Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Lac Insect”

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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
Os cupins apresentam uma alta complexidade social, onde os indivíduos que compõem uma colonia presentam uma divisão reproductiva do trabalho, na qual muitos indivíduos trabalham a favor de uns poucos que se reproduzem. A evolução dessa alta complexidade social tem sido um tema de pesquisa muito interesante, assim como os comportamentos sociais desses organismos. Entretanto um aspecto chave das mesmas interações sociais tem sido subestimado. Os efeitos do grupo vão mais além das simples vantagens na reprodução, proteção contra predadores ou melhoramento no forrageamento. O objetivo do trabalho foi testar se existe um efeito do tamanho do grupo e da complexidade social, sobre o numero de interações per capita e da sobrevivência dos indivíduos. Foram realizados experimentos no laboratório, empregando operários de 17 colonias de cupins, correspondentes a 6 especies as quais representam uma sequencia filogenética em Isoptera. Foram separados operários de cada colônia em diferentes tamanhos de grupo, e observadas as interações sociais e comportamentos desenvolvidos entre os indivíduos. Posteriormente foi calculada a sobrevivência promedio dos indivíduos em cada tamanho de grupo e correlacionada com los respectivos dados de interações. Finalmente foram comparados os resultados entre as três famílias de térmitas empregadas no presente estúdio. Os resultados obtidos no trabalho corroboram os resultados obtidos em estudos anteriores, onde o efeito do grupo aumenta a sobrevivência de operários de térmitas. Respeito ao incremento no tamanho de grupo, existe uma diminuição no numero de interações per cápita/segundo. A sobrevivência dos indivíduos é afetada pelo tamanho de grupo, mas não pelas interações per cápita/segundo para ninhuma das espécies estudadas. Entretanto existe uma clara tendência no incremento do numero de comportamentos com o incremento do tamanho do grupo e com a complexidade social.
Las termitas presentan una gran complejidad social, donde los indivíduos que componen una colonia presentan una división reproductiva del trabajo, en la cual gran cantidad de indivíduos trabajan a favor de algunos pocos que se reproducen. La evolución de esta alta complejidad social ha sido un tema de investigación muy interesante, asi como los comportamientos sociales de estos organismos. Sin embargo un aspecto clave de las mismas interacciones sociales ha sido subestimado. Los efectos de grupo van mas allá de las simples ventajas en la reproducción, protección contra depredadores o mejoramiento en el forrajeamento. El objetivo del trabajo fue ensayar si existe un efecto del tamaño de grupo y de la complejidad social, sobre el numero de interacciones per capita y sobrevivencia de los indivíduos. Fueron realizados experimentos en laboratório, utilizando obreros de 17 colonias de termitas, correspondientes a 6 especies las cuales representan una secuencia filogenética en Isoptera. Fueron separados obreros de cada colonia en diferentes tamaños de grupo, y observadas las interacciones sociales y comportamientos desarrollados entre los indivíduos. Posteriormente fue calculada la sobrevivência promedio de los indivíduos en cada tamaño de grupo y correlacionada con los respectivos datos de interacciones. Finalmente fueron comparados los resultados entre las tres famílias de termitas empleadas para este estúdio. Los resultados obtenidos en este trabajo corroboran los resultados obtenidos por estudios anteriores, según los cuales el efecto de grupo aumenta la sobrevivencia de obreros de térmitas. Se encontró que con el incremento en el tamaño de grupo, existe una disminución en el número de interacciones per cápita/segundo. La sobrevivencia de los individuos es afectada por el tamaño de grupo, sin embargo no es afectada por las interacciones per cápita/segundo para ninguna de las especies estudiadas. No obstante existe una clara tendencia en el aumento del número de comportamientos con el incremento del tamaño del grupo y con la complejidad social.

This thesis represents a comprehensive examination of the phonotactic behaviour (i.e. attraction to sound) of the female Gryllus bimaculatus under laboratory conditions. Chapter 2 is the first study to analyze the effect of substrate texture on walking performance in crickets. Substrate texture is found to play an essential role in the phonotactic responses of G. bimaculatus. Smooth substrate texture has a detrimental effect due to slipping, whereas a rough texture results in optimal walking performance due to the friction with the walking legs. Chapter 3 represents the first detailed lifetime study analysing phonotaxis in crickets. My results demonstrate that the optimal age to test phonotaxis in G. bimaculatus females is from day 7 to 24 after the final moult. I also found that selectiveness was persistent with age. These findings contradict the female choosiness hypothesis. This study is also the first to describe the effect of senescence on phonotaxis in insects, as responsiveness decreases with age. Chapter 4 compares the phonotactic behaviour of female crickets from different laboratory-bred colonies. From six tested cricket lab colonies, I found three groups statistically different from each other. Females raised under laboratory conditions at the University of Cambridge and Anglia Ruskin University were most reponsive at a frequency of 4.5 kHz, whereas females bred in Tokushima University in Japan were tuned towards a higher frequency of 5 kHz. These results suggest a degree of artificial allopatric speciation. Comparisons with crickets bred under low-quality conditions in a local pet shop demonstrate a loss of responsiveness, indicating that breeding conditions have a direct effect on phonotactic responsivity. Chapter 5 is the first study to report the presence of phonotaxis in males of G. bimaculatus. Previously it was unknown if G. bimaculatus males were able to perform phonotaxis, given that they were only recognised as endurance signal producers. In the present study, only 20% of the studied males (N=70) performed a weak phonotactic response. This finding has potential ecological implications in terms of male cricket territory establishment, and male-male interactions in the wild, which are discussed. Chapter 6 explores the song pattern recognition of the female G. bimaculatus by changing the duration of either the first, second or third pulse of the chirps. A long first pulse decreased the phonotactic response whereas phonotaxis remained strong when the third pulse was long. Chirps with three pulses of increasing duration of 5, 20 and 50 ms elicited phonotaxis, but the chirps were not attractive when played in reverse order. The data are in agreement with a mechanism in which processing of a sound pulse has an effect on the processing of the subsequent pulse, as outlined in the flow of activity in a delay-line and coincidence-detector circuit.

