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Macalister-Smith, Peter, i Joachim Schwietzke. "100 Years Ago: A Bibliographical Calendar of Diplomacy and International Law: In the Years 1916 to 1919". International Journal of Legal Information 43, nr 2_3 (2015): 313–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0731126500012543.
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This Bibliographical Calendar is the second and concluding installment of our bibliographical calendar of diplomacy and international law to official transactions relating to World War One. The first installment,“100 Years Ago: A Bibliographic Calendar of Diplomacy and International Law: In The Years 1914 and 1915, “was published in Volume 42, Issue No. 3 of the International Journal of Legal Information, Winter 2014. The first installment of the Calendar covered the years 1914 and 1915. The present installment refers to the years 1916 to 1919.
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Sorokin, P. A. "on Sorokin". Science in Context 3, nr 1 (1989): 299–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s026988970000082x.
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Sorokin, Pitirim Alexandrovich, born January 21,1889, in the small village of Turia in Russia [died 1968]. Student at the Teachers' Seminary in the province of Kostroma in Russia (1903–6), at the evening school in St. Petersburg (1907–9), at the Psycho- Neurological Institute in St. Petersburg (1910–14); Magistrant of Criminal Law (1915); Ph.D in Sociology (1922); Privatdozent at the Psycho-Neurological Institute (1914–16), at the University of St. Petersburg (1916–17); Professor of Sociology at the same university (1919–22); Professor of Sociology at the Agricultural Academy (1919–22), at the University of Minnesota (1924–30); Chairman of the Department of Sociology at Harvard University from 1930. Member of the Executive Committee of the All-Russian Peasant's Soviet (1917); Secretary to the Prime Minister [ Kerensky ] (1917); member of the Russian Constitutional Assembly (1918); sentenced to death and finally exiled by the communist administration (1922); emigrated to the United States (1923), naturalized (1930). Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Sociological Association; honorary member of the International Institute of Sociology of the Czechoslovakian Academy for Agriculture, of the German Sociological Society, and of the Ukrainian Sociological Society; President of the International Institute for Sociology (1936–37). Member of the Greek-Orthodox Church.
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Schwalbe, Carl. "1913-1914: the First Truly International Year of Crystallography". Acta Crystallographica Section A Foundations and Advances 70, a1 (5.08.2014): C1316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s2053273314086835.
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It is appropriate that 2014 has been chosen as the International Year of Crystallography since it was a century ago that crystallography as we know it emerged as a truly international science. The pattern becomes clearer if one considers academic years starting on September 1. Thus 1911-1912, when the first successful diffraction experiments were carried out, becomes the German year of crystallography. With the statement of Bragg's Law and the first structure determinations, 1912-1913 can be called the British year of crystallography. By late 1913 our science had achieved truly international scope, demonstrated by publications describing advances in experimental design, theory and structure determination emanating from France, Japan, the Netherlands, Russia and Switzerland as well as Germany and Britain. While many countries worked on the first two areas, structure determination was done mainly in Britain (dominated by the Braggs) and Japan (to a limited extent). In the belligerent countries this magnificent flowering was sadly curtailed by the outbreak of World War I. However, at about this time the United States entered the field. The international spread followed by curtailment is readily visualised when presented in the form of a timeline.
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Rosenne, Shabtai. "The Changing Role of the International Court". Israel Law Review 20, nr 2-3 (1985): 182–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021223700017623.
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En s'efforçant, au lendemain de la guerre [1914 – 1918], de poser les bases d'une société de peuples régie par le droit, les fondateurs de cette communauté internationale nouvelle se rendaient pleinement compte qu'il ne saurait y avoir une société organisée sans un pouvoir judiciaire chargé de veiller, en dehors de toute préoccupation de politique et de force, à la stricte observation du droit. C'est dans cette conviction qu'ils ont prévu, dès l'origine, la création de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale.Feinberg in 1931Reviewing the history of the Permanent Court of International Justice and of the International Court of Justice from 1922—the World Court, a convenient but possibly misleading expression which embraces both the Permanent Court from 1922 to 1945 and the present International Court of Justice established as an integral part of the United Nations since—four clearly separated periods can be discerned. They run from 1922 to 1931, 1932 to 1940, 1946 to 1966, and from 1967 onwards.The establishment of the League of Nations and the Permanent Court after a cataclysmic war in Europe and the awe-inspiring Russian Revolution released a wave of euphoria upon the exhausted and war-weary peoples of what is now known as Western Europe, and they placed great hopes in the new League and Court.
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Denyssov, V. N. "World war and international law. 100 years to the First world war 1914–1918". Yearly journal of scientific articles “Pravova derzhava” 30 (2019): 375–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.33663/0869-2491-2019-30-375-383.
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Condorelli, Luigi. "La Commission internationale humanitaire d'établissement des faits : un outil obsolète ou un moyen utile de mise en œuvre du droit international humanitaire?" International Review of the Red Cross 83, nr 842 (czerwiec 2001): 393–406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1560775500105735.
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Abstract The International Fact-Finding Commission mentioned by Article 90 of Additional Protocol I is the only new measure introduced by the Diplomatic Conference of 1914-1911 intended to strengthen implementation of international humanitarian law. (The word ‘humanitarian’ was added to the title by the Commission itself, in order to better express the Commission's limited jurisdiction.) The Commission was established and its rules of procedure were adopted, but never since 1977 has any party to an armed conflict or any other State ever asked the Commission to exercise its activity in a concrete situation. The author (a member of the Commission) examines the reasons of this apparent failure and suggests new ways of understanding Article 90. He has no doubts about the Commission's usefulness, and he calls upon States and the other members of the international community – in particular the United Nations – to accept the Commission as a tool for strengthening respect for international humanitarian law.
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Desai, Bharat H., i Jay B. Desai. "On the Century of Peacemaking at the 1919 Treaty of Versailles: Looking Back to Look Ahead". International Studies 57, nr 3 (lipiec 2020): 201–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0020881720932105.
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This study seeks to make a modest effort to look back at the marathon peacemaking ushered into by the Treaty of Versailles, during 1919–1922 periods, after Armistice was signed on 11 November 1918, bringing to an end the First World War. It has sought to place under scanner the said arduous process of peacemaking, resulting in an imposing corpus of five treaties comprising 1914 articles with Germany and its four other allies (Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary and Turkey). It presents an interesting role of the principal peacemakers therein along with the advent of the era of ‘organizing’ through the League of Nations and other entities such as International Labour Office and Permanent Court of International Justice. Now, at the distance of 101 years from the main event that heralded new milestones in international law and international relations, we have sought to make sense of it so as to deduce lessons to look ahead for our better world. Knowing well that alike human beings, any peacemaking cannot be flawless, it has been our endeavour to provide an objective understanding of the great peacemaking, its aftermath (1919–1939) and its relevance for the United Nations–led world order in the 21st century.
