independently tested. Motor/generator speed control and switching has been simulated and tested. Unfortunately completion of the engine assembly was not achieved within the scope of this project and therefore fully integrated testing of all components was not carried out. Once mechanical assembly is completed fully integrated testing of displacer actuation, piston position, generator speed control and measurement systems can be achieved.

Buildings are responsible for over one third of the energy demand in Europe. Thus, reducing their energy consumption, increasing energy efficiency and integrating low carbon energy sources have become primary goals in the transition towards a sustainable society. District heating and cooling (DHC) systems play a key role to achieve these targets, as they allow any available source of heat to be exploited, including waste heat and renewable heat sources such as geothermal or solar heat. Nowadays, state-of-the-art DH networks have sup-ply temperatures of 70°C in winter and 55°C in summer. Due to their top-down structure, today’s networks are not well-suited for decentralized heat supply. The present thesis explores the potential of a new generation of DHC systems, that distribute heat at lower temperature (from 15°C to 45°C) and use booster heat pumps in the customers substations to raise the temperature level according to the needs of the building served. This concept brings several advantages over conventional networks, such as the abatement of thermal losses, the extension of the temperature range of recoverable heat sources and the potential decentralization of heat supply. In a preliminary analysis, the implementation of the system was investigated for a small town in the North-East of Italy with a large amount of available wastewater in a tem-perature range between 45 and 55°C. In this case-study, the DH system with booster heat pumps reduced the primary energy consumption of about 70% compared to a heat supply sce-nario based on individual gas boilers and of 30% compared to a traditional DH system with a central heat pump and an auxiliary gas boiler. Such improvement occurs also because the dis-tributed heat pumps can be adapted to the supplied buildings: this is particularly relevant con-sidering the heterogeneneity of the building stock in the urban environment. The optimal de-sign and management of this kind of networks is a new topic in the scientific literature. There-fore, the first part of the work tries to answer the following general question: “What are the most critical aspects in the system design?” The thesis analyses the effect of some critical design parameters on the cost of heat for the final user, using the payback time for the DH utility as a fixed constraint. It emerges that a higher supply temperature leads to two positive effects: the heat sales increase and the ex-penditure for electrical energy is reduced. The levelized cost of energy of the system drops by 17% when the network supply temperature goes from 40°C to 20°C, provided that the heat can be recovered at the same price. Moreover, the network temperature difference plays an important role in the design phase. Depending on the business model adopted by the DH utili-ty to purchase the heat and on the specific energy consumption of the considered building stock, an optimal temperature difference may arise from the trade-off between low initial in-vestment and low operational costs. The decentralized structure of these networks also intro-duces new challenges in the control strategies. Indeed, if the utility purchases and/or produces the electricity needed by the heat pumps, the control strategy should possibly take into ac-count the price and/or the production cost of electricity. Secondly, the control system of the network manager must be able to react on increasing shares of decentralized heat supply from the prosumers. These issues can be summarized by the following research question: “How can the network manager control its heat supply units in a smart way?” This part of the thesis was developed within the H2020 Project FLEXYNETS. In order to minimize the operational cost for the network manager, an intelligent control method based on MILP optimization was developed and tested via computer simulations. The proposed control system proved capable of self-adapting to the current situation of heat demand, waste heat availability and electricity price, such as to increase the share of electricity self-consumption and the share of low-grade heat recovered from the remote prosumers. During two simulated winter months, the advanced control strategy was able to reduce operational costs by 11% compared to a conventional rule-based control. The receding horizon scheme makes the sys-tem potentially feasible for real-time applications. The novelty of this work consists not only in the aforementioned findings per se, but also in the methodological framework that led to those results. In fact, the developed models allowed to integrate the whole energy system (buildings, substations, district heating network and heat supply stations) into a unique simulation environment.