This thesis has two focuses. The first problem facing the olive industry in the Eastern Cape is the growers’ perceptions of both what the industry will provide them and what a pest management program might entail. The second focus is the biology of olive pests in the Eastern Cape in terms of understanding their populations and their natural enemies on private farms, with future hopes of understanding how Integrated Pest Management strategies can be developed for this crop. Eastern Cape private farmers, small-scale farmers and workers from agricultural training institutions were interviewed regarding the history and cultivation of the local olive crop. Only one commercially viable olive grove was identified; other groves were small, experimental pilot ventures. The introduction of olives to small-scale farmers and agricultural training schools was generally a top-down initiative that led to a lack of sense of ownership and the trees being neglected. Other problems included poor human capital; poor financial capital; lack of adequate support; lack of knowledge transfer and stability; lack of communication and evaluation procedures of the project; miscommunication; and finally, olive pests. Apart from hesitancy to plant at a commercial scale, the main problem facing private farmers (Varnam Farm, Hewlands Farm and Springvale Farm) was pests. Therefore an investigation of pests from private farms was conducted ranging from collection of cultivated and wild olive fruit and flea beetle larvae for parasitism, trapping systems both for fruit flies and olive flea beetle adults. A survey of olive fruits yielded larval fruit flies of the families Tephritidae (Bactrocera oleae (Rossi), B. biguttula (Bezzi) and Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann)) and Drosophilidae (Drosophila melanogaster (Meigen)) from wild olives (O. europaea cuspidata (Wall. ex G. Don) Cif.) but none from cultivated olives (O. e. europaea L.). Braconid wasps (Opiinae and Braconinae) were reared only from fruits containing B. oleae and B. biguttula. This suggests that B. oleae is not of economic significance in the Eastern Cape, perhaps because it is controlled to a significant level by natural enemies, but B. biguttula may be a potential economic pest. A survey of adult fruit flies using ChamP traps baited with ammonium bicarbonate and spiroketal capsules and Sensus trap baited with methyl eugenol and Questlure confirmed the relative importance of B. biguttula over B. oleae. ChamP traps were over 50 times better than Sensus traps for mass trapping of B. biguttula but both were ineffective for trapping B. oleae and C. capitata. Six indigenous flea beetles of the genus Argopistes Motschulsky (Chrysomelidae: Alticinae) were found, three described by Bryant in 1922 and 1944 and three new species. Their morphology was investigated by scanning electron microscopy and mutivariate morphometric analysis. The leaf-mining larvae are pests of wild and cultivated olives in South Africa and threaten the local olive industry. At Springvale Farm, A. oleae Bryant and A. sexvittatus Bryant preferred the upper parts of trees, near new leaves. Pseudophanomeris inopinatus (Blkb.) (Braconidae) was reared from 23 Argopistes larvae. The beetle larvae might not be controlled to a significant level by natural enemies because the rate of parasitism was low. The olive flea beetles showed no attraction to traps containing various volatile compounds as baits. The lace bug, Plerochila australis Distant (Tingidae), was sometimes a pest. It showed a preference for the underside of leaves on the lower parts of the trees. A moth, Palpita unionalis Hübner (Crambidae), was reared in very low numbers and without parasitoids. A twig-boring beetle larva, chalcidoid parasitoids and seed wasps of the families Eurytomidae, Ormyridae and Eupelmidae were also recorded.

El presente trabajo, tiene como finalidad identificar las fuentes de alimentación de Panstrongylus herreri procedentes de la localidad de Cajaruro (Utcubamba-Amazonas), donde se señala su presencia en ambientes domésticos y está considerado como vector principal de la Enfermedad de Chagas en el nororiente del Perú. Para ello, se planteó utilizar la prueba de precipitación en tubo capilar conocida como prueba de precipitina, desarrollado en fase líquida; esto nos brinda información acerca del tipo de sangre ingerida por el vector. Para la prueba de precipitación, se empleó como antígeno el contenido intestinal del triatomino y como anticuerpo el antisuero precipitante obtenido de conejos inmunizados con suero de humano, perro, gato, cobayo y pollo. El trabajo consta de dos etapas: en la primera etapa se estandarizó la preparación de antisueros que contenían a los anticuerpos precipitantes, asimismo se utilizó ninfas de Triatoma infestans del IV y V estadío criadas en el laboratorio, las cuales fueron alimentadas con sangre de perro, cobayo y hombre, determinándose el rendimiento de la prueba en cuanto a su sensibilidad y especificidad, y en la segunda etapa se evaluaron ejemplares de Panstrongylus herreri procedentes de dos localidades (El Ron y Hebrón) del distrito de Cajaruro, departamento de Amazonas, a través de la prueba ya estandarizada.
The current work has the finality of identify the feeding sources of Panstrongylus herreri obtained from the location of Cajaruro (Utcubamba-Amazonas) where its presence distinguishes in domestic environments and is considered to be a principal vector of Chagas's disease in the nor east of Peru. For it, we propose to use the test of capillary tube precipitation known as precipitin test, developed in liquid phase; this give to us information over the type of blood consumed by the vector. For the precipitation test, there was used the intestinal content of the triatomine bugs as antigen and as antibody the precipitated antiserum obtained of rabbits immunized with human, dogs, cats, guinea-pigs and chickens serums. The work consists of two stages: In the first stage there was standardized the preparation of antiserums that contains the precipitated antibodies, likewise there was used nymphs of Triatoma infestans of IV and V stages maintained in the laboratory, which were fed with dog, guinea-pig and human blood, resolving the yield of the test as his sensibility and specificity, and in the second stage there were evaluated specimens of Panstrongylus herreri proceeding from two localities (El Ron and Hebrón) from Cajaruro's district, department of Amazonas, through the test already standardized.
Tesis

Background: Malaria remains a serious threat in the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS), not just from the direct impact on human health, but also from the emergence and spread of resistance to artemisinin, the last remaining effective antimalarial. Malaria control in this region is therefore a high priority on a global as well as local scale. In the southern region of the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) as across much of the GMS malaria vectors are found biting outdoors in the early evening before people are protected by long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLlNs). Therefore there is a need for additional malaria control tools that can protect people during these evening hours. Methods: Human landing catches in a village setting in southern Lao PDR were used to evaluate the protection from evening biting given by repellent lotions containing 10-20% N,Ndiethyl-m-toluamide (DEET). A randomised controlled trial was designed to test the effect of 15% DEET against malaria. A total of 1,597 households were recruited and randomised to either the repellent or a placebo lotion. All households were also provided with LLiNs. The acceptance and compliance with the repellent lotion was assessed through exit questionnaires and focus group discussions (FGDs). A meta-analysis was then carried out to put the results from the Lao PDR in context with other repellent trials. Findings: All DEET concentrations provided at least 96% protection from evening biting over five hours. However 15% DEET was determined to be the best choice of intervention over 10% DEET after also considering the results of other similar trials. Intention to treat analysis of the randomised controlled trial found no difference between treatment arms after accounting for gender and socio-economic status (incidence rate ratio 0.96, 95% confidence interval 0.54- 1.71, p=O.886). According to protocol analyses of participants who used the lotions over 90% of the time also found no effect from repellent use after other factors had been taken into account (incidence rate ratio 1.45, 95% confidence interval 0.53-3.99, p=0.467). The most important predictor of malaria incidence was socio-economic score which indicated that lower wealth was significantly associated with an increased malaria risk. Although the repellent was well received with over 90% of participants reporting that they liked using the lotions, compliance was still low with fewer than 60% of participants using the lotions more than 90% of the time. It emerged from FGDs that the assumption that local populations were protected from night biting if they were provided with LLiNs was not always true. Adult men and children reported spending time outdoors at night hunting and fishing. The protection from malaria by repellent use in this trial was lower than in other randomised controlled trials carried out in Bolivia, Pakistan and Tanzania. The meta-analysis found that repellent use was associated with a 33% reduction in P. falciparum incidence (95% CI 0.42-1.09, p=O.l1) and a 35% reduction in P. vivax incidence (95% CI 0.18-2.34, p=0.51), however neither figure reach significance. Interpretation: Limitations of this trial include the compliance level which was lower than in other trials. In addition the variability inherent in topical repellents may make them unsuitable for use as an intervention. The outcome of this trial shows that topical insect repellent is not a suitable wide-scale intervention against malaria and does not provide significant protection over and above LLiNs in an area of outdoor biting. However, repellents do undoubtedly reduce biting and therefore their potential to be effective intervention tools remains. Future work should concentrate on forms of repellent that can be better standardised such as impregnated clothing. If successful then further research into mosquito response to repellent is recommended including, where best to apply and the potential for the development of resistance.

