Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Legal definition”

While much of the narrative of this thesis chips away at imperceptible changes in case law, this is ultimately a text as much about legal policy as about law. The author will assert that it is time for a tectonic shift in the manner in which insurance is considered under the law of England and Wales, and sets out the basis for this view. Chapter 1 is a brief general introduction. Chapter 2 sets out the background of the reform project against which this work has been undertaken and its ongoing reform of insurance contract law, underlining how the research has been undertaken in a context of moving goalposts. It further provides some stipulative definitions and initial consideration of the concepts of good faith and moral hazard. Chapter 3 sets out the law on fraudulent claims – a fairly basic endeavour it might be thought, but as will be seen the law has been far from clear to the point of requiring clarification by the legislator. Chapter 4 explores how the burden and in particular the standard of proof operate in cases of insurance fraud, and explores how the courts address these, and how they ought to address them. Chapter 5 breaks new ground in exploring and setting out the strategies employed by insurers in achieving punitive results against insurance fraudsters, in the face of the difficult legal position created by the law as outlined in the previous chapters. A final chapter teases out the consequences of the preceding chapters and offers conclusions. It will be concluded that the law is in need of recalibration not just along contractual lines and with greater principle in mind, but also along procedural lines with close consideration of the remedies available to the parties.

A dissertação tem por objetivo analisar a evolução do conceito de norma jurídica na Teoria Pura do Direito, de Hans Kelsen, tendo como marcos principais as seguintes obras: i) Problemas Fundamentais da Teoria do Direito Público, de 1911; ii) Teoria Geral do Estado, de 1925; iii) Teoria Pura do Direito (1ª edição), de 1934; iv) Teoria Geral do Direito e do Estado, de 1945; v) Teoria Pura do Direito (2ª edição), de 1960; e vi) Teoria Geral das Normas, de 1979. Após uma breve introdução, onde se define a norma jurídica como o objeto da ciência proposta por Kelsen, será analisada a contribuição dada por cada uma destas obras para a construção do referido conceito, bem como dos conceitos correlatos.
The present work has as its main purpose to analyze the evolution of the concept of legal norm in Hans Kelsen´s Pure Theory of Law, as given by the follow main works: i) Main Problems of Public Law, from 1911; ii) General Theory of State, from 1925; iii) Pure Theory of Law (1st edition), from 1934; iv) General Theory of Law and State, from 1945; v) Pure Theory of Law (2nd edition), from 1960; and vi) General Theory of Norms, from 1979. After a brief introduction, where legal norm is established as the object of Kelsen´s legal science, will be analyzed the contribution given for each of these works for the construction of this concept, and so for other nearby concepts.

Through the use of focus groups and interviews, this research aims to increase understanding of the ways in which the public in Adelaide, South Australia draw on well documented rape myths and the influence of this process on their understandings of consent to sexual intercourse. This research explores how individual attitudes and opinions about rape are shaped through social interaction, including comparing the attitudes of men and women. Equal numbers of men and women were drawn from one geographical location by snowball sampling and vignettes were used to facilitate discussion in focus groups. Findings showed that rape myths remain influential amongst the public and are often used to attribute responsibility to women in acquaintance rape scenarios. However, analysis of the public’s engagement with rape myths revealed a complex process. People did not simply adhere to or challenge rape myths but rather these myths were engaged with in different ways at different times and in different circumstances. Findings also highlighted the complexity of the notion of consent and revealed contradictions in the ways in which consent was understood. Moreover, in many cases despite being willing to label an incident as rape, participants were still reluctant to say that they would find the man guilty of the crime of rape. Overall, this study suggests that the public struggle with issues concerning how rape is defined and that this has widespread implications both for rape victims and for the Australian legal system. Findings also suggest that radical attitude change is required before any real improvement will be seen in rape conviction rates.

The aim of this thesis is to formulate a better definition of religion for legal purposes than the formulation arrived at by the High Court of Australia in the 1983 decision of Church of the New Faith v Commissioner of Pay-roll Tax (Vic). In that case, known in Australia as the Scientology (or Church of the New Faith) case, two of five justices of the High Court of Australia considered belief in a supernatural Being, Thing or Principle to be an essential prerequisite for a belief system being a religion. Two other justices stated that if such belief were absent it was unlikely that one had a religion. There are major problems with the High Court’s formulation in the Scientology case. First, it does not accommodate a number of important belief systems that are generally regarded as being religious belief systems, even though they do not involve any notion of the supernatural in the sense in which that word is ordinarily understood. Secondly, the Court provided little or no guidance as to how one determines whether a particular belief system involves a supernatural view of reality. The guidance that was given is ill-conceived in any event. Thirdly, it is philosophically impossible to postulate a meaningful distinction between the “natural” and the supposedly “supernatural” in a way that would enable the courts and other decision makers to meaningfully apply the “test” enunciated by the Court. The thesis combines a phenomenological approach and the philosophical realism of the late Professor John Anderson with a view to eliciting those things that permit appreciation or recognition of a thing being “religious”. Ultimately, religion is seen to comprise an amalgam of faith-based ideas, beliefs, practices and activities (which include doctrine, dogma, teachings or principles to be accepted on faith and on authority, a set of sanctioned ideals and values in terms of expected ethical standards and behavior and moral obligations, and various experientially based forms, ceremonies, usages and techniques perceived to be of spiritual or transformative power) based upon faith in a Power, Presence, Being or Principle and which are directed towards a celebration of that which is perceived to be not only ultimate but also divine, holy or sacred, manifest in and supported by a body of persons (consisting of one or more faithxvii based communities) established to give practical expression to those ideas, beliefs, practices and activities. The new definition is tested against 3 very different belief systems, Taoism (Daoism), Marxism and Freemasonry.

Les dernières réformes de la procédure pénale, telles que les lois relatives à la garde à vue ou à la participation des citoyens à la justice pénale et au jugement des mineurs, constituent autant d'illustrations qui témoignent de l'évolution de la procédure pénale. Néanmoins, que faut-il entendre réellement par le terme « réforme » ou encore quelle différence existe t-il entre une réforme et une loi ? Aucun élément de réponse ne peut être efficacement apporté au regard de l'état du droit positif. En conséquence, l'objet de cette étude est de proposer une définition juridique de la réforme de la procédure pénale. Ceci permettra de mettre un terme à la confusion qui règne en la matière et d'offrir aux règles de la procédure pénale des qualités formelles et substantielles. Particulièrement, la réforme doit être une norme juridique adéquate, provoquée, mesurée, concertée et consentie et respecter le principe d'utilité juridique. Ces caractéristiques constituent la clé de la qualification de la réforme. Elles participent également à la qualité de celle-ci, et par voie de conséquence, à la qualité de la procédure pénale, objet de la réforme
The last reforms in criminal procedure, such as the new police custody legislation or the one about citizen participation in criminal justice and in minors' judgment, represent as many illustrations which testify of the evolution of criminal procedure. However, how can we really understand the term “reform” or moreover, what is the difference between reform and legislation? No efficient answer can be exposed as regards substantive law. Consequently, the object of the present study is to propose a legal definition of the reform of criminal procedure. It will enable to put an end to the existing confusion on the subject and finally to bring some formal and substantial qualities to the rules concerning criminal procedure. Particularly, the reform has to be an adequate, provoked, measured, concerted and granted legal norm, and has to respect the legal utility principle. These characteristics are the keys to the legal definition of the reform. They also contribute to the quality of the legal definition, thus in the quality of the criminal procedure which is the object of the reform