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Prestia, Joseph D. "‘Civilized States’ and Situational Sovereignty: The Dilemmas of Romanian Neutrality, 1914–1916". European History Quarterly 51, nr 1 (styczeń 2021): 45–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265691420983582.
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At the 1914 Crown Council, which decided to keep Romania neutral in 1914, former Conservative prime minister Petre Carp offered his succinct and direct opinion about the direction of Romanian foreign policy in the opening days of the Great War. He admonished the Council that, if Romania wanted to remain among the ‘civilized states’ ( statele civilizate) it had to follow Germany and Austria-Hungary into war immediately. The idea of ‘civilized states’ that dominated the remainder of the Crown Council was not merely an intersubjective social construction. It was a legal term of art in fin de siècle international law that could be applied in the real world. It was only the legally-civilized states that enjoyed the full panoply of rights, privileges, and protections under international law. This is a study of how Romania’s policy-making elite, and Ion I. C. Brătianu’s government, in particular, confronted the challenges of ‘situational sovereignty’. It asserts that, during Romania’s two-year Period of Neutrality (3 August 1914–17 August 1916), Brătianu initially used bilateral conventions as both a method to establish recognition of Romania’s status (or at least a guarantee of territorial integrity) and as a litmus test to determine which (if any) foreign powers recognized Romania as a legal equal. Although he was able to achieve a short-term victory of having an equality clause inserted into the August 1916 political convention with the Entente, it is unclear if that clause could have been durable. Ultimately, Brătianu was trapped between a desire to secure Romania’s recognition through international agreement, but confronted with the reality that Romania’s lack of recognition as a legally-civilized equal meant those very conventions could be unenforceable.
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Byers, Michael, i Mark Weston Janis. "The American Tradition of International Law: Great Expectations, 1789-1914". American Journal of Legal History 48, nr 4 (1.10.2006): 458. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/25469987.
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Brown, Chris. "The promise and record of international institutions". International Relations 33, nr 2 (17.03.2019): 143–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0047117819834650.
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In 1919 the attempt was made to reset the institutions governing international relations, with new patterns of expected behaviour and new international organisations. The key organisation, the League of Nations, effectively remains in place, albeit rebranded as the United Nations, but in 2019 great power relations have reverted to pre-1914 modes of conduct; attempts to extend the range of international institutions after the end of the Cold War have failed at the level of the central system. Outside of this central system, an extensive human rights regime, new notions of sovereignty and the development of international criminal law have produced a new set of institutions and expectations, an embryonic ‘global polity’ based on post-1945 European political experience and extending to democracies in Latin America and Africa. The rise of populism is placing strains on this global polity and the relations between this mode of doing international relations and that of the three major powers is also a source of tension – the fate of the liberal internationalist ideas set in train in 1919 remains in the balance.
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Price, Peter. "Of solemn pacts and paper scraps: International law and the purpose of war, 1914–1918". International Journal: Canada's Journal of Global Policy Analysis 71, nr 1 (11.02.2016): 5–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0020702016632122.
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Reeves, Caroline. "Sovereignty and the Chinese Red Cross Society: The Differentiated Practice of International Law in Shandong, 1914–1916". Journal of the History of International Law / Revue d'histoire du droit international 13, nr 1 (2011): 155–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157180511x552072.
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AbstractThis article looks at the strategic manipulation of national Red Cross Societies as markers of sovereignty during a period of heightened world nationalism in the early twentieth century. Using Chinese archival materials, it examines how in 1916, on China's much contested Shandong Peninsula, a Japanese delegation set up a Japanese Red Cross chapter and hospital in the Chinese port city of Longkou, in flagrant disregard of widely recognized principles of sovereignty and international law. Occurring just as the larger “Shandong Question” was roiling the international legal community, this incident shows how the local practice of international legal statutes diverged from a more publicized, transnational discussion of those same principles. The article explores this disjuncture, and considers one instance of what I term the differentiated practice of international law: the early twentiethcentury Japanese “double policy” – “one policy for the East and another for the West.” Revealing much about the use of humanitarian activity and the laws of war to further national agendas, the Longkou Incident was later used by the Chinese Red Cross Society as precedent for checking further incursions into China's sovereignty.
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Piontek, Eugeniusz. "Professor Manfred Lachs: Wise Man of International Law". International Community Law Review 13, nr 1-2 (2011): 81–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187197311x552893.
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AbstractThis article, based on the author’s presentation at the Conference “Sir Hersch Lauterpacht - Lawyer of Two Cultures”, organized by the Embassy of the Republic of Poland and the Lauterpacht Centre for International Law of the University of Cambridge on 5‐6 November 2008, aims at briefly presenting the life and achievements of Professor and Judge Manfred H. Lachs (21 April 1914‐14 January 1993). During the course of his prolific career, Judge Lachs was active and excelled in four different roles; those of scholar and academic teacher, diplomat and international judge. In all these roles, with his innovative and ground-breaking ideas, he has left his mark on legal discourse and his legal thought continues to be of great influence even today.
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Frolov, Vasily. "The image of Italy on the pages of the newspaper «Russian invalid» in the first years of the First World War (1914–1915)". Metamorphoses of history, nr 29 (2023): 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.37490/s241436770028107-7.
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The article examines and analyzes the image of Italy, which was created by Russian journalists on the pages of the newspaper «Russian Invalid» in the first years of the First World War (1914–1915), when the Russian Empire was in active military confrontation with the states of the Triple (later Quadruple) Alliance, and the Kingdom of Italy, being a member of the Triple Alliance, maintained military neutrality until May 1915, after which it entered the war on the side of the Entente. Correspondents of «Russian Invalid» in the first years of the First World War (1914–1915) paid quite a lot of attention to Italy on the pages of their publication. Most of the information about the Kingdom of Italy by the journalists of the periodical under study was contained in the headings «War», «Military Review», «Naval Review», «From Foreign Life», «Telegrams» and «Italian Front». Based on the results of the analysis of materials presented on the pages of the newspaper «Russian Invalid», the following distinctive features of the image of Italy formed by the correspondents of this newspaper in 1914–1915 were identified: - a young national state, which initially appears as a possible opponent of Austria-Hungary in the world war and therefore a potential ally of the Entente countries, and subsequently officially becomes an enemy of the countries of the Quadruple Alliance; - a kingdom that seeks, through participation in a global military conflict, to solve its specific economic and political problems, including expanding its territorial possessions; - a state with serious ground and naval armed forces capable of exerting a significant influence on the course of hostilities in individual theaters of war. In conclusion, it is concluded that the Kingdom of Italy in «Russian Invalid» appeared as a subject of international law, for which all major actions in the international arena were strictly determined by national interests.