Little is known about the behavioral patterns of honey bee queens. To determine if mated honey bee queens possess diel rhythmicity in behavior, we observed them in glass-sided observation hives using three types of observation regimes: focal studies consisting of 2-hour and 24-hour continuous observations as well as scan-sampling of multiple queens. All behaviors (active: walking, inspecting, egg-laying, begging for food, feeding, and grooming self; inactive: standing) occurred at all times of day and night, but no queen showed consistent diel rhythmicity in any of the individual behaviors. There were no consistent diel differences in active versus inactive behaviors or the number of bees in the queen's retinue. This arrhythmicity was unchanged despite daily changes in both light and temperature levels. The arrhythmic behavior observed by most of the honey bee queens inside the colony appears to be similar to that exhibited by worker bees before they initiate foraging behavior.

In 2004, North Carolina supplied 46% of the nations' sweetpotato and generated 79 million dollars for the state but of the 16,000 ha in production that year; only 405 ha were managed according to federal organic standards. A three-year field experiment was initiated in 2001 to evaluate organic sweetpotato ?Beauregard? production systems that varied in cover crop management and tillage. Three organic systems including 1) compost and no cover crop with tillage (Org-NC), 2) compost and cover crop incorporated prior to transplanting (Org-CI), and 3) compost and cover crop with reduced tillage (Org-RT) were compared to a conventionally managed tilled and chemical control (Conv) production system using a randomized complete block design with six replications. All sweetpotato tissue macro and micronutrient concentrations were within sufficiency ranges defined by North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services. Sweetpotato N (4.6%), P (0.5%), and K (4.3%) tissue concentrations were greater in Org-CI compared to remaining systems at 60 DAP in 2004. Monocot and dicot weed density and biomass were similar between Org-NC and Org-CI each year, and with few exceptions were similar to Conv. In Org-RT, high monocot weed density limited sweetpotato vine above ground biomass (154 g m^-2) and total yield 11.2 Mg ha^-1) in 2002. In 2001, the percentage of No. 1 grade roots was at least 19% greater in Org-CI (65 %) and Org-NC (62 %) than Conv (50 %). In 2002, the percentage of No. 1 roots was similar among Org-CI (74 %), Org-NC (71 %) and Conv (67 %) and similar among systems in 2004. Root quality was assessed based on degree of insect damage by wireworm-Diabrotica-Systena (WDS) complex. In 2001, Org-RT had the highest percentage of marketable roots (68 %) compared to remaining systems (19-43 %). The number of marketable roots was similar among systems in 2001 and 2004, but reduced in Org-RT (1.3 Mg ha^-1) compared to remaining systems. Means of wireworm (Melanotus and Conoderus spp.) densities per trap were significantly correlated with degree of root damage. Overall, organic systems performed as well as the conventionally managed system in at least one or more areas.

Memoria para optar al Título Profesional de: Ingeniero en Recursos Naturales Renovables
La deforestación y fragmentación de los bosques nativos son una amenaza a la biodiversidad, alterando la biota e interacciones ecológicas. En el bosque Maulino, la herbivoría sobre Aristotelia chilensis (maqui) es negativamente afectada por la fragmentación del bosque, siendo mayor en el bosque continuo que en los fragmentos, particularmente a inicios de la temporada de crecimiento. Este fenómeno puede deberse a cambios en la dinámica de las poblaciones de defoliadores, esencialmente insectos. En este trabajo se evaluó la abundancia, riqueza de especies y composición de insectos defoliadores de actividad nocturna presentes en A. chilensis en un bosque continuo (600 ha) y en ocho fragmentos remanentes (0,4- 20 ha). Los muestreos se realizaron mensualmente, entre agosto de 2005 y febrero de 2006, en 32 ejemplares adultos de A. chilensis en el bosque continuo y en 32 ejemplares en los fragmentos. Los insectos fueron muestreados durante las 5 primeras horas después del anochecer. En cada árbol, durante 10 min se observaron todas las hojas de 5 ramas, colectando los insectos presentes. Además, se utilizó el método de sacudido de follaje y paraguas entomológico. Se colectaron 890 insectos defoliadores, pertenecientes a 17 familias y 77 especies de Coleoptera, Orthoptera y Lepidoptera. El 93,5% de las especies fueron identificadas a nivel de especie o morfoespecie, siendo todas nativas. La abundancia total no varió según el hábitat. Sin embargo, a nivel de orden, familia o especie hubo un efecto de la fragmentación taxón-dependiente. La riqueza de especies por árbol tampoco fue afectada por la fragmentación del bosque, aunque el número total de especies fue considerablemente mayor en los fragmentos que en el bosque continuo. La similitud de especies fue mayor dentro del bosque continuo que entre el bosque continuo y los fragmentos o que entre los fragmentos. A principios de la temporada (Septiembre), la abundancia de Sericoides obesa, insecto muy voraz, fue significativamente mayor en el bosque continuo que en los fragmentos. Al avanzar en la temporada, Chrysomelidae y Sericoides viridis se hicieron más abundantes en los fragmentos. Estos insectos serían los principales responsables de los patrones de defoliación de A. chilensis en el bosque Maulino.
In this work, the effect of the Maulino forest fragmentation on the abundance, species richness and composition of nocturnal defoliating insects associated with A. chilensis was evaluated. The insects were sampled every month, between August 2005 and february 2006, in 32 A. chilensis trees located in a continuous forest (600 ha) and in 32 trees from eight forest fragments (0,4- 20 ha). Sampling was carried out during the first 5 hours after dusk. 890 defoliating insects from 17 families and 77 species of Coleoptera, Orthoptera and Lepidoptera were collected. All species were native. The total abundance did not vary with habitat fragmentation. Nevertheless, at the ordinal, family or species level there was a taxon-dependent habitat fragmentation effect. The species richness per tree did not vary with forest fragmentation, though the total number of species was considerably higher in the forest fragments. The species similarity was higher within the continuous forest than between the continuous forest and fragments or between the fragments. At the beginning of the season (September), the abundance of Sericoides obesa, a very voracious folivorous species, was significantly higher in the continuous forest than in the forest fragments. Later in the season, Chrysomelidae and Sericoides viridis became more abundant in the forest fragments. These insects seem to be responsible of the defoliating patterns of A. chilensis at the Maulino forest.