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CAPES
O problema da definição do conceito do direito ou ao menos da caracterização do fenômeno jurídico apresenta variações quanto às implicações de sua solução e às preocupações em torno dele. As variedades do problema que interessam a este trabalho estão ligadas à ontologia e à epistemologia na filosofia do direito: ‘O que é o direito?’ enquanto (1) uma pergunta sobre a definição da essência do direito e (2) sobre a definição de um objeto de investigação específico para ciências sobre o suposto fenômeno jurídico – a filosofia do direito, a teoria do direito, a e a ciência do direito, por exemplo. Desafiando suas premissas e buscando evitar tanto o problema ontológico quanto o epistemológico, proponho uma mudança de perspectiva a partir de preocupações pragmáticas que chamo de “ponto de vista do gestor”: a visão de quem deve administrar os recursos econômicos finitos destinados a financiar a atividade científica na área de direito. Defendo que, partindo daí, o problema da definição do conceito do direito enquanto um problema ontológico e enquanto um problema epistemológico é desnecessário, cuja solução é inútil para fazer avançar as pesquisas na área de direito. Proponho uma reorientação da controvérsia que tem implicações sobre como ver a pesquisa e a educação nesse campo.
The problem of definition of the concept of law or at least the description of features of legal phenomenon presents variation about the implications of its solution and about the worries around it. The forms of this problem I am interested in are related to ontology and epistemology in legal philosophy: ‘What is the law?’ as (1) a question about the definition of the essence of law and (2) about the definition of a specific object of investigation for sciences about the supposed legal phenomenon – philosophy of law, legal theory, and science of law, for instance. Challenging its premises and trying to avoid both the ontological problem and epistemological problem, I propose a change of perspective from pragmatic concerns what I call the “manager's point of view”: a vision of who should manage the finite economic resources to finance scientific activity in the area of law. I argue that, starting from there, the problem of defining the concept of law as an ontological problem and as a epistemological problem is an unnecessary problem whose solution is useless to advance research in the field of law. I propose a reorientation of the controversy that has implications on how to see the researches and the education in this field.

Disertacinio darbo temos aktualumas. Statistiniai duomenys, leidžiantys teigti, kad korupcinių veikų mastas Lietuvoje mažas, prieštarauja sociologinių tyrimų rezultatams, anot kurių, korupcijos faktų Lietuvoje yra labai daug , kas reikalauja šio reiškinio mokslinės analizės. Temos aktualumą grindžia ir korupcijos reiškiniui būdingas latentiškumas, šio reiškinio dinamika, formų, pasireiškimo sričių, subjektų, dalyko kaita, be to, tikslios ir aiškios korupcijos sąvokos, kurią būtų lengviau taikyti teisėkūroje, viešojo administravimo institucijų praktikoje, ją geriau suvoktų visuomenė, lengviau būtų deramai taikyti antikorupcinius įstatymus, stoka. Atsižvelgiant į tai, kad formuojant teisinės sistemos modelį, svarbiausios yra teisės sampratos, teisės doktrinos problemos, disertacijoje pabrėžiama, kad, visų pirma, kuriant nacionalinę antikorupcinių įstatymų bazę ir teisės normose apibrėžiant korupcines veikas, negalima apsiriboti vien tik teisės aktų keitimu kitais, o būtina išsiaiškinti žmonių teisinio mąstymo principus, visuomenės vertybių sistemą ir kriterijus, ir tik po to pereiti prie socialinių reiškinių objektyvizacijos ribų nustatymo teisės normose ir jų įgyvendinimo. Atitinkamai disertacijos įvade konstatuojama, kad efektyvinant korupcinio pobūdžio nusikalstamų veikų tyrimą, ypatingas dėmesys turi būti skiriamas kriminalistikos mokslui, nes suvokimas, jog korupcija yra sudėtinga socialinė, ekonominė, politinė, teisinė, kultūrinė, moralinė problema, kurią reikia spręsti... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]
The Relevance of the Topic of the Dissertation Work. The statistical data allowing stating that the extent of corruption acts is small in Lithuania disagree with the results of the sociology researches according to which there are a lot of facts of corruption in Lithuania , what requires the scientific analysis of this phenomenon. The relevance of the topic is grounded by the latency which is characteristic to corruption, dynamics of this phenomenon, the change of the forms, manifestation spheres and the subject, besides, the lack of the adequate and lucid concept of corruption which could be easier applied in the legislation and the practice of the institutions of public administration, and which could be easier perceived by the society and it would be easier to apply properly anti-corruption laws. In respect that when forming the model of the legal system, the most important are the law concepts, the problems of law doctrine, it is emphasized in the dissertation that, first of all, when creating the national base of the anti-corruption laws and determining the corruption acts in the rules of law, we should not restrict ourselves only to the change of legal acts, but it is necessary to find out the principles of people’s legal thinking, the value system and the criteria of the society, and only then pass on to the determination of the materialization limits of social phenomena in the rules of law and their implementation. Respectively, it is stated in the introduction of... [to full text]

Thesis (LLM. (Labour Law)) -- University of Limpopo, 2014
The discussion looks at the history of commercial sex and how it has evolved in South Africa. The discussion evaluates the challenges that commercial sex workers face in South Africa and argues that the dignity of sex workers as citizens of South Africa are infringed and it would seem that less is being done to protect these workers due to nature of their work. It is argued that sex workers are still entitled to the rights enshrined in the Constitution despite the illegality of sex work. This discussion argues further that sex work continues to exist in South Africa despite its illegality and it would be prudent to address the challenges that encourage sex work because the criminalization of this type of work does not seem to minimize sex work. The discussion further looks at the case of Kylie v CCMA which has been subject to much debate recently. The discussion also makes a comparative study with Germany and determines the lessons which South Africa can learn from this country regarding decriminalization of sex work.