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Afanasev, Alexander L. "The reformist character of the temperance movement in Russia in the “path choice” period in 1907-1914". Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, nr 480 (2023): 92–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.17223/15617793/480/11.
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The aim of the article is to prove the author's hypothesis that the vast temperance movement (TM) increased the potential of the reformist development in Russia. The objective is to learn the exact mechanism of its influence on the society. The research methodology includes analysis, synthesis, objectivity, historicism and interdisciplinarity. The sources of the material are: reports and periodicals of temperance societies, papers by the movement participants, notes of the anti-alcohol congresses, articles by administrative bodies, newspapers. The analyzed territory is Russia without Poland and Finland. TM was the society's response to the alcohol policy by the tsarism. Its influence was increasing. As of 1 January 1911, there were 1,873 temperance societies in Russia with nearly 500,000 members. 74.5 % of the societies were located in villages with most members from the peasantry; 25.5 % were in urban settlements, with most members from workers. 1,782 societies (95.14 % of the total number) were religious with 1,771 of them Orthodox. Their leaders were mostly priests. Of 91 civil societies, 56 were Estonian, 15 Latvian, 2 Finnish and 18 international ones. The manifestation and outcomes of the movement were the following. (A) Locally, (1) the participants of the movement adopted a sober lifestyle, peace and wealth came into families; (2) the participants became a part of a group of soulmates, many of them found a high meaning of life; (3) some societies were involved in educational and charity work; (4) the societies encouraged people to take part in useful activities; (5) due to the societies' impact, open alcohol abuse, hooliganism and criminal activity were decreasing, sober traditions were emerging, communities made public verdicts to close down state wine stores and to ban illegal alcohol sale. (B) On the state and regional levels, on 11 December 1907 the III State Duma established the Anti-alcohol Panel. On 16 November 1911 the Duma adopted the law providing for essential educational and restrictive measures. In 1909-1912 All-Russia congresses against alcohol abuse were held. In 1913-1914 abstinence festivals in both capitals and in more than 50 other provinces were organized. Nicholas II saw the movement as a way to reinforce the political situation in the country; in April 1913 he began to openly support it and in January 1914 proceeded to change the alcohol policy in the country. A circular of the Minister of Finance of 11 March 1914 indicated that it was necessary to satisfy the petitions of rural societies to ban the sale of vodka on their territory. In February-July 1914, the government approved 800 such petitions. A campaign began, during which local governments and state authorities took new educational and restrictive anti-alcohol measures. So, the temperance movement, reformist in character, contributed to the improvement and strengthening of Russia. It urged the authorities to take measures that increased the stability of society and the possibility of development along a peaceful path. This was the “rise of Order out of Chaos”. At the same time, during the rapid anti-alcohol campaign of 1914, opposite processes began.
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BAAZ, MIKAEL. "Back to the Future: Promoting Peace through International Law". Leiden Journal of International Law 30, nr 3 (31.05.2017): 775–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0922156517000279.
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The world as a whole has not been at peace since 1914, and it is definitely not at peace today. David J. Dunn argues that this state of affairs may be due, in no small part, to aspects of the conventional wisdom that informs practical foreign policy and diplomacy. For example, the ancient notion si vis pacem, para bellum [if you desire peace, prepare for war] (Vegetius) or the nineteenth century idea that argues ‘[w]e have no eternal allies, and we have no perpetual enemies. Our interests are eternal and perpetual, and those interests it is our duty to follow’ (Lord Palmerston). These ‘insights’ neatly summarize the intellectual core of political realism; in particular, the ‘balance-of-power’ doctrine.
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Sudika Mangku, Dewa Gede. "Penyelesaian Sengketa Perbatasan Darat di Segmen Bidjael Sunan – Oben antara Indonesia dan Timor Leste". Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan Pancasila dan Kewarganegaraan 5, nr 2 (31.12.2020): 252. http://dx.doi.org/10.17977/um019v5i2p252-260.
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This study aims to analyze the settlement of land border disputes in the Sunan-Oben Bidjael Segment between Indonesia and Timor Leste based on international law. This research is a normative study that uses a statutory editor. The results of this study indicate that both Indonesia and Timor Leste have formed a Joint Border Committee as a forum for resolving land boundary disputes which was then continued to form the Technical Sub-Committee on Border Demarcation and Regulation (TSC - BDR) which has agreed to use the Convention for the Demarcation of Portuguese and Dutch Dominions on the Island of Timor 1904 (Treaty 1904) and Permanent Court of Arbitration 1914 (PCA 1914) as the legal basis for determining and confirming land boundaries between Indonesia and Timor Leste. Based on the 2005 Provisional Agreement Article 6 point (b), which implies that local communities, in this case, indigenous peoples / traditional leaders at the borders are given space to be involved in the dispute resolution process that occurs on the border of the two countries by promoting peaceful and non-violent methods in accordance with Article 8 Provisional Agreement 2005. Whereas the people who inhabit West Timor (Indonesia) and the people who live in East Timor (Timor Leste) have the same socio-cultural background, so it can be ascertained that the customary law system that applies in these two groups of people the same. The substance of the customary law can regulate land issues, as well as the boundaries of customary territories, the potential for customary leaders to actually play a negotiating role to resolve these problems.
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ADEBOWALE, OLUFOLAKE ELIAS, i OLUSOJI ELIAS. "Taslim Olawale Elias (1914–1991): A Biographical Note". Leiden Journal of International Law 21, nr 2 (czerwiec 2008): 291–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0922156508004950.
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Taslim Olawale Elias's intellectual and juristic legacy remains unparalleled in many material respects. He left a remarkable body of work, as an African legal scholar in London in the years between the late 1940s and Nigerian independence, as a legal administrator while he served as Nigeria's first Attorney General and Minister for Justice, among his achievements as the dean of the new faculty of law at the University of Lagos, and as a national and international judge. Born on 11 November 1914 in Lagos, Nigeria, into a family of merchants, he began formal schooling at the age of 12, a fact that was greatly overshadowed by a prodigious academic performance and by the plethora of distinctions and accolades (including sixteen honorary degrees in four continents and a host of national and international honours) that he would acquire during his indefatigable study and practice of the law, and in his contributions to its evolution.
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Nadia Sabrilla. "PENYELESAIAN SENGKETA PERBATASAN DARAT DI SEGMEN BIDJAEL SUNAN OBEN ANTARA INDONESIA DAN TIMOR LESTE". Ganesha Law Review 4, nr 1 (1.05.2022): 27–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.23887/glr.v4i1.1500.