An drei Standorten wurde die schädlingsregulierende Wirkung einer Raps-Rübsen-Mischsaat (Verhältnis 9:1) gegenüber einer Raps-Reinsaat bewertet. Des Weiteren wurden naturstoffliche und nach § 6a PflSchG selbst hergestellte Pflanzenschutzmittel als auch eine Käfersammelmaschine zur Regulierung der Stängelrüssler (Ceutorhynchus spp.) und des Rapsglanzkäfers (Meligethes aeneus F.) in Labor- und Freilandversuchen angewandt. In der Mischsaat war die Schaderregerabundanz gegenüber der Reinsaat zumeist erhöht. Diese führte zu einem teils signifikant stärkeren Schaderregerbefall der Rapspflanzen in der Mischsaat. Die Mischsaat erbrachte zudem einen teils signifikant geringeren Kornertrag. Natur-Pyrethrum und Spinosad führten im Labor zu deutlich erhöhten Mortalitäten bei den Stängelrüsslern. Im Freiland war kein Effekt erkennbar. Bei der Regulierung der Rapsglanzkäfer wies Spinosad in Feld- und Laborversuchen Wirkungsgrade bis zu 100 % auf. Gespritztes Gesteinsmehl und SiO2 zeigten einen nur geringen Effekt. Für die gleichmäßige Benetzung der Pflanzen mit diesen Präparaten kommt der Formulierung der Pflanzenschutzbrühe und der wiederholten Applikation eine hohe Bedeutung zu. Ökonomisch sind mehrfache Applikationen jedoch abzulehnen. Gestäubtes Gesteinsmehl und die Käfersammelmaschine sind aus Praktikabilitätsgründen nicht geeignet zur Regulierung der Rapsglanzkäfer. Ebenso wenig geeignet sind Quassin, Azadirachtin oder ein Bacillus thuringiensis-Präparat (B.t.t.). Mit Ausnahme einer Spinosad Applikation erzielte keine Pflanzenschutzmaßnahme einen wirtschaftlichen Mehrertrag. Stickstoffmangel und Unkrautkonkurrenz scheinen im ökologischen Rapsanbau häufig stärker auf die Limitierung der Kornerträge zu wirken als ein leichter bis mittlerer Schädlingsbefall. Je besser die Nährstoffversorgung und je geringer die Unkrautkonkurrenz, desto eher kann durch Pflanzenschutz ein wirtschaftlicher Mehrertrag realisiert werden. Die nötigen Pflanzenschutzkonzepte fehlen jedoch weiterhin.
On three sites the pest-regulating effect of a rape-turnip rape mixed cropping system (ratio 9:1) in comparison to rape in pure stand was assessed. Further, natural and self-produced natural insecticide solutions (§ 6a Plant Protection Act) and a beetle collecting machine to regulate the stem weevils (Ceutorhynchus spp.) and the pollen beetles (Meligethes aeneus F.) were applied in laboratory and field experiments. Compared to the fields in pure stand the mixed crop showed a significantly greater abundance of pests. This resulted in a sometimes significantly greater pest infestation of the rape plants in the mixed crop. Furthermore, the mixed crop often had a significantly lower grain yield. The use of natural pyrethrum and Spinosad resulted in significantly higher mortality rates of the stem weevils in laboratory tests. Under field conditions no effect could be detected. In the regulation of the pollen beetles, Spinosad demonstrated under field and laboratory conditions efficiencies of up to 100 %. Sprayed mineral powder or SiO2 had only a slight effect. For a uniform wetting of the plants with these compounds the formulation of the phytosanitary broth and its repeated application are important factors. From an economic perspective, however, repeated applications are inefficient. For reasons of practicality rock-dusted flour and the beetle-collecting machine are not suitable for pollen beetle regulation. Quassin is just as inappropriate as Azadirachtin, or Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.t.) for the regulation of the pollen beetle. With the exception of one Spinosad application, no protection measure provided an economic surplus. Nitrogen deficiency and weeds seem to more frequently limit grain yield than slight to moderate pest infestation levels. The better the nutrient supply and the lower the weed competition, the more likely by crop protection can be realized an economic surplus. Adequate crop protection strategies, however, have not yet been developed.

Orientador: Sergio de Freitas
Banca: Valmir Antonio Costa
Banca: Angélica Maria Penteado Martins Dias
Banca: Francisco Jorge Cividanes
Banca: Sergio Antonio de Bortoli
Resumo: O objetivo deste trabalho foi realizar um levantamento de parasitóides associados à Leptopharsa heveae (Hemiptera: Tingidae) em talhões de seringueiras de cultivo na fazenda da empresa "Plantações E. Michelin Ltda.", município de Itiquira - MT (17º22'23''S, 54º44'23''W). Foram realizados três ensaios para determinar a ocorrência, porcentagem de parasitismo e flutuação populacional da praga e parasitóides em talhões com e sem aplicação de produtos fitossanitários. Também foi verificada a influência a idade da folha de seringueira na oviposição de L. heveae e na ocorrência de parasitóides e a distribuição espacial de parasitóides nos lados dos talhões, em cinco clones de seringueira (RRIM 600, PR 255, PB 217, PB 235 e GT 1). Nos ensaios realizados eram coletadas folhas maduras (completamente expandidas), sendo demarcadas as áreas contendo os ovos de L. heveae, do terço inferior da copa de árvores dos cinco clones estudados. No ensaio correspondente à influência da idade das folhas, além de folhas maduras, eram coletadas folhas intermediárias (semiexpandidas e verde-claras) e novas (não expandidas e arroxeadas). Em todos os ensaios realizados a espécie Erythmelus tingitiphagus (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) foi a mais abundante e freqüente. A porcentagem de parasitismo de E. tingitiphagus sobre ovos de L. heveae variou entre 13,8% no clone PB 235 a 30,8% no RRIM 600 em condições naturais. Os picos populacionais de L. heveae e de E. tingitiphagus deram-se nos meses de outubro e novembro nas áreas estudadas. Verificou-se que a distribuição de E. tingitiphagus ocorreu de maneira eqüitativa nos lados dos talhões, com tendência a concentrar-se no centro dos mesmos. A oviposição de L. heveae é maior em folhas maduras em relação às intermediárias e novas.
Abstract: The objective of this work was to make a survey of parasitoids associated with Leptopharsa heveae (Hemiptera: Tingidae) in lots of rubber trees cultivation on the farm of the company "Plantações E. Michelin Ltda.", municipality of Itiquira - MT (17º22'23'', 54º44'23''W). Three experiments were made to determine the occurrence, percentage of parasitism and population flotation of the pest and parasitoids in lots with and without application of pesticides. Also the influence of the age of the rubber tree leaf was verified in the oviposition of L. heveae and in the parasitoids occurrence and the space distribution of parasitoids beside the lots, in five rubber tree clones (RRIM 600, PR 255, PB 217, PB 235 and GT 1). Through the experiments made, ripe leaves were collected (completely expanded), being demarcated the areas containing L. heveae's eggs, of the inferior third of the canopies of the five studied clones. In the experiment corresponding to the influence of the age of the leaves, besides ripe leaves, intermediate leaves were collected (semi-expanded and light green) and new (unexpanded and purple). In all experiments made, the species Erythmelus tingitiphagus (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) was the most abundant and frequent. The percentage of parasitism of E. tingitiphagus on eggs of L. heveae varied between 13.8% in the PB 235 clone, to 30.8% in RRIM 600 in natural conditions. L. heveae's and E. tingitiphagus's population picks happened in the months of October and November in the studied areas. It was verified that that the distribution of E. tingitiphagus happened in an equal way in the sides of the lots, with tendency to concentrate in the center of themselves. The oviposition of L. heveae is larger in ripe leaves related to the intermediate and new ones.
Doutor