Thesis (LLM. (Labour Law)) -- University of Limpopo, 2014
The discussion looks at the history of commercial sex and how it has evolved in South Africa. The discussion evaluates the challenges that commercial sex workers face in South Africa and argues that the dignity of sex workers as citizens of South Africa are infringed and it would seem that less is being done to protect these workers due to nature of their work. It is argued that sex workers are still entitled to the rights enshrined in the Constitution despite the illegality of sex work. This discussion argues further that sex work continues to exist in South Africa despite its illegality and it would be prudent to address the challenges that encourage sex work because the criminalization of this type of work does not seem to minimize sex work. The discussion further looks at the case of Kylie v CCMA which has been subject to much debate recently. The discussion also makes a comparative study with Germany and determines the lessons which South Africa can learn from this country regarding decriminalization of sex work.

The main interest of this interdisciplinary thesis (psychology-law) is the understanding of transphobia and discrimination against trans* people. I locate the problem of this type of discrimination in the social construction of ‘sex/gender’ categories. Particularly, I situate it in the definition of the norms that constitute ‘woman’ and ‘man’ as two essential and mutually exclusive categories that sustain the unequal binary organisation of society. People who transgress those norms have been labelled as ‘mentally ill’ by psychiatry and psychology since the end of the 19th century. The emergence of trans* activism from the 1960s and especially Trans Studies in the 1990s has allowed questioning those pathologising discourses. In the present context, we observe a tendency towards the depathologisation of trans* experiences and identities. Depathologisation is coupled with increased visibility of trans* people in the cultural domain and a more favourable public opinion towards them. However, trans* people still face serious discrimination and the norm that divides humankind into ‘women’ and ‘men’ is still very much present. Drawing on these premises I argue that the transgression of ‘sex/gender’ norms have been redefined nowadays so that the binary opposition between women and men is maintained as the norm. Thus, trans* people are still depicted as ‘abnormal’ although pathologising and psychiatric discourses are not necessarily employed today. The general objective of the thesis is to understand how this redefinition is carried out and the effects of it in two specific contexts: the legal certification of sex in the civil status of individuals in Belgium and the definition of the worker subject. The choice of these two cases responds to the fact that trans* people report facing many obstacles and discrimination in them. Based on the theoretical and methodological principles of discursive psychology and Perelmanian new rhetoric, I realised the discourse analysis of two corpora: a legislative corpus and a corpus of interviews. The legislative corpus comprises texts of Acts, bills, amendments, parliamentary debates and Circulars regulating the mention of sex in the civil status in Belgium. The second corpus includes the transcriptions of five group interviews with workers carried out with co-workers from five work organisations in Brussels. In both cases, the identification of discursive practices and their variability allowed me to elucidate the effects they produce. Specifically, it allowed me to show that, although the identified practices seem less stigmatising, they still depict trans* people as a ‘deviation from the norm’, thereby legitimising a different legal treatment towards them and justifying the discrimination and exclusion they endure at work. Moreover, the identified practices reproduce the binary organisation of society and justify discrimination against women in the workplace. The ultimate purpose of this thesis is to promote an informed critical attitude towards those discursive practices and, in this way, to contribute to the struggle against transphobia and sexism.
Dans cette thèse interdisciplinaire (psychologie-droit) je m’intéresse à la transphobie et la discrimination à l’égard des personnes trans*. Je situe ce problème de discrimination dans la construction sociale des catégories « sexe/genre », notamment dans la définition des normes qui constituent les catégories « femme » et « homme » comme deux catégories essentielles et mutuellement exclusives qui soutiennent l’organisation binaire et inégale de la société. Les personnes qui ont transgressé ces normes ont été étiquetées comme « malades mentales » par la psychiatrie et la psychologie depuis la fin du 19ème siècle. L’émergence de l’activisme trans* dans les années soixante et notamment des Trans Studies dans les années nonantes ont permis la remise en question de ces discours pathologisants. Dans le contexte actuel, on observe une tendance vers la dépathologisation des expériences et identités trans*, accompagnée d’une croissante visibilité des personnes trans* dans le domaine culturel et d’une opinion publique globalement plus favorable à leur égard. Par contre, les personnes trans* font encore l’objet de nombreuses discriminations et la norme qui divise l’humanité entre « femmes » et « hommes » est encore extrêmement présente. Sur la base de ces prémisses, je soutiens que la transgression des normes de « sexe/genre » a été actuellement redéfinie de façon à ce l’opposition binaire entre les femmes et les hommes est maintenue comme norme. Ainsi, les personnes trans* sont encore définies comme « anormales » alors que des discours pathologisants et psychiatrisants ne sont pas nécessairement mobilisés aujourd’hui. L’objectif général de la thèse est de comprendre comment cette redéfinition est faite et quels sont ses effets dans deux contextes spécifiques :la certification légal de la mention du sexe dans l’état civil en Belgique et la définition du sujet travailleur. Le choix de ces deux cas se justifie par le fait que ce sont deux domaines dans lesquels les personnes trans* signalent beaucoup d’obstacles et de discrimination. M’appuyant sur les principes théoriques et méthodologiques de la psychologie discursive et de la nouvelle rhétorique perelmanienne, j’ai effectué l’analyse du discours de deux corpus :un corpus législatif et un corpus d’entretiens. Le corpus législatif est composé de textes de loi, projets et propositions de loi, amendements, travaux parlementaires et circulaires régulant la mention du sexe dans l’état civil en Belgique. Le deuxième corpus inclut les transcriptions de cinq entretiens de groupe menés auprès de travailleuses et de travailleurs dans cinq organisations de Bruxelles. Dans les deux cas, l’identification des pratiques discursives et de leur variabilité m’a permis de dévoiler les effets qu’elles produisent. Spécifiquement, j’ai pu démontrer que, bien que ces pratiques semblent moins stigmatisantes aujourd’hui, elles continuent à définir les personnes trans* comme une « déviation de la norme », légitimant ainsi un traitement légal différent à leur égard et justifiant la discrimination et l’exclusion dont elles sont victimes au travail. En outre, ces pratiques discursives reproduisent l’organisation binaire de la société et la discrimination à l’égard des femmes au travail. Avec cette thèse j’espère contribuer à la promotion d’une attitude critique informée par rapport aux pratiques discursives identifiées et, par ce biais, à la lutte contre la transphobie et le sexisme.
Doctorat en Sciences psychologiques et de l'éducation
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The Brazilian State is governed by a democratic Constitution that enshrines several principles, which are spread through the Legal System and extend to all the branches of the Law, including administrative law, and as a consequence reach disciplinary law, a sub-division of the matter that will be specifically approached in this study. Among said long-standing principles is the principle of legal security, which, among other aspects, ensures citizens a minimum foreseeability when it comes to government conducts. Nevertheless, over history one has accepted (including a significant portion of legal scholars to date) that the formal legal definition of punishable conducts under the disciplinary law (a sub-system that provides for the sanctioning of civil servants) were to be distinct from that applied to criminal law, where one not only recognizes but also requires a clearly delineated legal concept as a means to afford citizens an individual guarantee, in order that the conduct defined as an offense in such system be necessarily described by the law in a clear and accurate manner, in that no generic or vague concepts be accepted. Accordingly, in this study one will analyze the requirements for enforcement of administrative sanctions, with a special focus on disciplinary sanctions, as opposed to the system of guarantees afforded to civil servants by the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 and the grounds underlying it. The analysis will be made from a historical and dogmatic study of the theories that have influenced (and that still influence, to a certain extent) the interference exercised by the Public Administration in those who engage in special relationships of power with it. Therefore, one shall scrutinize the issues concerning the definition of generic punishable conducts under the disciplinary law, historically justified by the so-called special relationships of subjection, in light of the guarantees established in our Constitutional State, particularly legal security, democracy and the fundamental right to a proper administration. The analysis will look into the need for an objective perception of punishable conducts, if not through legislative amendment (a task we are not undertaking here), then through the organization of the chaotic whole of legal rules, by setting out hermeneutical guidelines that will function as limits to public authorities and will thus contribute to an analysis of the matter that is more compatible with the values found in the Federal Constitution
O Estado Brasileiro vige sob a égide de uma Constituição democrática que consagra diversos princípios, os quais se irradiam pelo Ordenamento Jurídico para avançar sobre todas as áreas do Direito, inclusive sobre o direito administrativo, de maneira que também toca o direito disciplinar, sub-ramo daquela matéria que será especialmente tratado nesta pesquisa. Dentre os consagrados princípios, se encontra o princípio da segurança jurídica, o qual, além de outras facetas, garante aos administrados um mínimo de previsibilidade em relação às condutas estatais. Não obstante, foi aceito historicamente (hipótese admitida por parcela significativa da doutrina até os presentes dias) que a tipificação formal de condutas no direito disciplinar (subsistema que cuida do sancionamento de servidores públicos) seria distinta daquela estabelecida para o direito penal, onde não só se reconhece como se exige uma tipicidade fechada como garantia individual dos cidadãos, de modo a se fazer imprescindível nesse sistema que a conduta descritiva do delito seja posta de maneira clara e precisa no texto legal, de sorte que não são admitidos, como regra, conceitos genéricos ou indeterminados na descrição do tipo. Diante isso, analisamos na presente pesquisa os pressupostos para a aplicação das sanções administrativas, com ênfase nas sanções disciplinares, contrapondo-as ao regime de garantias dos servidores fixado pela Constituição da República de 1988 e os fundamentos que o justificam. Referida análise se deu a partir de estudo histórico e dogmático das teorias que influenciaram (e continuam a influenciar em determinada medida) a interferência da Administração Pública sobre aqueles que estabelecem com ela vínculos especiais de poder. Sendo assim, problematizamos o estabelecimento de tipos punitivos abertos no direito disciplinar, justificados historicamente pelas chamadas relações especiais de sujeição, à luz das garantias estabelecidas em nosso Estado Constitucional, especialmente a segurança jurídica, a democracia e o direito fundamental a uma boa administração. Essa análise incita a reflexão sobre a necessidade de objetivação dos tipos disciplinares, se não por meio de alterações legislativas (tarefa a que não nos propomos), pela ordenação do todo caótico representado pelas regras jurídicas por meio do estabelecimento de diretrizes hermenêuticas que representarão limites ao hierarca e se prestarão a contribuir para uma análise mais consentânea do tema com os valores da Constituição Federal