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This study aims to look into how land border disputes between Indonesia and Timor Leste along the Sunan-Oben Bidjael Segment have been settled using international law. An official editor is employed in this normative study. The study’s findings demonstrate that a Joint Border Committee between Timor Leste and Indonesia has been established to serve as a forum for settling land border disputes. Later, This team then changed its name to The Treaty of 1904 and the Permanent Court of Arbitration of 1914 (PCA 1914) have been chosen by the Technical Sub-Committee on Boundary Demarcation and Regulation (TSC-BDR) as the border demarcation legal framework. Article 8 of the 2005 Provisional Agreement states that local communities, in this case indigenous peoples and traditional leaders at the borders, are given the opportunity to participate in the dispute resolution procedure that takes place on the border between the two countries by promoting nonviolent and peaceful means. (b). It is evident that the systems of customary law that apply to the residents of East Timor (Timor Leste) and West Timor (Indonesia) are the same given that these two communities share a shared sociocultural background. Land conflicts, the boundaries of a community’s territory, and the ability of community leaders to engage in direct discussions to resolve these issues can all be governed by the basic principles of customary law.
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Schwietzke, Joachim, i Peter Macalister-Smith. "100 Years Ago: A Bibliographical Calendar of Diplomacy and International Law: In the Years 1914 and 1915". International Journal of Legal Information 42, nr 3 (2014): 517–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s073112650001221x.
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This Bibliographical Calendar focuses on a general armed conflict within Europe that spread to most parts of the world. It started during the second decade of the twentieth century. In this context the present Calendar offers an overview of the chronology leading up to the First World War. It is also a documented survey of official transactions relating to the World War with particular attention to the sources of record. The main focus of the work is on diplomatic acts of the belligerent and neutral parties that accompanied the military dimension of the conflict.The Calendar assumes the form of a compilation of related kinds of information situated between a bibliography and a repertory, with the aim of elucidating the course of World War One from the perspectives of international law and diplomacy.
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Dudin, Pavel. "INSTITUTIONS OF PUBLIC POWER AMONG THE MANCHU-MONGOLIAN PEOPLES OF EAST ASIA IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY. PART 2: POSTIMPERIAL POLITICAL ORDER". Political Expertise: POLITEX 19, nr 3 (2023): 475–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu23.2023.308.
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The author attempts to characterize the public-power institutions of the Manchu-Mongol peoples after the collapse of the Qing Empire, reflected in little-known academic Russian-speaking emigrant sources of the first half of the twentieth century. The revolutionary events in China in 1911-1912 and the abdication of the infant emperor from the throne gave rise to the problem of the legitimacy of the new central government. Not solved from the point of view of law, it led the country to the actual disintegration of the country and the formation of new nation-states. China itself in 1912 It became a republic, and a struggle for the formation of two regional orders unfolded on its borders: between Russia, imperial, and then Soviet, and Japan. The regional order in the zone of Russian interests was based on the statehood of Khalkha-Mongolia, the northernmost part of the Mongolian world, which at the end of 1911 chose the path of the theocratic monarchy, to which Barga tried to join in 1912-1915. The regional order in the zone of Japanese interests has always been associated with Manchuria, which declared independence as Manchukuo with the invasion of the Japanese on the continent. Inner Mongolia also falls into its orbit, forcibly divided into 3 special regions in 1914, and later, with the help of the Japanese, declared sovereignty as the state of Mengjiang. The institutions of public power built up in these policies are characterized by an attempt to restore ancient state traditions, but the key tools in the formation of order and in the change of statuses are the statehood accumulated by these peoples and demonstrating the "ability" to have state sovereignty and international recognition, as well as autonomy, which in some cases was the starting point when falling away from the former empire, and in others - the final one while remaining part of republican China.
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Porshneva, Olga S. "THE CONCEPT OF A JUST WAR IN RUSSIAN SOCIO-POLITICAL DISCOURSE (1914–1916)". Ural Historical Journal 76, nr 3 (2022): 112–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.30759/1728-9718-2022-3(76)-112-120.
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The article analyzes the representations of the Russian socio-political discourse of 1914–1916, dedicated to the justification of the First World War as a just war on the part of Russia and its Allies. It considers the role of the factors that shaped the image of a just war in the minds of the European political and intellectual elite and the younger generation, as well as the emergence of the idea of “spirituality” of war as the basis for its legitimation. The author stresses the influence of the international conventions on the laws and customs of war on the image of a just war in Russia as well as the specifics of the socio-cultural situation at the turn of the 20th century, which made it difficult to conduct ideological and psychological preparation for world clash that could affect the mass consciousness. The image of a just war began to take shape in Russia after the country entered the conflict and was based on the idea of a defensive war against an external aggressor. The fact that Germany was the first to declare war on Russia, the realities of bloody confrontation contributed to the formation and broadcast the ideas about the “Second Patriotic War”. The concept of the “Second Patriotic War”, which appealed to historical memory, became the embodiment of the idea of a just war in the 1914–1915 Russian socio-political discourse. An important component of the image of a just war in Russia was the notions of the spiritual and religious sense of confrontation. They were embodied in ideas about the implementation of the sacred mission of liberating Europe and the world from “Germanism”, the protection of the Slavs, the “struggle for truth”, the affirmation of the renewed ideal of “Holy Russia”. The ideas of a “holy war against Germanism” got embedded in the discourse of the press into the system of ideas about the fairness of the goals and objectives of the Allies. Another basis for the legitimacy of war was the concept embodied in the slogan “the war to end all wars”. The influential concept of Entente propaganda received a wide response in the Russian liberal and democratic press, which interpreted the meaning of the world conflict in a political and legal terms. The war was seen as a way to establish a new system of international relations based on the rule of the “force of law” as opposed to the “law of force” personified by Germany. Illusions about the possibility of establishing “eternal peace” after the war were widely broadcast in the press, becoming an element of ideas about a just struggle for a better future of mankind. The notions about “German atrocities” widely broadcast by propaganda in the Entente countries were important element of the justification of violence against the enemy and legitimization of the war. In Russia, despite the enemy’s violation of international conventions governing conducting the war and the presence of this topic in the press, the image of “German atrocities” did not play the significant role in socio-political discourse in comparison with the Entente countries.
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Lynn-Jones, Sean M. "Detente and Deterrence: Anglo-German Relations, 1911-1914". International Security 11, nr 2 (1986): 121. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2538960.