La lucha contra plagas se realiza principalmente con productos químicos. Con ello, se abre la discusión respecto a la sostenibilidad de dicho método, por los diversos inconvenientes que presenta. Una alternativa de control y manejo de plagas, enfermedades y malezas es en forma biológica, que consiste en utilizar organismos vivos, como el uso de hongos entomopatógenos. No obstante, se debe tener en cuenta el posible impacto negativo de estos organismos en insectos benéficos del agroecosistema. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue evaluar, en condiciones controladas, la patogenicidad de distintas cepas de tres especies de hongos entomopatógenos procedentes de viñedos del oeste argentino: Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium robertsii y Paecilomyces lilacinus sobre el enemigo natural Harmonia axyridis y el polinizador Apis mellifera. Se incluyeron en el ensayo tres cepas comerciales de la especie B. bassiana, dos de ellas de procedencia italiana. Los bioensayos en laboratorio se realizaron bajo condiciones controladas de temperatura (24°C), humedad (>60%) y fotoperíodo (16:8), y se experimentaron tratamientos con suspensiones de 107. mL-1 UFC de cada una de las cepas. Las técnicas de inoculación fueron por aspersión directa y por contacto para ambas especies de insecto, se incluyó también el tratamiento por transferencia en A. mellifera, al ser un insecto social. Los resultados obtenidos en adultos de H. axyridis mostraron que ninguna de las cepas evaluadas en todos los bioensayos manifestó efecto patogénico, posiblemente por el robusto sistema inmunitario que la especie ha desarrollado. En el caso de A. mellifera se observó que en los métodos de infección por aspersión y contacto sólo ciertas cepas tuvieron acción patogénica sobre los adultos del polinizador, por transferencia no hubo transferencia del hongo. Los resultados obtenidos refuerzan la alternativa de utilizar las cepas evaluadas para el control de plagas, siendo necesario estudios más detallados de la patogenicidad en condiciones de campo.
Fil: Segura Zuin, María Josefina. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias.

Evalúa la actividad biocida in vitro y en campo mediante el método de aspersión directa del extracto acuoso liofilizado de la corteza de Hura crepitans sobre los fitopatógenos del algodonero Aphis gossypii pulgón de la melaza y Bemisia tabaci mosca blanca. Se realizó el estudio fitoquímico cualitativo y cuantitativo, análisis por espectrofotometría UV y por HPLC de los metabolitos presentes en la corteza de Hura crepitans. Los resultados obtenidos fueron analizados por el método Probit, éstos demuestran que Hura crepitans tiene actividad biocida sobre Aphis gossypii con un CL50 de 0.156 (mg/mL). La dosis efectiva en el estudio in vitro fue de 50mg/mL. Con respecto al estudio en campo, la dosis probada y efectiva fue de 2.85mg/mL. El extracto acuoso de la corteza de Hura crepitans no presentó actividad biocida sobre Bemisia tabaci. Los metabolitos encontrados fueron: rutina, saponinas y otros compuestos fenólicos. En conclusión el extracto acuoso de la corteza de Hura crepitans presenta actividad biocida sobre Aphis gossypii a nivel de laboratorio y en campo pero no tiene actividad biocida sobre Bemisia tabaci.
Tesis

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)
Plantacoes E. Michelin Ltda.
O objetivo deste trabalho foi realizar um levantamento de parasitóides associados à Leptopharsa heveae (Hemiptera: Tingidae) em talhões de seringueiras de cultivo na fazenda da empresa “Plantações E. Michelin Ltda.”, município de Itiquira – MT (17º22’23’’S, 54º44’23’’W). Foram realizados três ensaios para determinar a ocorrência, porcentagem de parasitismo e flutuação populacional da praga e parasitóides em talhões com e sem aplicação de produtos fitossanitários. Também foi verificada a influência a idade da folha de seringueira na oviposição de L. heveae e na ocorrência de parasitóides e a distribuição espacial de parasitóides nos lados dos talhões, em cinco clones de seringueira (RRIM 600, PR 255, PB 217, PB 235 e GT 1). Nos ensaios realizados eram coletadas folhas maduras (completamente expandidas), sendo demarcadas as áreas contendo os ovos de L. heveae, do terço inferior da copa de árvores dos cinco clones estudados. No ensaio correspondente à influência da idade das folhas, além de folhas maduras, eram coletadas folhas intermediárias (semiexpandidas e verde-claras) e novas (não expandidas e arroxeadas). Em todos os ensaios realizados a espécie Erythmelus tingitiphagus (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) foi a mais abundante e freqüente. A porcentagem de parasitismo de E. tingitiphagus sobre ovos de L. heveae variou entre 13,8% no clone PB 235 a 30,8% no RRIM 600 em condições naturais. Os picos populacionais de L. heveae e de E. tingitiphagus deram-se nos meses de outubro e novembro nas áreas estudadas. Verificou-se que a distribuição de E. tingitiphagus ocorreu de maneira eqüitativa nos lados dos talhões, com tendência a concentrar-se no centro dos mesmos. A oviposição de L. heveae é maior em folhas maduras em relação às intermediárias e novas.
The objective of this work was to make a survey of parasitoids associated with Leptopharsa heveae (Hemiptera: Tingidae) in lots of rubber trees cultivation on the farm of the company “Plantações E. Michelin Ltda.”, municipality of Itiquira – MT (17º22’23’’, 54º44’23’’W). Three experiments were made to determine the occurrence, percentage of parasitism and population flotation of the pest and parasitoids in lots with and without application of pesticides. Also the influence of the age of the rubber tree leaf was verified in the oviposition of L. heveae and in the parasitoids occurrence and the space distribution of parasitoids beside the lots, in five rubber tree clones (RRIM 600, PR 255, PB 217, PB 235 and GT 1). Through the experiments made, ripe leaves were collected (completely expanded), being demarcated the areas containing L. heveae’s eggs, of the inferior third of the canopies of the five studied clones. In the experiment corresponding to the influence of the age of the leaves, besides ripe leaves, intermediate leaves were collected (semi-expanded and light green) and new (unexpanded and purple). In all experiments made, the species Erythmelus tingitiphagus (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) was the most abundant and frequent. The percentage of parasitism of E. tingitiphagus on eggs of L. heveae varied between 13.8% in the PB 235 clone, to 30.8% in RRIM 600 in natural conditions. L. heveae’s and E. tingitiphagus’s population picks happened in the months of October and November in the studied areas. It was verified that that the distribution of E. tingitiphagus happened in an equal way in the sides of the lots, with tendency to concentrate in the center of themselves. The oviposition of L. heveae is larger in ripe leaves related to the intermediate and new ones.