The Anglo-Saxon literature on Italian prosecutors (and the Italian criminal justice system in general) is limited. Moreover, the literature using a socio-legal approach and trying to understand what prosecutors do in practice is almost inexistent. This study seeks to fill, partially, this gap. Legal actors are, obviously, an extremely important focus for those who intend to study criminal justice and criminal procedure. Legal systems are applied and interpreted (translated to use Langer's words) according to different legal cultures. Amongst the judicial actors who appear to be, legally, in the position to determine the way the legal system works there are prosecutors. Prosecutors carry out many functions and, in Italy, they are involved from the beginning of the investigation till the end of the trial. In other words: Italian prosecutors play a very important part during both the pre-trial and trial phase. We will concentrate on the former trying to answer one main question: what prosecutors do in practice In particular, this is a study of the legal and cultural influences on the role and function of Italian prosecutor with particular reference to their gate-keeping role. In this sense the thesis brings out the distinctive impact of both the legal framework and prosecutors' professional culture and identity on the prosecutors' capacity to mediate of 'crime control' policies. While we will study this we will also analyze Italian prosecutors' legal and professional culture and their relationship with the police. This will be crucial to understand the way prosecutors take gate keeping decisions. The analysis of the Italian case seems to be very important. It shows that, when it comes to definition of the crime problem, prosecutors still play an important and distinct role. Important because their decisions still influence the definition of priorities (i. e. they do not seem to be mere executors of anticrime policies). Distinct because prosecutors appear to be able to mediate the impact of external influences. So. they have a (partially) different idea of priorities compared to the dominant political culture. This puts them in a different (distinct) position. To sum up: in Italy the prosecutors' role during the pre-trial phase of being 'between' crime fighter and judge is visible. There is room for prosecutors' choices and decisions. To corroborate this thesis we used the examples of street crime, immigration and the impact of moral panics on prosecutors' decisions. These are all issues which concern very much the "fight against insecurity" which is considered, in the western capitalistic countries, a crucial problem for the central state, the public and the media. We will try to demonstrate that, although Italian prosecutors are affected by the "problem of security" and, certainly, can not block the evolution (or involution) of the criminal justice system, they are in the position to limit the impact of these external influences.

En France, la réalité des crimes en série et plus particulièrement des meurtres en série a trop longtemps été minorée, voire niée. Même si elle est quantitativement peu élevée, la commission de meurtres sériels sur notre territoire est pourtant indéniable. Il serait donc logique que le droit pénal français, qui commence à s'intéresser à ces actes, en donne enfin une véritable qualification pénale. En sa qualité de tueur à victimes multiples criminologiquement singulier, le tueur en série mérite une appréhension juridique adaptée. Tout d'abord, l'acte de donner la mort doit recevoir une qualification pénale adéquate. Puis, la répétition de cet acte doit être prise en compte. Or, la série va apparaître comme un mode particulier de commission de plusieurs infractions. En effet, la série représente un nouveau cas de pluralité d'infractions. Dès lors, une définition juridique en sera proposée dans cette étude. De plus, les éventuelles répercussions d'une telle définition sur la procédure et la sanction pénales seront envisagées
In France, the reality of serial crimes and more specifically serial murders has been minimized and even denied for a very long time. Even if serial crimes represent quite a small proportion, they do undeniably occur in our country. It should be logical that French criminal law starts to pay attention to these acts and finally gives them a real legal definition. As a singular criminal in criminology, a murderer of multiple victims deserves an appropriate apprehension. First of all, the act of giving someone death has to be correctly characterized. Then, the repetition of this act has to be taken into account. The series will appear as a new particular way of committing multiple crimes. Indeed, it actually represents a new category in plurality of offences. Thus, we propose in this essay to give it a legal definition. Moreover, the potential repercussions of such definition on criminal procedure and penalty will be envisaged