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Mcwhinney, Edward. "Nagendra Singh (1914-1988)". American Journal of International Law 83, nr 2 (kwiecień 1989): 342. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0002930000005868.
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Seligmann, Matthew S. "Great Britain, International Law, and the Evolution of Maritime Strategic Thought, 1856–1914". Mariner's Mirror 107, nr 1 (2.01.2021): 117–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00253359.2021.1862512.
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Dunley, Richard. "The Law of Nations and Britain’s Quest for Naval Security International Law and Arms Control, 1898–1914". Mariner's Mirror 103, nr 3 (3.07.2017): 362–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00253359.2017.1344433.
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Leal, Ernesto Castro. "República e Constituição: debates parlamentares sobre revisão constitucional em Portugal (1915-1921)". Historia Constitucional 1, nr 24 (4.09.2023): 665–707. http://dx.doi.org/10.17811/hc.v0i24.902.
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O objectivo principal deste artigo é discutir, dentro de uma perspectiva de história política e de história constitucional, as razões e os argumentos que sustentaram a necessidade de modificar alguns conteúdos da Constituição Política da República Portuguesa de 1911, entre 1915 e 1921. Os debates mais intensos desenvolveram-se sobre três tópicos: a introdução da pena de morte para crimes militares em caso de guerra com um país estrangeiro e executada apenas no campo de batalha (1916); a configuração de um novo regime presidencialista (1918); o princípio da dissolução parlamentar atribuído ao Presidente da República após consultar um Conselho Parlamentar (1919). Enviado el (Submission Date): 17/11/2022 Aceptado el (Acceptance Date): 5/01/2023
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ANAND, R. P. "The Formation of International Organizations and India: A Historical Study". Leiden Journal of International Law 23, nr 1 (2.02.2010): 5–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0922156509990318.
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AbstractAs the clash of aspirations increased among European countries, a European ‘civil war’ started in 1914, which engulfed the whole world. With all the terrible destruction and loss of life, it was felt that an international organization must be established to avert war in future. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the British government succeeded in gaining separate representation for its dominions, including India. This created a rather anomalous situation, since a dependency of a foreign power, a colony which could not control its internal affairs, was accepted as a sovereign state by an international treaty. Europe had hardly recovered from the First World War in the late 1920s when it drifted towards a second holocaust in 1939. India became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945, even though it was still under British rule, participating in the historic founding conference. But Indian national public opinion was neither very hopeful nor enthusiastic about the conference on the new international organization. Not only India, which was not even independent at that time, but Asian countries as such played a very small and insignificant role in the formulation of the UN Charter.
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Lapidoth, Ruth. "Nathan Feinberg: A Tribute". Israel Law Review 20, nr 2-3 (1985): 113–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021223700017568.
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Colleagues, students and admirers of Professor Nathan Feinberg take pleasure and pride in presenting this issue of the Israel Law Review to the great Maître on his 90th birthday, as a small token of our gratitude. We respect Professor Feinberg for his vast and deep knowledge in international law in general; we admire him for his particular expertise and contributions in the study of legal problems related to the Jewish people, to the Zionist cause and to the State of Israel; and we are grateful to him for the leading role he played in the establishment of the first faculty of law in this country, at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem.Nathan Feinberg was born in Kovno on June 6, 1895. His aptitude for learning was such that the severe numerus clausus did not prevent his admission to the Russian high school, from which he graduated with distinction in 1914. At the same time he was given a Jewish and Hebrew education privately. He then proceeded to the Faculty of Law of the University of Zurich, from which he graduated magna cum laude in 1918.
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Draper, G. I. A. D. "The contribution of the Emperor Asoka Maurya to the development of the humanitarian ideal in warfare". International Review of the Red Cross 35, nr 305 (kwiecień 1995): 192–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020860400090604.
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Gerald Draper (1914–1989) was the foremost specialist in humanitarian law of his generation in the United Kingdom, and was well-respected in the law of war community worldwide. He was a Military Prosecutor in the war crimes trials in Germany after the Second World War, and following his retirement from the Army Legal Staff became a distinguished academic, finishing as Professor of Law at the University of Sussex. Draper was a delegate to many International Conferences of the Red Cross as well as to the Diplomatic Conference which drafted the Additional Protocols of 1977.
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Schwebel, Stephen M. "Seymour J. Rubin (1914-2003)". American Journal of International Law 97, nr 2 (kwiecień 2003): 310–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3100106.
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Buergenthal, Thomas. "Louis B. Sohn (1914-2006)". American Journal of International Law 100, nr 3 (lipiec 2006): 623–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0002930000031079.
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Rashid, Asma. "NAGORNO-KARABAGH CONFLICT AND ROLE OF MAJOR POWERS: AN INTERNATIONAL LAW PERSPECTIVE". Margalla Papers 25, nr 2 (31.12.2021): 61–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.54690/margallapapers.25.2.73.
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Nagorno-Karabagh is a long-drawn-out conflict crafted around two competing positions identified as self-determination and state sovereignty. The political tactics of Stalin based on divide and rule and pan-Turkism in 1870 coupled with the Armenian genocide in 1914 fuelled the deep hatred and antagonism crammed between Azerbaijan and Armenia over the mountainous terrain of Nagorno-Karabagh. This paper attempts to comprehend the dynamic nature of this protracted conflict (in 2020) with the perspective of newly emerging regional alliances in the south Caucuses. It recognizes the convoluted regional interests that shaped a recipe of convergence between Azerbaijan, Russia, and Turkey that led to controlled chaos and one-sided settlement in Nagorno-Karabagh at the dispense of Karabagh Armenians. It addresses how this decisive war between Azerbaijan and Armenia transformed the landscape of future warfare. Bibliography Entry Rashid, Asma. 2021. "Nagorno-Karabagh Conflict and Role of Major Powers: An International Law Perspective." Margalla Papers 25 (2): 61-70.
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Rashid, Asma. "NAGORNO-KARABAGH CONFLICT AND ROLE OF MAJOR POWERS: AN INTERNATIONAL LAW PERSPECTIVE". Margalla Papers 25, nr 2 (31.12.2021): 61–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.54690/margallapapers.25.2.73.
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Nagorno-Karabagh is a long-drawn-out conflict crafted around two competing positions identified as self-determination and state sovereignty. The political tactics of Stalin based on divide and rule and pan-Turkism in 1870 coupled with the Armenian genocide in 1914 fuelled the deep hatred and antagonism crammed between Azerbaijan and Armenia over the mountainous terrain of Nagorno-Karabagh. This paper attempts to comprehend the dynamic nature of this protracted conflict (in 2020) with the perspective of newly emerging regional alliances in the south Caucuses. It recognizes the convoluted regional interests that shaped a recipe of convergence between Azerbaijan, Russia, and Turkey that led to controlled chaos and one-sided settlement in Nagorno-Karabagh at the dispense of Karabagh Armenians. It addresses how this decisive war between Azerbaijan and Armenia transformed the landscape of future warfare. Bibliography Entry Rashid, Asma. 2021. "Nagorno-Karabagh Conflict and Role of Major Powers: An International Law Perspective." Margalla Papers 25 (2): 61-70.