Orientador: Tadeu de Siqueira Barros
Resumo: Esta tese busca entender a estruturação de comunidades de riachos em paisagens modificadas enquanto contabiliza possíveis assincronias entre ambas. Logo, ela questiona os pressupostos de que (i) é necessário incluir características das paisagens passadas para alcançar uma abordagem mais completa dos fatores estruturadores das comunidades atuais e (ii) alternativamente, de que lapsos temporais nas respostas das comunidades devem ser considerados para compreender a total magnitude dos efeitos de uma dada mudança da paisagem. Além disso, são explorados condicionantes relacionados à caracterização do histórico da paisagem, ao tipo de descritor da comunidade e à complexidade do sistema ecológico. Em seu primeiro manuscrito, esta tese confirma tais pressupostos enquanto apresenta o primeiro registro de respostas tardias de insetos aquáticos em região tropical. Nele, eu demonstro que padrões nas comunidades poderiam ser mais bem compreendidos quando o histórico é descrito com mais de uma característica (e.g., média histórica e trajetórias de perda e ganho de cobertura florestal) e que a detecção de respostas tardias varia de acordo com os descritores de comunidades estudados. Em seu segundo manuscrito, um modelo teórico foi testado admitindo múltiplas relações simultâneas e, predominantemente, indiretas para o sistema de estudo. Neste, além daqueles pressupostos, foram confirmados caminhos causais pelos quais a cobertura florestal e usos dos solos estruturam as comunidades. Com os c... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo)
Abstract: This thesis aims to understand the assembly of stream communities in modified landscapes by accounting for possible asynchronies between the two. In this way, it questions the assumptions that (i) it is necessary to include past landscape characteristics to reach a more complete approach of the structuring factors of current communities, and that (ii), alternatively, one should consider time lags in community responses to encompass the magnitude of the effects of a certain landscape change. In addition, drivers related to the characteristics of landscape history, the type of community descriptor and the complexity of the ecological system are questioned. In its first manuscript, this thesis confirms those assumptions and shows the first record of delayed responses of aquatic insects in the tropical region. In that, I show that patterns in communities could be better understood when landscape history is described with more than one characteristic (e.g., historical mean and loss and gain trajectories of forest cover) and that the detection of delayed responses varies according to the community descriptors. In its second manuscript, a theoretical model was tested admitting multiple simultaneous, and predominantly, indirect relationships in the study system. Then, in addition to the previous assumptions, causal pathways by which forest cover and land uses structure communities were confirmed. With the paths, empirical evidence that aquatic insect community assembling is affected ... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)
Doutor

Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) remains a highly invasive and ecologically damaging weed in South Africa, despite some 50 years of biological control efforts. Lack of success has been ascribed to varietal differences, climate and predation of agents but these have not been tested. In this study, the effects of ant predation were tested on populations of three biological control agents for L. camara. Colonies of two species, Crematogaster sp. 1 and 2 were investigated. Crematogaster sp. 1 colonies were offered no choice between immature stages of the agents Hypena laceratalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Falconia intermedia Distant (Hemiptera: Miridae) or Teleonemia scrupulosa Stål (Hemiptera: Tingidae) on lantana shoots. Density-dependent predation on F. intermedia and T. scrupulosa nymphs on lantana shoots was tested using Crematogaster sp. 2 colonies. In choice experiments Crematogaster sp. 2 colonies were offered F. intermedia or T. scrupulosa nymphs on potted lantana plants. Preliminary food trials confirmed that colonies foraged for protein, thereby validating results of no-choice experiments. Crematogaster sp.1 foragers removed 50% of F. intermedia nymphs, followed by 45% of H. laceratalis larvae and only 9% of T. scrupulosa nymphs. Foragers recruited most actively to H. laceratalis larvae and significantly more H. laceratalis biomass was removed than either F. intermedia or T. scrupulosa. A trade-off existed in prey size selection because larger larvae provided considerably more biomass but required forager cooperation and a longer time to subdue than did smaller prey. This increases both forager energy expense and mortality risk by other predators. This study showed that all Crematogaster sp. 1 colonies removed small (≤10mm) H. laceratalis larvae more frequently than larvae larger than 10mm. Thus, of these biological control agents, predators probably prefer small H. laceratalis larvae. Significantly more F. intermedia than T. scrupulosa nymphs were removed by Crematogaster sp. 1, while Crematogaster sp. 2 colonies removed comparable numbers of both agent species. Falconia intermedia nymphs' fast movement triggered a predatory response by these ant species. In contrast, the relatively immobile behaviour of T. scrupulosa nymphs was identified as a highly effective predator avoidance strategy. Since T. scrupulosa nymphs are unable to escape predators by moving, they appear to depend on the presence of alternative prey attracting predator attention. At high agent and/or forager density, T. scrupulosa nymphs attempted escape, but foragers identified them as prey once they moved and caught them. Predation on F. intermedia was also density dependent in that at high nymph and/or forager densities, escape routes were congested and nymphs were more easily caught. Survival of F. intermedia and T. scrupulosa nymphs in particular was low on ant-accessed shrubs in choice experiments and high on ant-excluded shrubs. It is likely that ants significantly depress F. intermedia populations in the field since besides predation, ant foragers probably interrupt F. intermedia feeding and ovipositioning. The combination of parasitism and predation on early instar larvae may explain why H. laceratalis occurs across lantana's range in South Africa but populations remain low. It is unlikely that T. scrupulosa nymphs are habitually preyed on by ant species unless they attract attention by being mobile. Although biological control of L. camara is influenced by climate and physiological defence mechanisms, this study has shown that predation by two ant species severely impacts leaf-feeding agents for L. camara. Thus, it is recommended that future selection of additional agents to control lantana should exclude leaf-feeding .