L’examen des dispositions de la loi libanaise n.75 du 3 avril 1999 sur la propriété littéraire et artistique relatives aux oeuvres audiovisuelles nous permet de déterminer le cadre juridique relatif à ce type de création. Pour accéder à la protection par le droit d’auteur, l’oeuvre audiovisuelle doit bénéficier d’un certain degré d’originalité mais aussi elle doit répondre à la définition légale de l’oeuvre audiovisuelle consacrée à l’article 1 de la loi libanaise. Une fois les conditions d’accès à la protection déterminées, on peut étudier le régime juridique applicable à ce type de création. Les oeuvres audiovisuelles sont qualifiées par l’article 9 de la loi libanaise d’oeuvres collectives. Cette qualification nous permet de déterminer le régime juridique applicable. Ceci implique la détermination des différents "acteurs" de l’oeuvre audiovisuelle, leurs droits et les modes d’exploitation de ces droits
The examination of the provisions of Lebanese law number 75 dated on April 3, 1999 concerning the literary and artistic property for audiovisual works allow us defining the legal framework for this type of creation. Therefore, to reach the copyright protection, any audiovisual work shall benefit from a certain degree of originality and shall also meet the legal definition of an audiovisual work stipulated in article one of the Lebanese law. Once the necessary conditions for an audiovisual work protection are defined, we can proceed with the study of legal regulations applicable to this kind of creation. Audiovisual works are qualified by article 9 of the Lebanese law on collective works. Based on the audiovisual work qualification, we can define the applicable legal regulations. This involves identifying the different “actors” of audiovisual work, their rights and ways of exploiting these rights

Regardless of culture or nation, students today are experiencing bullying via technology. With the rise of technology, this abuse has the ability to become more far-reaching, and more pervasive than ever. These students face oppression, and in some cases severe imbalances of power. Current research is being conducted and laws created based on varying operational and conception definitions of the term "cyberbullying." This study aims to analyze and provide a coherent definition for the term "cyberbullying" as it is used in research and legislation, especially in the context of today's educational environments. The results help shed light on the large variances in the term and suggestions are made to clarify the definition as the field continues to move forward.

The diploma thesis focuses on institution of ombudsman in European Union, Czech Republic and Slovak Republic. It is aimed at questions of legal regulations of this institution in the mentioned formations. Particular chapters of this thesis are structured into following 5 task parts. The first chapter describes the history of the origin of this institution, explains the term of ombudsman by using definitions, classifies existing kinds of institutes of ombudsman and specifies the field of action. The second chapter identifies the European ombudsman. It is focused especially on analysis of received complaints in practically whole period of existence this institution and evaluation of activities in 2008. In the third chapter is described the institution of ombudsman in the Czech Republic and in the fourth chapter in the Slovak Republic. The last chapter of the diploma thesis deals with comaparison of ombudsman institutions in these two countries.

Special and Differential Treatment (S&DT) under the World Trade Organization (WTO) has been pivotal in aiding Developing Countries adapt to WTO rules. S&DT provisions under WTO law, afford Developing Members favourable or preferential treatment over Developed Countries. The provisions currently spans across numerous Agreements on areas which include a number of broad categories, specifically; provisions aimed at increasing trade opportunities through market access, provisions requiring WTO Members to protect the interest of Developing Countries (protective measures), provisions on flexibility of commitments, provisions that allow longer transitional periods to Developing Countries, provisions on technical and financial assistance, and provisions specifically for Least Developed Countries. Preferential treatment derogates from the fundamental WTO principle of non-discriminatory treatment. The provisions, scattered across numerous WTO Agreements and legal texts, have been of paramount importance in increasing Developing Countries’ share of global trade. Notwithstanding the importance of the provisions, the current Multi-lateral Trade System (MTS) contains multiple, ineffective, non-specific, non-binding and complex S&DT provisions, which do not serve the original purpose envisioned by the developmental objective for Developing Countries under the WTO. This objective is to ensure that Developing Countries secure a share in the growth in international trade commensurate with their financial and economic development needs. The inconsistent, non-binding and ineffective S&DT rules has resulted in little use and ineffective application of a considerable number of preferential provisions, which has resulted in low trade-gains for Developing Countries. There is currently no codified legal Framework for S&DT for Developing Countries under the WTO rules. Specifically, there is no established universal or dedicated Agreement or binding set of rules that establish the scope, extent of rules, application and modalities.
Thesis (LLD)--University of Pretoria, 2020.
University of Pretoria Postgraduate Bursary
Private Law
LLD
Unrestricted

This study explores parents' perspectives on their children's special educational needs and relates those perspectives to legal and other professional discourses. The key concepts used to organise the enquiry are Special Educational Needs (SEN), the Duty of Care and parents' expectations. Ten case studies were undertaken and the findings compared with a number of set-piece, land-mark cases which were followed through the legal process, from the High Court, through the Court of Appeal and finally, on 27 July 2000, the unanimous judgement of seven law lords in the House of Lords. Comparison of the local case studies with the legal cases produced interesting implications for the future of special educational needs. Ten parents were interviewed at the local level, as well as the local authority officer responsible for statements of SEN, the LEA parent partnership officer, and an parent advocate employed by a charity. At the national level, interviews were carried out with the solicitor acting for the plaintiff and the Principal Educational Psychologist of the defendant Local Education Authority. The main conclusions are first, that parents' definitions of their children's special educational needs, despite much exhortation in the academic literature about parental involvement, are still undervalued by professionals. Further, some parents are less able than others to articulate those needs and further their children's interests, and will be reliant on professionals or interest groups to assist them. Second, those professionals owe them a legal duty of care and can be liable for negligence if they give inadequate or wrong advice. This is relevant to the current debates about the role of educational psychologists and the promotion of inclusion. The third conclusion is that the recent decisions in the House of Lords will have resource implications for LEA insurance as well as for the delivery of the education service, and finally the commitment to equality of opportunity and inclusive education means that all children with any kind of need, special or otherwise, statemented or not, must have access to an education which will help them reach their full potential.