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Astanin, Dmitry M. "Fifth level of organisation of environmental protection systems: International law. Evolution of institutions of environmental global policy". New Trends and Issues Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences 6, nr 6 (6.12.2019): 41–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.18844/prosoc.v6i6.4466.
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The analysis of the historical process of the formation of the global environmental policy of the modern states of the world in the context of the development of a multi-level environmental system is carried out. The main influence of the first International Environmental Conference in Bern 1914 on the organisation of interstate environmental authorities, the creation of the United Nations for approval of the Stockholm Declaration of 1972 and the Rio de Janeiro Declaration of 1992, which formed the modern classification of objects of environmental law, forms international eco-cooperation, ranking system of environmental policy. The thesis of the need for mutual coordination of all the participants in a multi-level environmental process, the inability of modern environmental authorities to effectively solve tasks in view of the lack of a joint action program of the world environmental system was put forward.
Keywords: Environmental policy, environmental protection system, environmental law, international law, landscape and biological diversity.
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Alidemaj, Avni, i Sadik Haxhiu. "The Development of Constitutionalism in Albania (1912-1938)". Historia Constitucional 1, nr 24 (4.09.2023): 585–602. http://dx.doi.org/10.17811/hc.v0i24.882.
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The development of constitutionalism in Albania from 1912 until 1938 is characterized by the approval of four constitutional acts: Organic Statute of Albania in 1914, Statute of Lushnja in 1920, Basic Statute of the Republic of Albania in 1925, and Basic Statute of the Monarchy of Albania in 1928. These statutes have interrupted the tradition of applying Sharia Law in Albania, by applying models of the most advanced constitutions of the time, such as the monarchies and parliamentary republics of Western Europe and the United States. These acts have been approved in special political circumstances elaborated throughout the paper. Enviado el (Submission Date): 02/07/2022Aceptado el (Acceptance Date): 14/09/2022
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Rotocki, Zbigniew. "Opcja i plebiscyt a samostanowienie ludności w tradycyjnym prawie międzynarodowym". Studia Prawnicze / The Legal Studies, nr 34 (30.04.2023): 121–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.37232/sp.1972.34.6.
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Rozważania na temat opcji i plebiscytu zawarte w niniejszym opracowaniu zostały ograniczone do rozwoju obu tych instytucji w związku z cesją terytorialną, obejmującą okres do 1914 r. Autor przedstawia rys historyczny, klauzulę opcji dawnego typu (1640-1839), klauzulę opcji nowożytnej (1839-1918) oraz związane z nimi zagadnienia prawne. Mimo dużej liczby klauzul opcji zawartych w traktatach w XIX wieku, nie można stać na stanowisku, że umieszczenie jej w umowach było normą powszechnego prawa międzynarodowego, i że w związku z tym państwa musiały je zawsze przewidywać w swych traktatach, dotyczących cesji terytorialnych. Zdaniem Wambaugh “zasada samostanowienia narodów” opiera się na idei suwerenności ludu i jest z nią związana nierozłącznie. Dlatego historia tej doktryny rozpoczyna się dopiero z rewolucją francuską. The discussion of an option and a plebiscite in this paper is limited to the development of both of these institutions in relation to a territorial cession, covering the period up to 1914. The author presents a historical outline, the old-type option clause (1640-1839), the modern option clause (1839-1918) and related legal issues. Despite the large number of option clauses included in treaties in the 19th century, it cannot be maintained that their inclusion in treaties was the rule of universal international law, and that, therefore, states must always have provided for them in their treaties dealing with territorial cessions. According to Wambaugh, the “principle of the self-determination of peoples” is based on the idea of the sovereignty of the people and is inextricably linked to it. Therefore, the history of this doctrine only begins with the French Revolution.
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ISPOVEDNIKOV, DMITRY. "PRISONERS OF THE WORLD WAR I IN SIBERIA AND RUSSIAN FAR EAST IN THE FOCUS OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW". Sociopolitical Sciences 11, nr 2 (28.06.2021): 103–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.33693/2223-0092-2021-11-3-103-111.
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The purpose and objectives of the article are to analyze the application of humanitarian law in relation to prisoners of the First World War. The research focuses on the situation in the Siberian and Far Eastern camps of Russia during the Civil War (1918-1922). A number of solid scientific works are devoted to the treatment of foreign prisoners of war in 1914-1918 in Europe and the Russian Empire, while the adaptation of international law in the context of the statehood’s destruction and the decentralization of power is rarely the subject of distinct exercise. Bridging the gaps, the authors studied, how the successive regimes in the eastern part of Russia observed the IV Hague Convention with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land (October 18, 1907), as the main set of rules that protected prisoners of war. Methodological approach. The situation of captured members of the Central Powers’ armies in Siberia and the Russian Far East was studied on the basis of a set of published and unpublished archival documents. The revealed facts were analyzed in comparison with articles of the IV Hague Convention. It was established how the legal status of prisoners of war changed in 1918-1922, how the conditions for their maintenance and employment were ensured. The role played by foreign charitable organizations in the life of the camps is considered. Results and conclusions. Based on the results of the research, the authors came to the conclusion that during the years of the revolutionary struggle in Siberia and the Far East, the Russian authorities ensured the rights of foreign prisoners of war within the limits of reasonable humanism. However, violations of the IV Hague Convention’s articles were dictated not only by the objective realities of a large-scale crisis in the region, but also by the unfolding information war. The originality and value of the work lies in the study of the situation of prisoners of the First World War in the east of Russia on the basis of the source base expanding and analysis of the application of international law during the Civil War.
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Keith, KJ. "The Unity of the Common Law and the Ending of Appeals to the Privy Council". International and Comparative Law Quarterly 54, nr 1 (styczeń 2005): 197–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/iclq/54.1.197.
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In 1769, by a nice coincidence, Captain James Cook made landfall in New Zealand, the first British mariner to do so, and William Blackstone published the final volume of hisCommentaries on the Law of England. Blackstoněs discussion of the application of the law of Englandto newly acquired colonies is not completely coherent, but it does give a strong sense that much, if not all, of the common law did come to apply to many, if not all, of them.1The Privy Council was reminded of this, with express reference to Blackstone, in November 2003 when it was asked to determine whether the rule inSmith v Selwyn,2a decision of the English Court of Appeal given in 1914, was part of the law of Jamaica.3
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Mulder, Nicholas. "‘A Retrograde Tendency’: The Expropriation of German Property in the Versailles Treaty". Journal of the History of International Law / Revue d’histoire du droit international 22, nr 4 (10.07.2020): 507–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718050-12340136.