碩士
國立嘉義大學
生物資源學系研究所
106
Three varieties of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.), TNG 57, TNG 66 and TNG 72, were planted in Yunlin county in the way of the healthy management for diseases and insect pests. The experimental field was divided into the healthy management and organic materials (control) plots. The yellow sticky papers and sex pheromone-baited traps were used to survey adult densities and peak period of insect pests and nature enemies in the spring and autumn seasons. By using yellow sticky papers in both healthy management and organic materials (control) plots, the results showed that the peak periods of Aleyrodidae insect pests of two plots in spring cropping were both from mid-May, and the number adults were respectively 270.2 and 190.8 / paper. In autumn cropping, these were early-October and mid-October, and the number adults were respectively 263.0 and 231.4/paper. The peak periods of Cicadellidae insect pests of the two plots in spring cropping were late-March and mid-May, and the number adults were respectively 61.4 and 99.2/paper. In autumn cropping, these were mid-November and late- November, and the number adults were respectively 93.6 and 81.1/paper. For the Thripidae insect pests, in spring cropping the peak periods were both from mid-May, and the number adults were respectively 68.2 and 69.1/paper. In autumn cropping, these were both from early-October, and the number adults were respectively 525.7 and 457.3/ paper. In the two plots, yellow sticky papers were used to investigate the peak periods of natural enemies, it was found that the numbers of Braconidae parasitoids in spring cropping were respectively 3.9 and 7.3/paper in early-June. In autumn cropping, these were respectively 24.0 and 16.5/paper in mid-November. The numbers of Tachinidae parasitoids in spring cropping were respectively 2.2 and 1.9/paper in mid-July and late-April, and in autumn cropping these were respectively 37.1 and 36.8/paper in mid-November. The numbers of Coccinellidae predators in spring cropping were respectively 3.2 and 2.1/paper in mid-May, and in autumn cropping these were respectively 6.3 and 6.0/ paper in late-December. By using sex pheromone-baited traps of Spodoptera litura in both plots, the results showed that the peak periods in spring cropping were both from early-June, and the number adults were respectively 702.5 and 1,203.0/trap. In autumn cropping, these were both in late-November, and the number adults were respectively 1,822.0 and 1,840.5/trap. By using sex pheromone-baited traps of Cylas formicarius in both plots, the results showed that the peak periods in spring cropping were in mid-April and mid-July, and the number adults were respectively 414.5 and 587.0/trap. In autumn cropping, these were both in late-November, and the number adults were respectively 183.5 and 252.5/trap. After 5.5months of growing in spring and autumn cropping, per 1 × 1 m2 of sweet potato roots were sampled, and it showed that the number of C. formicarius of TNG 66 in the organic materials (control) plot had the highest yield, which were respectively 42.0 and 20.0/m2, and the damaged root was the highest, which were respectively 17.6 and 6.3 %. The infested rate of southern blight (Sclerotium rolfsii) of three sweet potato varieties in spring cropping in the organic materials (control) plot were between 1.5-2.0, and in autumn cropping TNG 57 was the highest, which were respectively 30.3 and 13.3 %. As for the infested rate of foot rot disease (Phomopsis destruens) of sweet potato, it was only found on TNG 57 in spring cropping in the organic materials (control) plot, which was 3.3 %. The number of sweet potato tubers in the healthy management plot was higher than that in the organic materials (control) plot. In spring cropping of TNG 72 was 27.3/m2, and in autumn cropping of TNG 66 was 35.7/m2. The sweet potato tuber weight of TNG 66 in the healthy management plot in spring and autumn cropping was also the highest, which were 5,980 and 7,643.3 g/m2, but there were no significantly difference in the two plots. Therefore, planting sweet potato in Yunlin county with the healthy management and organic materials (control) plot all will have a certain level of yields, and TNG 66 in the healthy management plot will get a better yield.

Gene expression research is a valuable tool for investigating how gene regulation and expression control the underlying behaviors that structure a eusocial insect colony. However, labs that focus on ant research frequently keep ant colonies in the lab for ease of sampling. These laboratories typically do not attempt to completely emulate the ant's natural environment, and thus can expose the colonies to drastically different environmental conditions and food sources than they are used to in the wild. These shifts in diet and environment can cause changes in gene expression of the ants, affecting downstream behavioral and physiological systems. To examine the nature of these changes, colonies of the Argentine ant, Linepithema humile, (Mayr, 1868), were excavated from North Carolina and transferred to the lab, where they are sampled monthly. Illumina and qPCR analyses were conducted on forager samples to detect any changes in gene expression. Approximately six percent of the Argentine ant genome showed changes in gene regulation after six months in the laboratory environment. The subset of these genes examined via qPCR show that the expression of many genes are correlated with each other, indicating that these genes might be a part of a regulatory network. These findings showed that ant colonies kept in the lab experience changes in gene expression, resulting in downstream effects. Therefore, lab ant colonies are not necessarily representative of wild colonies when conducting experiments on the gene expression, behavior, and physiology of these colonies.

The affect on leaf area index (LAI) and net ecosystem production (NEP) of the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) (MPB) outbreak in British Columbia affecting lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) forests was examined from 1999 to 2008. The process-based carbon (C) cycle model – Boreal Ecosystem Productivity Simulator (BEPS) with remotely sensed LAI inputs was used to produce annual NEP maps, which were validated using field measurements. The annual NEP ranged from 2.43 to -8.03 MtC between 1999 and 2008, with sink to source conversion in 2000. The inter-annual variability for both LAI and NEP displayed initial decreases followed by a steadily increasing trend from 2006 to 2008 with NEP returning to near C neutrality in 2008 (-1.84 MtC). The resistance of LAI and NEP to MPB attack was attributed to ecosystem resilience in the form of secondary overstory growth and increased production of non-attacked host trees.