Le mandat est un contrat torturé. Figé dans une définition imprécise et plongé dans une diversification non maitrisée, il est aujourd’hui malaisé de déterminer ce qu’il est. Le contexte familial est symptomatique de cette crise d’identité. Le mandat est un outil particulièrement sollicité par les membres de la famille, dans le but d’organiser leurs relations ou d’anticiper des événements (la vulnérabilité ou la mort) susceptibles de générer certaines difficultés. En tant que contrat, il est peu contraignant à mettre en œuvre et s’acclimate facilement des particularités de ce contexte. Cependant, s’il est en principe l’œuvre consentie de deux personnes, le mandant et le mandataire, cet environnement a révélé qu’il pouvait aussi être imposé par un membre de la famille ou une autorité extérieure, telle que la loi ou le juge. Alors, le mandat se trouve directement altéré dans certains de ses caractères essentiels : sa source (la volonté) ou son effet (la représentation). Ces manifestations originales mettent la notion à l’épreuve et elles invitent à la repenser.La particularité du contexte familial lui imprime assurément une coloration particulière. L’idée est alors séduisante de créer un mandat familial, singularisé, pour se départir d’une définition légale insaisissable et façonner la notion à partir de ses différentes applications. Une telle démarche nuirait pourtant à ce contrat en nourrissant le phénomène d’hyperspécialisation dont il est l’objet. C’est pour cette raison qu’une autre voie doit être empruntée, celle de la redéfinition. Ce n’est qu’une fois doté d’une définition claire et précise que ce contrat pourra, à l’avenir, s’épanouir dans une pluralité de domaines, sans qu’il n’ait à subir, pour cela, de dénaturation. Reconstruit sur de solides critères, indispensables à sa bonne qualification et à la nécessaire requalification de ses usurpations, le mandat s’affranchira de sa fongibilité actuelle et des nombreuses confusions qui en altèrent la compréhension
The mandate is a tormented contract. Fixed in a broad definition and shot through an uncontrolled diversification, it is currently hard to determine what a mandate is. The family context is symptomatic of this identity crisis. The mandate is a tool which is particularly used by the members of the family, as it is suitable for organizing the family relationships, as well as for anticipating events, such as vulnerability or death, that may create some difficulties. As a contract, it is not excessively burdensome to implement, and it deals easily with the particular features of the context. If it is normally the result of the will of two persons, the principal and the agent, nevertheless, the family context revealed that the mandate could be imposed by a family member or an external authority, such as the law or the judge. The mandate is thus directly corrupted in its essential characteristics : its source (the will) or its effects (the representation). Those original phenomena test the mandate and prompt to rethink the notion. The particularities of the family context give it a very specific ring. Therefore, it is an appealing idea to create a singled out family mandate, in order to divest from an elusive legal definition, and to shape the notion using its various applications. However, such an approach would be damaging the contract, feeding the hyperspecialization to which it is subjected. That is why another course must be taken : the mandate must be redefined. Once given a clear and precise definition, the mandate will be able to fulfill itself in many areas, without suffering any distorsion. Rebuilt on solid criteria, allowing to sort out good classifications from usurpations, the mandate will be liberated from its current fungibility and from the numerous confusions which are now detrimental to its correct understanding

The research investigates the impact of discourses of authenticity on the development and application of statutory definitions of Gypsies and Travellers in England and Wales since 1959, and the subsequent consequences for access to accommodation for these communities. These definitions are concerned with land use, equalities, housing, and homelessness legislation. The basis of these definitions is found in statute and policy and decision makers ranging from local authorities through to the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) are responsible for their development and application. Each of these definitions has different consequences with regard to access to accommodation. The research examines a chronological analytical narrative of the development and application of these definitions over a 53 year period, which consists of an examination of relevant case law, policy, law and other useful sources. Interviews with key informants involved in the development and application of statutory definitions serve to reinforce the interpretation of the evidence. The evidence is assessed using the notions of discourses of authenticity, which are constructed as the discourse regarding the authenticity of an individual or group as Gypsies or Travellers as prescribed by other individuals, groups or institutions and the implications of this ascription. There has not been a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between the discourse around the authenticity of Gypsies and Travellers and statutory definitions in modern times. This research bridges the gap in the existing literature by undertaking a comprehensive analysis of the development, application and consequences of statutory definitions in the light of the existing knowledge on discourses of authenticity with regard to Gypsies and Travellers.