<br>Gli edifici sono responsabili di oltre un terzo della domanda di energia in Europa. Ridurre il consumo di energia, aumentare l’efficienza energetica ed integrare fonti di energia a basso impatto ambientale sono diventati obiettivi fondamentali nella transizione verso un futuro sostenibile. Le reti di teleriscaldamento e teleraffrescamento hanno un ruolo fondamen-tale nel raggiungimento di questi obiettivi, in quanto permettono di recuperare ed utilizzare il calore da qualsiasi fonte sia disponibile a livello locale: dal calore di scarto al calore di fonti rinnovabili come il geotermico e il solare. Oggi le reti di teleriscaldamento più efficienti hanno temperature di mandata pari a circa 70°C in inverno e 55°C d’estate. A causa della loro struttura centralizzata, le reti di oggi non sono predisposte per la generazione distribuita del calore. Questa tesi analizza il potenziale di una nuova generazione di reti, che distribuiscono il calore ad una temperatura più bassa (in generale tra 15°C e 45°C) e usano pompe di calore di rilancio nelle sottostazioni d’utenza per fornire calore alla temperatura desiderata da ogni sin-golo edificio. Questa nuova filosofia progettuale porta diversi benefici rispetto alle reti tradi-zionali, come l’abbattimento delle perdite di calore, la possibilità di integrare fonti a più bassa temperatura e la decentralizzazione del sistema. In una analisi preliminare, l’implementazione del sistema proposto è stata studiata per una cittadina italiana in cui è presente un’ingente quantità di acqua di risulta tra i 45°C e i 55°C. In questo caso studio, la rete di teleriscalda-mento con le pompe di calore distribuite riduce il consumo di energia primaria e le emissioni di anidride carbonica di circa il 70% rispetto allo sceanrio costituito da caldaie autonome e del 30% rispetto ad una rete tradizionale con pompa di calore centralizzata e caldaia a gas di inte-grazione. Questo miglioramento si verifica anche perché ogni pompa di calore viene adattata all’edificio, il che assume notevole importanza in virtù dell’eterogeneità del parco edilizio normalmente presente nel contesto urbano. La progettazione e la gestione di questo tipo di reti è un argomento nuovo nella letteratura scientifica. La prima parte della Tesi cerca perciò di rispondere ad una domanda di carattere generale: “Quali sono gli aspetti più importanti nella progettazione del sistema?” La tesi analizza gli effetti di alcuni parametri di progetto sul costo dell’energia all’utente fina-le, mantenendo fisso il tempo di rientro dell’utility. Ne è emerso che una elevata temperatura di mandata porta a due benefici: (a) aumentano le vendite di calore da parte dell’utility e (b) si riduce il consumo di energia elettrica delle pompe di calore. Come conseguenza, passando da 40°C a 20°C ato dell’energia si abbassa del 17% a parità di costo del calore che alimenta la rete. In più, anche la differenza di temperatura tra mandata e ritorno ha un ruolo importante nella fase di progetto della rete. Il compromesso che nasce per contenere da un lato l’investimento iniziale e dall’altro i costi operativi può portare ad una differenza di temperatu-ra ottimale tra mandata e ritorno. La struttura decentralizzata di queste reti inoltre fa nascere la necessità di studiare nuove strategie di controllo. Infatti, se l’utility compra e/o produce l’energia elettrica di cui le pompe di calore necessitano, la strategia di controllo deve tenere in considerazione anche il prezzo e/o il costo di produzione dell’energia elettrica. Inoltre, il si-stema di controllo del gestore della rete deve essere in grado di far fronte a quantità ingenti di calore fornito dai prosumers. Questi problemi possono essere riassunti nel seguente quesito: “In che modo il gestore di rete può controllare i suoi impianti?” Questa parte della tesi è stata sviluppata nell’ambito del progetto H2020 FLEXYNETS. Al fine di minimizzare il costo operativo per il gestore di rete è stato sviluppato e successivamente testato attraverso simulazioni un metodo di controllo intelligente basato su ottimizzazione MILP. Col metodo proposto il sistema è stato in grado di adattarsi alla situazione di domanda di calore, disponibilità di energia da parte dei prosumers e prezzo dell’elettricità in modo tale da aumentare la quota di autoconsumo e aumentare la quota di energia recuperata dai prosu-mers. Durante i due mesi di simulazione, la strategia di controllo è stata in grado di ridurre i costi operativi dell’11% rispetto ad un sistema di controllo convenzionale. Lo schema “rece-ding horizon” rende il metodo potenzialmente fruibile in applicazioni real-time. Il contributo della tesi non è solamente relativo ai risultati in quanto tali, ma anche alla metodologia utiliz-zata per raggiungerli. Infatti i modelli sviluppati hanno permesso di studiare il sistema energe-tico nel suo insieme.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Ocean Engineering, 1986.<br>MICROFICHE COPY AVAILABLE IN ARCHIVES AND ENGINEERING.<br>Bibliography: leaves 135-140.<br>by Dionissios Nikolaou Assanis.<br>Ph.D.