Con l’espressione “marketing internazionale” ci si riferisce a quell’insieme di attività adottate dall’impresa al fine di sviluppare o perfezionare la propria presenza sul mercato estero. Oggetto della presente ricerca è l’analisi degli aspetti problematici che tali attività sollevano sul piano giuridico: attraverso un approccio basato sull’integrazione della cultura economica del marketing d’impresa con quella più propriamente giuridica, l’indagine mira ad individuare le fattispecie di marketing rilevanti sotto il profilo giuridico e giuspubblicistico, ad analizzarne i profili che risultano più critici per l’impresa e proporre soluzioni concrete. La ricerca è stata condotta in collaborazione all’azienda Gruppo Meccaniche Luciani, che oltre ad essere un affermato fornitore di stampi per calzature, progetta design innovativi attraverso una sua articolazione organizzativa creativa, denominata Luciani LAB. L’impresa investe molto nell’innovazione, ed in questo senso, particolarmente significativo è stato l’acquisto di una potente stampante 3D, tecnologicamente all’avanguardia, che ha consentito all’azienda di progettare diversi prodotti, tra cui una borsa, realizzarli in prototipazione rapida, e successivamente renderli oggetto di specifiche campagne promozionali, illustrate nel presente lavoro. Viene evidenziato come queste rispecchino la peculiarità dell’approccio al marketing da parte della piccola/media impresa, descritto dalla dottrina maggioritaria come intuitivo ed empirico, distante da quello teorico e strategico del marketing management. La collaborazione con l’impresa partner del progetto ha costituito il riferimento principale per l’elaborazione del metodo con cui condurre la ricerca: l’azienda ha promosso i propri prodotti mediante diverse strumenti di marketing, come inserti pubblicitari su riviste, campagne di e-mail marketing e fiere di settore. Queste attività si distinguono tra esse non solo rispetto alle funzioni, alle differenti modalità con cui vengono impiegate e al pubblico cui si rivolgono, ma anche e soprattutto rispetto alla disciplina giuridica di riferimento: ognuna di esse infatti è regolata da un determinato complesso di regole e solleva questioni che si inseriscono in una specifica cornice giuridica. Al fine di giungere ad una sistematica trattazione dei profili giuridici connessi, si è scelto di classificare le diverse azioni di marketing in tre gruppi: quelle riferite alla comunicazione, quelle inerenti l’aspetto del prodotto e quelle che si riferiscono al cliente Per ognuna di queste aree si individua una precisa questione critica per l’impresa, e se ne trattano i profili problematici dal punto di vista giuridico. In relazione al primo gruppo, ovvero la comunicazione pubblicitaria d’impresa, si evidenziano le criticità connesse alla possibilità di tutelare giuridicamente l’idea creativa alla base del messaggio pubblicitario: si mette in discussione l’efficacia degli strumenti giuridici invocabili a sua tutela, in particolare della disciplina del diritto d’autore, della concorrenza sleale e dell’autodisciplina. Si prende come riferimento principale il contesto italiano, considerando la pluralità degli interessi pubblici, collettivi ed individuali coinvolti. Il secondo profilo d’indagine riguarda la disciplina giuridica riconducibile all’e-mail marketing, uno degli strumenti più diffusi di comunicazione digitale. L’invasività di questo sistema nella sfera personale dei destinatari impone l’adozione di adeguati rimedi da parte delle imprese per evitare di incorrere nella violazione delle disposizioni a tutela della privacy. Si trattano le diverse implicazioni derivanti dall’uso di tale strumento, in particolare quelle riferite al trattamento dei dati personali alla luce della normativa vigente in Italia e nell’Unione Europea, e connesse alle modalità di raccolta degli indirizzi e-mail dei destinatari potenzialmente interessati. Infine, la costante partecipazione alle fiere di settore da parte dell’azienda dimostra quanto l’esteriorità del prodotto costituisca uno strumento di marketing decisivo per la competitività aziendale, dunque grande è l’interesse dell’impresa a che il suo aspetto esteriore venga protetto dall’imitazione dei concorrenti. Il tema giuridico più significativo che lega il processo di marketing al prodotto dell’azienda è proprio la protezione legale del suo aspetto, ovvero la tutela del diritto esclusivo di utilizzarlo, e vietarne l’uso a terzi. L’aspetto di un prodotto può essere oggetto di protezione sulla base di diverse discipline che concorrono tra loro, sia a livello nazionale che sovranazionale, dei disegni e modelli, del marchio di forma, del diritto d’autore e della concorrenza sleale. Si è scelto di concentrare il lavoro, in particolare, sulla prima: si ricostruisce il quadro normativo e l’assetto degli interessi implicati dalla fattispecie, per arrivare ad evidenziare le principali criticità nell’interpretazione delle norme, sia a livello nazionale, che nell’Unione Europea. Si approfondiscono gli orientamenti di dottrina e giurisprudenza di alcune disposizioni chiave per l’applicazione della disciplina, quali gli artt. 6 e 7 del Regolamento CE, n. 6/2002, concernenti rispettivamente il «carattere individuale» e la «divulgazione», i due requisiti fondamentali per ottenere la registrazione e conseguente protezione giuridica del disegno. Tali nozioni sono soggette ad interpretazioni parzialmente difformi da parte dei giudici dei diversi Stati membri, e ciò contribuisce a minare l’applicazione omogenea della disciplina in tutto il territorio UE. In questo senso, viene messo in evidenza il ruolo chiave dell’orientamento della Corte di Giustizia dell’Unione Europea nell’interpretazione di tali concetti, avente l’effetto di uniformare l’approccio degli Stati. La Direttiva 98/71/CE ha introdotto la possibilità di cumulare la protezione conferita all’aspetto del prodotto dalla disciplina dei disegni e modelli con quella riconosciuta dalle altre normative. Tale previsione solleva questioni di rilievo sistematico e concorrenziale: ci si interroga su quali problemi di tipo sistematico e di concorrenza vengano sollevati dal riconoscimento su uno stesso prodotto della protezione sia come disegno che come marchio di forma, e sia come disegno che come opera dell’ingegno. In particolare nell’ambito del diritto dei marchi d’impresa e del diritto d’autore, le tutele hanno durata potenzialmente perpetua, diversamente dalla registrazione come disegno o modello, che garantisce la titolarità del diritto di utilizzare il proprio disegno in via esclusiva per un periodo limitato di massimo 25 anni. Questa differenza temporale rende il cumulo problematico sia a livello di coordinamento, che di concorrenza, poiché incentiva il sorgere di “monopoli creativi” sulle forme del prodotto. Il presente lavoro ha come obiettivo l’ampliamento della conoscenza sul tema del marketing con particolare riferimento ai profili giuridici che si pongono, con riguardo alla promozione del prodotto nell’ambito dell’Unione Europea. Si ritiene che il valore aggiunto e l’aspetto più originale della ricerca consista nella sua forte aderenza alla realtà della piccola/media impresa: tramite l’integrazione della ricerca giuridica e dello studio dei fenomeni di marketing si delineano i problemi pratici che questa si trova a dover affrontare nell’implementazione delle attività quotidiane di marketing. Tale indagine vuole essere utile a tutte le piccole/medie imprese che si trovano impreparate nell’affrontare le sfide poste dal marketing e nel conoscere le implicazioni giuridiche che da questo derivano.