La première partie de l’étude est consacrée à l’invocation, intra et extra muros, du droit à un procès équitable. Sont analysés ainsi, dans un premier temps, l’applicabilité directe de l’article 6 et la subsidiarité de la Convention par rapport au droit national et de la Cour Européenne des Droits de l’Homme par rapport aux juridictions nationales. Le droit à un procès équitable étant un droit jurisprudentiel, l’étude se focalise, dans un second temps, sur l’invocabilité des arrêts de la Cour Européenne et plus précisément sur l’invocabilité directe de l’arrêt qui constate une violation du droit à un procès équitable dans une affaire mettant en cause l’Etat et l’invocabilité de l’interprétation conforme à l’arrêt qui interprète l’article 6 dans une affaire mettant en cause un Etat tiers. L’introduction dans l’ordre juridique français et hellénique de la possibilité de réexamen de la décision pénale définitive rendue en violation de la Convention a fait naitre un nouveau droit d’accès à la Cour de cassation lequel trouve son terrain de prédilection aux violations de l’article 6 et constitue peut-être le pas le plus important pour le respect du droit à un procès équitable après l’acceptation (par la France et la Grèce) du droit de recours individuel. Quant au faible fondement de l’autorité de la chose interprétée par la Cour Européenne, qui est d’ailleurs un concept d’origine communautaire, cela explique pourquoi un dialogue indirect entre la Cour Européenne et la Cour de cassation est possible sans pour autant changer en rien l’invocabilité de l’interprétation conforme et le fait que l’existence d’un précédent oblige la Cour de cassation à motiver l’interprétation divergente qu’elle a adoptée.La seconde partie de l’étude, qui est plus volumineuse, est consacrée aux garanties de bonne administration de la justice (article 6§1), à la présomption d’innocence (article 6§2), aux droits qui trouvent leur fondement conventionnel dans l’article 6§1 mais leur fondement logique dans la présomption d’innocence et aux droits de la défense (article 6§3). Sont ainsi analysés le droit à un tribunal indépendant, impartial et établi par la loi, le délai raisonnable, le principe de l’égalité des armes, le droit à une procédure contradictoire, le droit de la défense d’avoir la parole en dernier, la publicité de l’audience et du prononcé des jugements et arrêts, l’obligation de motivation des décisions, la présomption d’innocence, dans sa dimension procédurale et personnelle, le « droit au mensonge », le droit de l’accusé de se taire et de ne pas contribuer à son auto-incrimination, son droit d’être informé de la nature et de la cause de l’accusation et de la requalification envisagée des faits, son droit au temps et aux facilités nécessaires à la préparation de la défense, y compris notamment la confidentialité de ses communications avec son avocat et le droit d’accès au dossier, son droit de comparaître en personne au procès, le droit de la défense avec ou sans l’assistance d’un avocat, le droit de l’accusé d’être représenté en son absence par son avocat, le droit à l’assistance gratuite d’un avocat lorsque la situation économique de l’accusé ne permet pas le recours à l’assistance d’un avocat mais les intérêts de la justice l’exigent, le droit d’interroger ou faire interroger les témoins à charge et d’obtenir la convocation et l’interrogation des témoins à décharge dans les mêmes conditions que les témoins à charge et le droit à l’interprétation et à la traduction des pièces essentielles du dossier. L’analyse est basée sur la jurisprudence strasbourgeoise et centrée sur la position qu’adoptent la Cour de cassation française et l’Aréopage
The first party of the study is dedicated to the invocation of the right to a fair trial intra and extra muros and, on this basis, it focuses on the direct applicability of Article 6 and the subsidiarity of the Convention and of the European Court of Human Rights. Because of the fact that the right to a fair trial is a ‘‘judge-made law’’, the study also focuses on the invocability of the judgments of the European Court and more precisely on the direct invocability of the European Court’s judgment finding that there has been a violation of the Convention and on the request for an interpretation in accordance with the European Court’s decisions. The possibility of reviewing the criminal judgment made in violation of the Convention has generated a new right of access to the Court of cassation which particularly concerns the violations of the right to a fair trial and is probably the most important step for the respect of the right to a fair trial after enabling the right of individual petition. As for the weak conventional basis of the authority of res interpretata (“autorité de la chose interprétée”), this fact explains why an indirect dialogue between the ECHR and the Court of cassation is possible but doesn’t affect the applicant’s right to request an interpretation in accordance with the Court’s decisions and the duty of the Court of cassation to explain why it has decided to depart from the (non-binding) precedent.The second party of the study is bigger than the first one and is dedicated to the guarantees of the proper administration of justice (Article 6§1), the presumption of innocence (Article 6§2), the rights which find their conventional basis on the Article 6§1 but their logical explanation to the presumption of innocence and the rights of defence (Article 6§3). More precisely, the second party of the study is analyzing the right to an independent and impartial tribunal established by law, the right to a hearing within a reasonable time, the principle of equality of arms, the right to adversarial proceedings, the right of the defence to the last word, the right to a public hearing and a public pronouncement of the judgement, the judge’s duty to state the reasons for his decision, the presumption of innocence, in both its procedural and personal dimensions, the accused’s right to lie, his right to remain silent, his right against self-incrimination, his right to be informed of the nature and the cause of the accusation and the potential re-characterisation of the facts, his right to have adequate time and facilities for the preparation of the defence, including in particular the access to the case-file and the free and confidential communication with his lawyer, his right to appear in person at the trial, his right to defend either in person or through legal assistance, his right to be represented by his counsel, his right to free legal aid if he hasn’t sufficient means to pay for legal assistance but the interests of justice so require, his right to examine or have examined witnesses against him and to obtain the attendance and examination of witnesses on his behalf under the same conditions as witnesses against him and his right to the free assistance of an interpreter and to the translation of the key documents. The analysis is based on the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights and focuses on the position taken by the French and the Greek Court of Cassation (Areopagus) on each one of the above mentioned rights

碩士
國立中正大學
資訊工程研究所
103
With the prevalence of the Internet, the professional knowledge in different domains can be accessed on the Internet. Through the Internet, users can acquire large amount of information. Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China, which is a governmental website, provides the current Chinese law text for users. But the problem is that we have a large number of law texts but lack of structured methods in writing. This thesis aims to provide an easy way for users to access professional knowledge and reduce time on searching and reading. In this thesis, we use current Chinese law text from Taiwan law database as data source. We also utilize the Natural language processing tool and the data mining mechanisms to automatically extract legal keywords and mine the definition of legal keywords. In the next step, we construct Taiwan law ontology with the legal keywords and relative definitions. We also provide the service on the web such that users can access the legal information on the Internet. In the result, we get 1114 legal keywords with definitions. With the characteristics of ontology, users can view not only one keyword and its information, but also the associated keywords. For the web interface, we provide graphical and text interfaces for users to browse legal knowledge.

碩士
中國文化大學
法律學系
100
The disputes over the wage definition never stop since Labor Standards Act was executed. Most disputes arise from the intention of employer to reduce the burden on human resource expense. They adjust the structure of salary detailed list and give the different kinds of fake name with “irregular payment” to escape their legal obligations, while damaging the right of employee as a labor. The problems are caused by the ambiguous definition of wage and no convincing legal precedents to follow in the current practice. The definition of wage is interpreted differently among employers, employee, administrative governing authorities, judicial authorities, and academic scholars. Therefore, it is important to clarify the definition of wage from law enforcement perspective, and possesses the high research value. This study first explores the legal cases on the definition of wage from different agents, including administrative authorities, judicial authorities, and academic organizations. In fact, the disputes are all focused on the “regular payments” of Item 3 of Article 2 of Labor Standards Act and “irregular payments” defined in Article 10 of Enforcement Rules of the Labor Standards Act. In addition to the grammatical and logical interpretations to clarify the disputed definition of wage, it is also important to explore both historical and teleological interpretations to understand the origin of the law of the wage definition. In this study we also categorize the numerous legal cases of relevant sentences with the additional help from administrative explanations and academic research publications. Lastly, this study attempts to conclude objective references to resolve the legal issues arising from the disputed wage definition.

Since their creation in Europe in the seventeenth century, pension funds have grown to become one of the main sources of capital in the world. A number of role players ultimately manage the pension money of members on their behalf. Accordingly, the focus of this study is on the role players involved in the actual investment of pension fund money. For the purposes of the study, the key role players in the pension fund investment chain are identified as pension fund trustees, asset managers and asset consultants. These role players have a specific responsibility in terms of the service that they ought to provide. One of the key aspects of this dissertation is therefore determining whether their responsibility is a fiduciary responsibility. The main purpose of the study is, however, to answer one overarching research question: Does fiduciary responsibility create barriers to the implementation of responsible investment in the South African pension fund investment chain? Clearly, there are two key terms in this research question, fiduciary responsibility and responsible investment. It is suggested that responsible investment takes at least two forms: a “business case” form1 in which environmental, social and governance (ESG) issues are considered only in so far as they are financially material; and a social form in which ESG issues are considered over maximising risk adjusted financial returns. Three key questions were asked in order to find qualitative descriptions and interpretations of fiduciary responsibility: Question 1: Are the key role players in the pension fund investment chain fiduciaries? Question 2: If so, to whom do the key role players owe their fiduciary duty? Question 3: What are the fiduciary duties of the key role players in the pension fund investment chain? It is also suggested that the duty to act in the best interests of beneficiaries could be described as the all-encompassing fiduciary duty. Two main interpretations of the
Private Law
(LL.M.(Private Law))

Picketing, a method used by employees, collectively, to assert their demands against employers, is a controversial subject arising from the conflict of interest existing between labour and employers! Previously, South African law neither forbade nor regulated picketing. Consequently, no immunity from civil liability existed in relation to a person's conduct during a picket. Presently, picketing is regulated by section 17 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act 108of19% (right to picket) and section 69 of the Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995, which provides for a protected picket (one that complies with the requirements of section 69) whereby immunity from civil liability attaches to a person's conduct during a picket. These provisions and their coexistence is examined, comparing foreign law where relevant, in an attempt to provide a foundation for a topic relatively disregarded. Section 69 reveals elements of uncertainty and vagueness.
Law
LL.M.