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Abstract This article explores how the Versailles Treaty was shaped by the effects of economic warfare 1914–1919. The First World War was in part an Allied economic war waged against the Central Powers in conditions of advanced economic and financial globalization. This was reflected in the treaty’s expropriation mechanisms, which were used to take control of German property, rights, and interests around the world. Whereas Articles 297 and 298 of the treaty legalized wartime seizures, the Reparations Section of the treaty also contained a provision, paragraph 18, that gave the Allies far-reaching confiscatory powers in the future. The article places these mechanisms in a wider political, legal and economic context, and traces how they became a bone of contention among the former belligerents in the interwar period.
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Wampach, Christophe. "VIII. Der Rechtsstreit um die Verletzung der belgischen Neutralität im Ersten Weltkrieg". Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte: Germanistische Abteilung 133, nr 1 (1.10.2016): 404–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.7767/zrgga-2016-0110.
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Abstract The legal discussion on the breach of Belgian neutrality in World War I: This paper focuses on the legal quarrel which ensued from the violation of neutral Belgium in 1914. The aim is to understand why the German argumentation failed to assert the legality of the invasion in international law. To this end, three main arguments put forward by the German legal scholars to justify the breach of Belgium’s neutrality are reviewed, as well as the reply of the allied jurists.
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JOHNS, FLEUR, THOMAS SKOUTERIS i WOUTER WERNER. "Editors' Introduction: Taslim Olawale Elias in the Periphery Series". Leiden Journal of International Law 21, nr 2 (czerwiec 2008): 289–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0922156508004949.
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This special issue of the Leiden Journal of International Law on the Nigerian international lawyer Taslim Olawale Elias (1914–91) marks the second of the journal's Periphery Series. The collection of essays featured here serves essentially two functions. On the one hand, it pays tribute to an exceptional jurist whose work marked international legal scholarship during the years of decolonization. On the other, it invites critical engagement with the theme of international law's ‘periphery’. The centre–periphery formulation, as explained elsewhere, owes its provenance mostly to recent debates in political economy. It is a spatial metaphor which postulates a structural relationship between a presumed ‘centre’, typically portrayed as advanced or metropolitan, and a less developed and provincial ‘periphery’. In such debates the centre–periphery opposition is assumed as stable, decisive, and representative of the empirical reality of a ‘world out there’. The Periphery Series was launched in 2007, with a special issue on the Chilean jurist Alejandro Álvarez, to foster engagement with the discursive function of centre–periphery oppositions in public international law in its various iterations, and to confront questions of resource allocation, dependency, geography, and power.
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Kojić-Prodić, Biserka. "A century of X-ray crystallography and 2014 international year of X-ray crystallography". Macedonian Journal of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering 34, nr 1 (2.06.2015): 19. http://dx.doi.org/10.20450/mjcce.2015.663.
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The 100<sup>th</sup> anniversary of the Nobel prize awarded to Max von Laue in 1914 for his discovery of diffraction of X-rays on a crystal marked the beginning of a new branch of science - X-ray crystallography. The experimental evidence of von Laue's discovery was given by physicists W. Friedrich and P. Knipping in 1912. In the same year W. L. Bragg described the analogy between X-rays and visible light and formulated the Bragg's law, a fundamental relation, that connected the wave nature of X-rays and fine structure of a crystal at atomic level. In 1913 the first simple diffractometer was constructed and structure determination started by the Braggs, father and son. In 1915 their discoveries were awarded by Nobel prize in physics. Since then, X-ray diffraction has been basic method for determination of three-dimensional structures of synthetic and natural compounds. The three-dimensional structure of molecule defines its physical, chemical, and biological properties. All over the past century significance of X-ray crystallography has been recognized by about forty Nobel prizes. The examples of X-ray structure analysis, of simple crystals of rock salt, diamond and graphite, and then of complex biomolecules such as B12-vitamin, penicillin, haemoglobin/myoglobin, DNA, and biomolecular complexes such as viruses, chromatin, ribozyme, and other molecular machines, have illustrated the development of the method. Among these big discoveries double helix DNA structure is epochal one of 20<sup>th</sup> century. These discoveries together with many others within X-ray crystallography completely changed our views and helped to be developed different new fields of science such as molecular genetics, biophysics, structural molecular biology, material science, and many others. During the last decade, an implementation of free electron X-ray lasers, a new experimental tool, has opened up femtosecond dynamic crystallography. This highly advanced methodology enables to solve the structures and dynamics of the most complex biological assemblies involved in a cell metabolism. The advancements of science and technology over 20<sup>th</sup> and 21<sup>st</sup>centuries are of great influence on our views in almost all human activities. The importance of X-ray crystallography for science and technology advocates for its high impact on a wide area of research and declares it as highly interdisciplinary science. Briefly saying, crystallography defines the shape of our modern world.<p>The essay is far from being complete and it is concentrated on single crystal diffraction. The wide area of X-ray crystallography hardly can be reviewed in a single article. However, it highlights the most striking examples illustrating some of the milestones over past century.</p><p> </p>
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Frieden, Jeff. "Sectoral conflict and foreign economic policy, 1914–1940". International Organization 42, nr 1 (1988): 59–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002081830000713x.
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The period from 1914 to 1940 is one of the most crucial and enigmatic in modern world history, and in the history of modern U.S. foreign policy. World War I catapulted the United States into international economic and political leadership, yet in the aftermath of the war, despite grandiose Wilsonian plans, the United States quickly lapsed into relative disregard for events abroad: it did not join the League of Nations, disavowed responsibility for European reconstruction, would not participate openly in many international economic conferences, and restored high levels of tariff protection for the domestic market. Only in the late 1930s and 1940s, after twenty years of bitter battles over foreign policy, did the United States move to center stage of world politics and economics: it built the United Nations and a string of regional alliances, underwrote the rebuilding of Western Europe, almost single-handedly constructed a global monetary and financial system, and led the world in commercial liberalization.
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Mulder, Nicholas. "The Trading with the Enemy Acts in the age of expropriation, 1914–49". Journal of Global History 15, nr 1 (13.02.2020): 81–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1740022819000342.