One of the major challenges of this decade is developing more sustainable energy systems that contribute to environmental concern, especially climate change mitigation. Extending the operating conditions of the heat pump technology to higher temperatures will allow decarbonising the industrial sector from two slopes: recovering heat from waste heat sources that currently is being rejected to the ambient and produce heat at the required industrial thermal levels that become useful for the industrial processes. Both challenges will make possible reduce the equivalent CO2 emissions of the industrial sector and operate at high temperatures that conventional heat pumps. This thesis deals with the development of high temperature heat pumps through a comprehensive theoretical and experimental analysis to overcome different technology challenge: architecture, refrigerants, experimental prototype, advanced applications and system integration, providing new knowledge that represents a step forward in high temperature heat pump technology.<br>Uno de los mayores desafíos de esta década recae en el desarrollo de sistemas energéticos más sostenibles que contribuyan a la preocupación medioambiental, especialmente la mitigación del cambio climático. Extender las condiciones de funcionamiento de la tecnología de bomba de calor a temperaturas más elevadas permitirá descarbonizar el sector industrial desde dos vertientes: recuperando calor de fuentes de calor residual, actualmente disipado al ambiente y producir calor a los niveles térmicos requeridos, útiles para los procesos industriales, reduciendo así las emisiones de CO2 equivalentes del sector industrial y contribuyendo al desarrollo sostenible. Esta tesis pretende abordar el desarrollo de bombas de calor de alta temperatura a través de un análisis teórico y experimental, para abordar diferentes desafíos tecnológicos: arquitectura, refrigerantes, prototipo experimental, aplicaciones avanzadas e integración de sistemas, generando nuevos conocimientos que representan un paso adelante en la tecnología de bombas de calor de alta temperatura.<br>Programa de Doctorat en Tecnologies Industrials i Materials

The European Union has adopted a plan to decrease 20 % of total energy consumption through improved energy efficiency by 2020. One way of achieving this challenging goal may be to use efficient water-based heating systems supplied by heat pumps or othersustainable systems. The goal of this research was to analyze and improve the thermalperformance of water-based baseboard heaters at low-temperature water supply. Both numerical (CFD) and analytical simulations were used to investigate the heat efficiency of the system. An additional objective of this work was to ensure that the indoor thermal comfort was satisfied in spaces served by such a low-temperature heating system. Analyses showed that it was fully possible to cover both transmission and ventilation heatl osses using baseboard heaters supplied by 45 °C water flow. The conventional baseboards, however, showed problems in suppressing the cold air down-flow created by 2.0 m high glazing and an outdoor temperature of – 12 °C. The draught discomfort at ankle level was slightly above the upper limit recommended by international and national standards. On the other hand, thermal baseboards with integrated ventilation air supply showed better ability to neutralize cold downdraught at the same height and conditions. Calculations also showed that the heat output from the integrated system with one ventilation inlet was approximately twiceas high as that of the conventional one. The general conclusion from this work was that low-temperature baseboards, especially with integrated ventilation air supply, are an efficient heating system and able to be combined with devices that utilize the low-quality sustainable energy sources such as heat pumps.<br>QC 20101029

Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2014.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The potential benefits from saving energy have driven most industrial processing facilities to pay more attention to reducing energy wastage. Because the industrial sector is the largest user of electricity in South Africa (37.7% of the generated electricity capacity), the application of waste heat recovery and utilisation (WHR&U) systems in this sector could lead to significant energy savings, a reduction in production costs and an increase in the efficiency of industrial processes. Turbines are critical components of WHR&U systems, and the choice of an efficient and low cost turbine is crucial for their successful implementation. The aim of this thesis project is therefore to validate the use of a turbine for application in a low grade energy WHR&U system. An experimental turbine kit (Infinity Turbine ITmini) was acquired, assembled and tested in a specially designed and built air test bench. The test data was used to characterise the turbine for low temperature (less than 120 Celsius) and pressure (less than 10 bar) conditions. A radial inflow turbine rotor was designed, manufactured and then tested with the same test bench, and its performance characteristics determined. In comparison with the ITmini rotor, the as-designed and manufactured rotor achieved a marginally better performance for the same test pressure ratio range. The as-designed turbine rotor performance characteristics for air were then used to scale the turbine for a refrigerant-123 application. Future work should entail integrating the turbine with a WHR&U system, and experimentally determining the system’s performance characteristics.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die potensiële voordele wat gepaard gaan met energiebesparing het die fokus van industrie laat val op die bekamping van energievermorsing. Die industriële sektor is die grootse verbruiker van elektrisiteit in Suid-Afrika (37.7% van die totale gegenereerde kapasiteit). Energiebesparing in die sektor deur die toepassing van afval-energie-herwinning en benutting (AEH&B) sisteme kan lei tot drastiese vermindering van energievermorsing, ‘n afname in produksie koste en ‘n toename in die doeltreffendheid van industriële prosesse. Turbines is kritiese komponente in AEH&B sisteme en die keuse van ‘n doeltreffende lae koste turbine is noodsaaklik in die suksesvolle implementering van dié sisteme. Die doelwit van hierdie tesisprojek is dus om die toepassing van ‘n turbine in ‘n lae graad energie AEH&B sisteem op die proef te stel. ‘n Eksperimentele turbine stel (“Infinity Turbine ITmini”) is aangeskaf, aanmekaargesit en getoets op ‘n pasgemaakte lugtoetsbank. Die toetsdata is gebruik om die turbine te karakteriseer by lae temperatuur (minder as 120 Celsius) en druk (minder as 10 bar) kondisies. ‘n Radiaalinvloeiturbinerotor is ook ontwerp, vervaardig en getoets op die lugtoetsbank om die rotor se karakteristieke te bepaal. In vergelyking met die ITmini-rotor het die radiaalinvloeiturbinerotor effens beter werkverrigting gelewer by diselfde toetsdruk verhoudings. Die werksverrigtingkarakteristieke met lug as vloeimedium van die radiaalinvloeiturbinerotor is gebruik om die rotor te skaleer vir ‘n R123 verkoelmiddel toepassing. Toekomstige werk sluit in om die turbine met ‘n AEH&B sisteem te integreer en die sisteem se werksverrigtingkarakteristieke te bepaal.

<p>Energy is one of the basic needs of human beings and is extremely crucial for continued development of human life. Our work, leisure and our economic, social and physical welfare all depend on the sufficient, uninterrupted supply of energy. Therefore, it is essential to provide adequate and affordable energy for improving human welfare and raising living standards. Global concern over environmental climate change linked to fossil fuel consumption has increased pressure to generate power from renewable sources [1]. Although substantial advances in renewable energy technologies have been made, significant challenges remain in developing integrated renewable energy systems due primarily to mismatch between load demand and source capabilities [2]. The output from renewable energy sources such as photo-voltaic, wind, tidal, and micro-hydro fluctuate on an hourly, daily, and seasonal basis. As a result, these devices are not well suited for directly powering loads that require a uniform and uninterrupted supply of input energy.</p>

In this thesis, specific heat, magnetic susceptibility and resistivity studies on the iron-pnictide superconductors LiFeAs, NaFe1-xCoxAs, AFe2As2 (A = K, Ca, Ba), M1-xNaxFe2As2 (M = Ca, Ba), and Ca(Fe1-xCox)2Fe2As2 are presented, from which different intrinsic physical properties are resolved. The combined first-order spindensity wave/structural transition which occurs in the parent compounds of the 122 pnictide systems is shown to gradually shift to lower temperature for low doping levels. Upon higher doping, this transition is completely suppressed and simultaneously, superconductivity appears at lower temperature. In contrast, the phase diagram in Ca(Fe1-xCox)2Fe2As2 is shown to exhibit a pronounced region of coexistence of magnetism and superconductivity. Further important results reported in this work concern the electronic properties and superconducting-gap characteristics. In LiFeAs, the zero-field temperature dependence of the electronic specific heat can be well described by two s-wave gaps, whose magnitudes are in agreement with ARPES results. Our gap analysis in KFe2As2, Ca0.32Na0.68Fe2As2, and Ba0.65Na0.35Fe2As2 single crystals also implies the presence of two s-wave-like gaps. The magnetic phase diagram of LiFeAs and KFe2As2 for magnetic fields along both principal orientations has been constructed and an anisotropy of Hc2(T) of 3 and 5, respectively, has been obtained.