Celem rozprawy jest analiza przyjętych w Polsce rozwiązań z zakresu wstępnego rozpoznania skargi konstytucyjnej. Analiza dotyczy w szczególności wpływu, jaki sposób ukształtowania tego etapu postępowania przed Trybunałem Konstytucyjnym ma na efektywność skargi konstytucyjnej – zarówno jako środka ochrony konstytucyjnych wolności i praw jednostki, jak i mechanizmu inicjowania kontroli konstytucyjności prawa. Rozprawa podejmuje też próbę zilustrowania, jak owa podwójna natura skargi konstytucyjnej kształtuje sposób interpretacji przesłanek dopuszczalności jej wniesienia, badanych przez Trybunał w ramach wstępnej kontroli. Kryteria dopuszczalności skargi i sposób ich rozumienia przez Trybunał Konstytucyjny mają bezpośredni wpływ na dostępność tego środka ochrony prawnej, a w konsekwencji na skuteczność samej instytucji skargi i realność stwarzanych przez nią gwarancji ochrony konstytucyjnych wolności i praw. W rozprawie wyjaśniono na czym polega i jak przebiega wstępne rozpoznanie skargi konstytucyjnej, a także w jaki sposób ewoluowała jego regulacja. Prześledzono też związki, jakie badane na tym etapie przesłanki wykazują z przyjętym w Polsce modelem skargi. Analiza została osadzona w kontekście funkcji skargi konstytucyjnej i ustrojowej roli Trybunału Konstytucyjnego jako jednego z organów ochrony prawnej, stojącego na straży hierarchicznej zgodności prawa. Przebieg wstępnego rozpoznania i sposób rozstrzygania pojawiających się na tym etapie problemów interpretacyjnych najpełniej obrazuje relacje pomiędzy przedmiotową (obiektywną) i podmiotową (subiektywną) funkcją skargi konstytucyjnej. Od tego, której z nich TK przyznaje pierwszeństwo zależy często rozstrzygnięcie o dopuszczalności lub niedopuszczalności skargi. Ponadto, jak wynika z dokonanych w pracy ustaleń, dynamika wstępnego rozpoznania – a zatem również wynik dokonywanej na tym etapie oceny skargi – jest efektem nieustannego ważenia dwóch wzajemnie powiązanych wartości: dostępności skargi konstytucyjnej jako instrumentu ochrony prawnej, oraz efektywności działania Trybunału Konstytucyjnego. Wartości te wzajemnie się przenikają – nadmierne otwarcie dostępu do skargi grozi zmniejszeniem efektywności działania TK, co może obniżyć poziom gwarantowanej przez skargę ochrony. I odwrotnie – na nic efektywne działanie TK, jeżeli kryteria dostępu do skargi sformułowane są tak restrykcyjnie, że utrudnia to faktyczne korzystanie z tego środka prawnego. Rozwijana od 1997 r. praktyka orzecznicza TK nie ustrzegła się od niekonsekwencji, a nierzadko także od nadmiernego rygoryzmu. W związku z tym na etapie wnoszenia skargi niejednokrotnie trudno przewidzieć wynik jej wstępnego rozpoznania, a odsetek skarg przekazywanych do rozpoznania merytorycznego utrzymuje się na stałym, niewysokim poziomie. Spośród funkcji wstępnego rozpoznania w praktyce dominuje funkcja eliminacyjna, co rzutuje na faktyczną dostępność skargi jako instrumentu ochrony wolności i praw jednostki, i skutkuje jego stosunkowo niską efektywnością. Wydaje się zatem, że wysoki rygoryzm wstępnej kontroli skargi powinien być równoważony przez gwarancje rzetelnej procedury i przewidywalność zapadających w jej wyniku rozstrzygnięć. Wymaga tego zasada sprawiedliwości proceduralnej, a szerzej – zaufanie jednostki do państwa i stanowionego przez nie prawa oraz skuteczność stwarzanych przez państwo gwarancji jej konstytucyjnych praw i wolności.
The thesis aims to investigate the role and the procedural setting of the preliminary consideration of the constitutional complaint. It examines the relationship between the regulation of this stage of the proceedings before the Constitutional Tribunal and the effectiveness of the constitutional complaint – both as a measure of protection of constitutional rights and freedoms of the individual and as a mechanism of initiating review of the constitutionality of legal provisions. The thesis argues that this dual nature of the constitutional complaint strongly determines the interpretation of the conditions of its admissibility adopted by the Constitutional Tribunal. The Tribunal’s interpretation of these requirements directly impacts the scope and effectiveness of the right to lodge a constitutional complaint. The dissertation explains what constitutes the preliminary consideration of the constitutional complaint, describes its course and the development of its regulatory framework. The thesis also investigates the relationship between the requirements for the admissibility of the constitutional complaint and the constitutional complaint model adopted in Poland. The analysis is grounded in the context of the functions of the constitutional complaint and the Constitutional Tribunal’s political position. The dynamics of the preliminary consideration is a result of constant weighing of two apparently conflicting values: the accessibility of the constitutional complaint on the one hand, and the efficiency of the Tribunal’s work on the other. This conflict is only apparent, because without an efficiently working Tribunal the accessibility of the constitutional complaint would only be illusory. And vice versa – it would be fallacious to claim to have an efficiently working Tribunal, if the conditions of the admissibility of the constitutional complaint are too difficult to meet, making it effectively inaccessible to potential complainants. The case law of the Constitutional Tribunal regarding admissibility of the constitutional complaint is not free from inconsistencies and excessive strictness. As a result, when lodging a complaint, it is often difficult to predict the outcome of the preliminary consideration. The number of complaints accepted for further consideration persists at a low level. This indicates that in practice the preliminary consideration serves primarily to reduce the number of cases that the Constitutional Tribunal has to handle, which negatively affects the actual availability of the constitutional complaint and its effectiveness. Therefore, the stringency of the preliminary consideration ought to be counterbalanced by a fair procedure and improved stability of Tribunal’s decisions regarding the admissibility of the constitutional complaint. It is necessary in order to truly guarantee individual rights and freedoms, as set down in the Constitution, and to ensure compliance with the rule of law and procedural fairness.