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AbstractThis article examines one of the most consequential legal–political models for the confiscation of private property in the twentieth century: the Trading with the Enemy Acts (TEAs). Two laws with this name were passed in Britain (1914) and the United States (1917), enabling the large-scale expropriation of ‘enemies’ and ‘aliens’. The extra-territorial application of these laws during the era of total war led to the globalization of its paradigm of expropriation in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. The TEAs made the administrative process of dispossession effective and profitable for liberal states. The US law was repurposed for domestic use during the New Deal, while its British counterpart played an unforeseen role during decolonization and the great partitions of the late 1940s, as the nascent nation-states of India, Pakistan, and Israel used it to constitute themselves as territorial and economic units by taking land and property from ‘evacuees’ and ‘absentees’. The article provides a short history of these four national cases in their international context and argues that the history of the TEAs shows that state-driven mass expropriation was much more common throughout the mid twentieth century than usually supposed; the ‘age of extremes’ was also in part an ‘age of expropriation’.
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Hagen, Antje. "Patents Legislation and German FDI in the British Chemical Industry before 1914". Business History Review 71, nr 3 (1997): 351–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3116077.
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This article analyzes the investments in both manufacturing units and sales subsidiaries by German chemical companies in the United Kingdom prior to 1914. It extends the findings in the existing literature on the subject, as sales subsidiaries have not so far been investigated. In particular, the article focuses on the motives underlying these investments. By building sales subsidiaries, German companies hoped to improve their control over foreign distribution activities and to promote their own brand names. As for the creation of manufacturing outlets, the motives of the companies differed before and after the reform of the British patent law in 1907. Prior to patent law reform, branch plants were set up due to transport cost considerations, resource orientation, or the pursuit of monopoly. Further reasons included restrictions on the use of proprietary technology in the home country and capacity constraints in the home factory. It was only after 1907 that manufacturing units were established to safeguard the companies' British patents. Consequently, the traditionally held notion that it was solely the patent law of 1907 which sparked off German FDI in the British chemical industry needs to be modified.
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Dhondt, Frederik. "Great Britain, International Law, and the Evolution of Maritime Strategic Thought, 1856–1914, written by Gabriela Frei". Journal of the History of International Law / Revue d’histoire du droit international 24, nr 2 (9.06.2022): 293–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718050-12340205.
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Burlak, Oksana. "The Emergence of Social and Economic Rights as the New Era in the International Community’s Development: History and Contemporary". Yearly journal of scientific articles “Pravova derzhava”, nr 34 (1.08.2023): 650–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.33663/1563-3349-2023-34-650-662.
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Introduction. The world economic crisis of 1900-1903, which was accompanied by a crisis in the social sphere and resulted in the emergence of protests among the working class, became one of the significant factors that led to the First World War of 1914-1918. Therefore, there was the keen necessity to form a new international law and order with social and economic components. The League of Nations’ creation ensured its establishment, and the social and economic cooperation of states was concentrated within the framework of the ILO, in order to resolve social conflicts, protect the rights of workers, improve working conditions and increase their living standards. However, the continuation of the crisis was the next stage of the Second World War of 1939-1945 and taking into consideration the duration of this crisis in the XXI century the threat of a new world war in the nearest future cannot be excluded. The instability of international relations is the result of the destruction of the international law and order, which is replaced by protectionism in the form of regionalism. Conclusions. Within the framework of international organizations, in particularthe UN, ILO, EU a set of anti-crisis measures is adopted in order to overcome the consequences of the global crisis. However, they are not sufficient, often improvisational ,and the urgency of crisis management requirements leads to non-optimal solutions. Current legal order cannot be considered without the social and economic rights and activities of the ILO. The organization is designed, in particular, to ensure the establishment of universal peace based on social justice; develop and implement norms and principles in the field of labour; provide decent employment and social protection for all; develop international measures and programs for the implementation of human rights, improving working and living conditions; develop international labour standards etc. The states’ efforts to overcome this crisis should cover all levels of cooperation between states in the social and economic sphere, the adoption of appropriate effective measures, and decisions that would be characterized not situationally, but by systematic preparation for various crisis situations, including more active application of forecasts and different scenario planning. Key words: International Law, Social and Economic Rights, League of Nations,United Nations, International Labour Organization, World Economic Crisis, Anticrisis Measures in the Social Sphere.
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Snyder, Jack. "Better Now Than Later: The Paradox of 1914 as Everyone's Favored Year for War". International Security 39, nr 1 (lipiec 2014): 71–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00173.
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One reason why Europe went to war in 1914 is that all of the continental great powers judged it a favorable moment for them to fight, and all were more pessimistic about postponing the fight until later. Not only is this historical paradox an interesting puzzle in its own right, but it sheds light on what is arguably the reigning theory of the causes of wars in general: James Fearon's rational bargaining theory. None of Fearon's three main mechanisms—private information, commitment problems, or indivisibility of stakes—can explain the paradox of the universal, simultaneous view of 1914 as a favorable year for war. Two mechanisms that play a marginal role in his analysis, however—bounded rationality in multidimensional power assessments and attempts to mitigate power shifts through coercive diplomacy—help to explain how Europe's powers became trapped in a choice between war now and war later. These mechanisms were set in motion by background strategic assumptions rooted in the culture of militarism and nationalism that perversely structured the options facing Europe's political leaders in 1914. Whereas Fearon's theory assumes that states are paying equal attention to all relevant information, in 1914 each power's strategic calculations produced disproportionate levels of self-absorption in its own domestic concerns and alliance anxieties.
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Ewing, Keith. "The political constitution of emergency powers: a comment". International Journal of Law in Context 3, nr 4 (grudzień 2007): 313–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1744552307004041.
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The United Kingdom had the experience of at least five different kinds of emergency throughout the twentieth century. The first and most serious is war, though not all wars (including the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan) create or created national emergencies. Nevertheless, the world wars of 1914–1918 and 1939–1945 almost certainly did, especially in the latter case with its risk – albeit short-lived – of invasion by a foreign power. The other causes of emergency were: second, the long-term internal conflict in Northern Ireland in what seemed like a separatist armed struggle, with one community pitted against another, and against the State (1969–2007); third, short-term but large-scale industrial action, which in at least one case (1926) was thought to border on the subversive; while the fourth has been an array of natural disasters, sometimes caused by adverse weather conditions, and sometimes caused by disease; finally, and most recently, there is the threat posed by international terrorism in the wake of 9/11 and our experiences in London in July 2005. Although emergency situations can thus arise for a host of reasons, it might be argued that the foregoing list is far from complete, with a sixth category of emergency being the various economic and fiscal crises that have engulfed the country from time to time, notably in 1931, when emergency powers were taken, and again after the end of World War II, when the country was financially exhausted by the demands of conflict.