Thesis (S.B.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, 2009.<br>Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.<br>Includes bibliographical references (p. 33).<br>An air-to-oil heat exchanger was modeled and optimized for use in a system utilizing a thermoelectric generator to convert low grade waste heat in flue gas streams to electricity. The NTU-effectiveness method, exergy, and thermoelectric relations were used to guide the modeling process. The complete system design was optimized for cost using the net present value method. A number of finned-tube compact heat exchanger designs were evaluated for high heat transfer and low pressure loss. Heat exchanger designs were found to favor either power density or exergy effectiveness to achieve optimal net present value under different conditions. The model proved capable of generating complete thermoelectric flue gas systems with positive net present values using thermoelectric material with a ZT value of 0.8 and second law efficiency of 13%. Complete systems were generated for a number of economic conditions. The best complete system achieved a first law efficiency of 1.62% from a 1500 C flue gas stream at an installed cost of $0.79 per watt.<br>by Jacob G. Latcham.<br>S.B.

A comparison study between axial and radial swirler performance in a gas turbine can combustor was conducted by investigating the correlation between combustor flow field geometry and convective heat transfer at cold flow conditions for Reynolds numbers of 50,000 and 80,000. Flow velocities were measured using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) along the center axial plane and radial cross sections of the flow. It was observed that both swirlers produced a strong rotating flow with a reverse flow core. The axial swirler induced larger recirculation zones at both the backside wall and the central area as the flow exits the swirler, and created a much more uniform rotational velocity distribution. The radial swirler however, produced greater rotational velocity as well as a thicker and higher velocity reverse flow core. Wall heat transfer and temperature measurements were also taken. Peak heat transfer regions directly correspond to the location of the flow as it exits each swirler and impinges on the combustor liner wall. Convective heat transfer was also measured along the liner wall of a gas turbine annular combustor fitted with radial swirlers for Reynolds numbers 210000, 420000, and 840000. The impingement location of the flow exiting from the radial swirler resulted in peak heat transfer regions along the concave wall of the annular combustor. The convex side showed peak heat transfer regions above and below the impingement area. This behavior is due to the recirculation zones caused by the interaction between the swirlers inside the annulus.<br>Master of Science

In the electronics the quality, reliability, operational speed, device density and cost of circuits are fundamentally determined by carriers. If it is necessary to use better material than plastic carrier, it has to be made of ceramics or glass-ceramics. This study dealt with the ceramic based carrier production system. The types of the raw ceramics fired at low temperature (below 1000&deg<br>C) are called Low Temperature Co-Fired Ceramics (LTCC). In this study, a comprehensive thermal model is described for the high temperature oven which belongs to a Low Temperature Co-fired Ceramic (LTCC) substance production line. The model includes detailed energy balances with conduction, convection and radiation heat transfer mechanisms, view factor derivations for the radiative terms, thermocouple balances, heating filaments and cooling mechanisms for the system. Research was conducted mainly on process development and production conditions along with the system modeling of oven. Temperature control was made in high temperature co-firing oven. Radiation View Factors for substrate and thermocouples are determined. View factors between substrate and top-bottom-sides of the oven are calculated, and then inserted into the energy balances. The same arrangement was made for 3 thermocouples at the bottom of the oven. Combination of both expressions gave the final model. Modeling studies were held with energy balance simulations on MATLAB. Data analysis and DOE study were held with JMP Software.

The phenomenal growth rate for the use of engineering ceramics is attributed to successful scientific responses to industrial demand. These materials are replacing metal and its alloys in diverse applications from cutting tools and heat engine components to integrated circuits. Joining technology plays a vital role in this changing and evolving technology as success and failure comes with breaking new barriers. It is important to improve existing techniques and to develop new techniques that reliably join simple shape components to form complex assemblies or join dissimilar materials such as metal to ceramic. Joining of ceramics is not simple due to their high chemical stability and low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). Joining between metal and ceramic is usually carried out at elevated temperatures and upon cooling thermal residual stresses are induced that lead to joint failure or poor strength. Most metal-ceramic joints cannot be used over 500°C primarily due to the low melting temperature of the interlayer. This investigation was concerned with the successful joining for higher temperature applications (above 500°C) of two dissimilar high temperature oxidation and corrosion resistant materials, Fecralloy and silicon nitride. The primary focus was on the effects of process conditions upon the microstructure and mechanical properties of the joint and to also study/identify the joining mechanism. Two novel techniques were employed to join successfully the metal to ceramic. The first was by use of a thin Cu foil that did not remain after joining. Joining occurs by a process that results in partial melting of the Fecralloy interface, where Fe, Cr, Al and Cu reactively infiltrate into the silicon nitride. This liquid mixture causes partial dissolution of the silicon nitride interface, where Si and N diffuse into the Fecralloy. A thin reaction product layer was formed at the silicon nitride interface and our results suggested that this was AIN. The free surface Si and porosity of the silicon nitride along with the eutectic temperatures above 1100°C are all vital for this joining process. The highest average shear strength of a Fecralloy-silicon nitride joint produced by the method was 67.5 MPa. The second route was that of a powder metallurgy one, where cold pressed Ni-Al (1:1 molar) compacts were used to join successfully the Fecralloy to silicon nitride. The formation of NiAl from its constituents is highly exothermic and this is initiated between 500-650°C. The high temperature reached causes partial melting of the Fecralloy interface and dissolution/reactive wetting at the silicon nitride interface. Mostly Fe infiltrates the NiAl improving room temperature ductility, fracture toughness and yield strength. Molten Al from the interlayer reacts and wets the silicon nitride interface with small amount of infiltration and no reaction product forming. The reaction synthesis of NiAl was studied using DTA and TGA, where the effects of Ni particle size and heating rate were investigated. This joining process is highly dependant upon process conditions, the most important of which are applied pressure, heating rate and Ni/A1 particle size. The highest average shear strength attained was 94.30 MPa and this is attributed to good interfacial bonding, high pressure, moderate process temperature and dwell time. The exothermic formation of the NiAl interlayer that is densified and monophase was paramount for this joining process. The Bansal-Doremus kinetic model for evaluating the kinetic parameters from non-isothermal DTA data was shown to be valid. The results obtained were identical to those by other authors who used a different model and approach.

The flow entering a high-pressure turbine in a gas turbine engine is characterised by a loss of symmetry due to temperature distortions in both radial and circumferential directions, known as hot streaks. In industrial simulations it is common practice to assume uniform inlet temperature conditions to simplify the aerodynamic analysis. However, hot streaks may have significant impact on the turbine aerodynamics with the redistribution of the hot fluid affecting the development of secondary flows with consequent effects on enhanced local heat transfer and aerodynamic losses. The loss of symmetry has also been linked to the excitation of low-order nodal diameter assembly modes of the downstream rotor blades leading to potential blade failure and thus, should be taken into account during the design process. In today’s carbon-constraint environment additional parameters arise as gas turbines are challenged to adapt to variations of the fuel composition driven by the need of efficient and lowCO2 power generation. Introducing syngas, a synthesis gas fuel that is used to power integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plants, is likely to affect the operating conditions of existing gas turbines leading to the requirement of re-design of components. With particular focus on the turbine hot flow path, the propagation mechanism of hot streaks throughout the turbine will be affected with consequent impact on the turbine aerodynamics and forced response excitation levels originating from the different hot flow patterns. Motivated by the lack of relevant studies, the current work provides a first step towards the evaluation of the effects of syngas on hot streaks aerodynamics and the induced forced response excitation levels. Using full annulus multi-bladerow unsteady 3D CFD simulations and applying combustor representative hot streak profiles in two different gas turbines, a complete analysis of the hot streaks migration is achieved, with respect to a number of geometric parameters such as the hot streaks shape and injection location in both spanwise and circumferential directions, the coolant configurations as well as the combined effects on the secondary flow development. The aerodynamic analysis indicated the propagation of the hot streaks up to the exit of the turbines under investigation with differences in characteristics depending on design parameters. With respect to the effect of fuel composition variations on the blades temperature levels and the flow pattern is observed between the natural gas and syngas turbine with the syngas showing a more concentrated wake shape. In effect of the syngas different flow pattern, differences are observed in the secondary flows with consequent interaction with the hot streaks. Contrast to initial expectations, the forced response analysis iii resulted slightly lower amplitude unsteady force of lower harmonics for syngas compared to natural gas; however, both fuels showed significant levels of the hot streak induced low engine order excitation compared to the burners and stator related blade passing frequency vibration.

Development of innovative thermodynamic cycles is important for the efficient utilization of low-temperature heat sources such as solar, geothermal, and waste heat sources. Binary mixtures exhibit variable boiling temperatures during the boiling process, which leads to a good thermal match between the heating fluid and working fluid for efficient heat source utilization. This study presents a theoretical and an experimental analysis of a combined power/cooling cycle, which combines the Rankine and absorption refrigeration cycles, uses ammonia-water mixture as the working fluid and produces power and refrigeration, while power is the primary goal. This cycle, also known as the Goswami Cycle, can be used as a bottoming cycle using waste heat from a conventional power cycle or as an independent cycle using low to mid-temperature sources such as geothermal and solar energy. A thermodynamic analysis of power and cooling cogeneration was presented. The performance of the cycle for a range of boiler pressures, ammonia concentrations, and isentropic turbine efficiencies were studied to find out the sensitivities of net work, amount of cooling and effective efficiencies. The thermodynamic analysis covered a broad range of boiler temperatures, from 85 °C to 350 °C. The first law efficiencies of 25-31% are achievable with the boiler temperatures of 250-350 °C. The cycle can operate at an effective exergy efficiency of 60-68% with the boiler temperature range of 200-350 °C. An experimental study was conducted to verify the predicted trends and to test the performance of a scroll type expander. The experimental results of vapor production were verified by the expected trends to some degree, due to heat transfer losses in the separator vessel. The scroll expander isentropic efficiency was between 30-50%, the expander performed better when the vapor was superheated. The small scale of the experimental cycle affected the testing conditions and cycle outputs. This cycle can be designed and scaled from a kilowatt to megawatt systems. Utilization of low temperature sources and heat recovery is definitely an active step in improving the overall energy conversion efficiency and decreasing the capital cost of energy per unit.

SummaryIn this study, the Trilateral Flash Cycle (TFC) and the Partially Evaporating Cycle (PEC) have been analyzed and compared to the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) for power production from low temperature heat sources. This study is a continuation of the work done in my project thesis fall 2013.The ORC is a well-known technology that is in use in several plants today. The TFC and PEC on the other hand are still in a state of technical development. The biggest challenge for the TFC and PEC is the required two-phase expansion. Lately, two-phase expanders with high efficiencies have been developed, which makes the TFC and PEC economically interesting.Currently, only a few studies on the TFC and PEC can be found, and most of them are theoretical considerations. All of these studies finds the TFC promising for low temperature heat sources, which was also the findings of my project thesis. The PEC is found to be promising for smaller systems where the working fluid pump efficiency is low.The TFCs main difference from the ORC is that the heating process ends at the boiling point of the working fluid, i.e. there is no evaporation and superheating. This leads to a better temperature match between the working fluid and the heat source, such that more heat can be transferred to the working fluid. Power is produced in a two-phase expander after the heating process. The cost pr. kWh for TFC systems have been estimated to be lower than for ORC systems due to the elimination of the evaporator, separator drum, gear box, lube oil system and the fact that simpler heat exchangers can be used.In the PEC, the working fluid is allowed to be partially evaporated during the heating process. This is done in an attempt to combine the advantages of the TFC and the ORC.The ORC, TFC and PEC have been simulated in a Microsoft Excel calculation tool, using Visual Basic for Applications. The simulations include detailed heat exchanger models to calculate heat transfer coefficients and pressure losses, and two-phase expander efficiency models for the TFC and PEC. The three cycles have been simulated and optimized for maximum net power production for three cases using different heat source temperatures. Air with a mass flow of 10 kg/s and temperatures of 100, 150 and 200 &#176;C are used for Case I, Case II and Case III respectively. Water at 20 &#176;C is used as the heat sink. The three cases are simulated with eight different working fluids, R123, R134a, R245fa, R1234ze(E), butane, pentane, isopentane and propane with maximum heat exchanger areas of 1000, 1500, 2000, 2500, 3000, 3500 and 4000 m2. Different performance parameters are calculated and used to compare the performance of the ORC, TFC and PEC, and the different working fluids. The results show that the TFC has the lowest power production for all cases, and the largest estimated system size. Both the total heat exchanger area and expander outlet volume flow are generally higher for the TFC systems, especially for the lower heat source temperature cases. For the 100 &#176;C and 150 &#176;C cases the power production for the TFC and ORC is in the same range. Since TFC systems are estimated to have a lower cost than ORC systems, they can be suitable for systems with heat sources in this range when system size is not a critical factor. The PEC does not show any advantage over the ORC for the cases analyzed here. This study shows less promising results for the TFC than my project thesis and other published studies. This is mainly due to the variable two-phase expander efficiency used here, and that none of the other studies considers pressure losses in the system or calculation of heat transfer coefficients for each working fluid.A scientific paper on the main results from the study before the simulation of the PEC and inclusion of the heat exchanger models is given in Appendix C. This paper has been submitted to the journal Energy. A scientific paper on the final results of the study is given in Appendix D. This paper has been submitted to the Gustav Lorentzen Conference.