Gotowe bibliografie tematyczne / Islamic norms

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  1. Artykuły w czasopismach
  2. Rozprawy doktorskie
  3. Książki
  4. Części książek
  5. Streszczenia konferencji
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Gotowa bibliografia na temat „Islamic norms”

Autor: Grafiati
Data publikacji: 29 marca 2025

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Artykuły w czasopismach na temat "Islamic norms"

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Ogundipe, Stephen Toyin. "CONTESTING NORMS". African Music : Journal of the International Library of African Music 11, nr 4 (27.02.2023): 73–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.21504/amj.v11i4.2457.

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Contemporary Islamic music in southwestern Nigeria has changed in the last decade and Yoruba Muslim listeners are experiencing music in new ways. This article explores various trends in contemporary Yoruba Islamic music in southwestern Nigeria. The Yoruba are predominantly in southwestern Nigeria and extend to parts of central Nigeria and the West African coast of the Republic of Benin. The article draws on purposefully selected, recorded compositions of Yoruba Islamic artists produced on compact discs between 1979 and 2020, YouTube Videos and in-depth interviews to yield a comprehensive view of the music. It employs Vejlgaard’s (2018) trendspotting theory as a theoretical framework to analyse the texts. It examines the tendencies that shape the re-articulation of religion through the “Muslim sound” and problematises an understanding of the direction of change in contemporary Islamic music. The article argues that contemporary Islamic music in southwestern Nigeria is a product of the quest for Islamic identity and the commodification of musical and social values. This argument puts in context the many dynamics behind the transformations in contemporary Islamic music in Nigeria. Muslim singers draw on the strength of Nigeria’s thriving urban culture industry by adopting production, circulation, and marketing strategies that sustain the commercially successful Nigerian entertainment industry. This development is part of a global reality of social change and modernity transforming Islamic consciousness.
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Abdul Rahman, Azhar, Mohd Azlan Yahya i Mohd Herry Mohd Nasir. "Islamic norms for stock screening". International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management 3, nr 3 (31.08.2010): 228–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17538391011072426.

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Armia, Muhammad Siddiq. "Implementing Islamic Constitutionalism: How Islamic Is Indonesia Constitution?" AL-'ADALAH 15, nr 2 (21.12.2018): 437. http://dx.doi.org/10.24042/adalah.v15i2.3389.

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Religious constitutionalism has recently become a global discussion. Such a trend arises as a result of several countries that have a majority of religious adherents declare their constitution based on certain religions. Thailand, for example, provides special norms about Buddhism (Buddhist constitutionalism), the Vatican has special norms about Catholicism (Catholic constitutionalism), India has special norms about Hinduism (Hindu constitutionalism), Saudi Arabia has norms specifically about Islam (Islamic constitutionalism), and so on. This article analyzes whether or not the Islamic principles have been adopted in the Indonesian Constitution. These principles consist of protecting religion, soul, mind, offsprings, and property. The author uses the five principles as a standard in measuring the entire Indonesian Constitution which constitutes to the teachings of Islam (Islamic constitutionalism). The implementation of Islamic constitutionalism can be identified through articles in the constitution. This study concluded that, in general, the Indonesian constitution could be considered to have agreed to Islamic constitutionalism, although in some cases it still needs to be actualized more.
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Wuryaningsih i Rini Safitri. "ISLAMIC FINANCIAL LITERACY AND THE INCLINATION TO USE ISLAMIC BANKS AMONG GENERATION Z IN INDONESIAN ISLAMIC UNIVERSITIES". iBAF e-Proceedings 11, nr 1 (27.11.2024): 791–809. http://dx.doi.org/10.33102/c9p27e61.

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This study aims to determine how Islamic financial literacy, attitudes, and subjective norms can influence the intentions of Muslim Generation Z in Indonesia. This survey study uses 558 Muslim Generation Z respondents throughout Indonesia. Data from this study were processed using SMART-PLS 4.0. The results of this study indicate that the three factors in this study, namely Islamic financial literacy, attitudes, and subjective norms, have a positive effect on the interests of Muslim Generation Z in Indonesia. In addition, this study also provides results that indicate that Islamic financial literacy cannot moderate the influence of attitudes and subjective norms on the interest in using Islamic banks. The results of this research imply further research to consider other factors that can influence the intention to use Islamic banks in terms of security, benefits, risks, and others. The results of this study imply the importance of Islamic financial literacy among Generation Z who are studying at university and for university managers to strengthen Islamic financial literacy to strengthen a better Islamic financial ecosystem in Indonesia. This study offers new insights into how Islamic financial literacy, attitudes, and subjective norms can influence the intentions of Muslim Generation Z in Indonesian Islamic Universities
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Stambakiyev, Nurzhan. "Religious-ethical Framework of Islamic Economics". Adam alemi 88, nr 2 (30.06.2021): 163–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.48010/2021.2/1999-5849.16.

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The article studies relation between ethics and economics to what role moral and economic principles play in Islamic economics. The article includes introduction, two sections and conclusion. The first section discusses a relation between ethical norms and economics. We attempted to critically analyze moral and ethical norms proposed by the western economists such as Jean-Baptiste Say, Leon Walras, Alfred Marshal in XIX century. Muslim social scientist Ibn Khaldun and French thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau proposed not to consider an individual only as economic unit but develop his other aspects and potential as part of their economic research. The second section considers how far ethical norms of Islamic economics were researched. The article emphasizes that norms and principles of Islamic economics derive from Quran and Sunnah, researches ethics of those economic principles. To be exact, we will determine that Islamic economics is based on fair trading, economic equality, property protection and scrutinize each that aspect. The research results will prove that moral and ethical norms play a crucial role in general economic science, ethical norms of Islamic economics consist an integral part of economic decisions and actions.
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Subky, A. Tajus, Syukri Abubakar i Arlisa Siti Zahra. "REKONSTRUKSI DAN ADAPTABILITAS TEORI PERTINGKATAN NORMA DALAM IJTIHAD PENEMUAN HUKUM ISLAM". FiTUA: Jurnal Studi Islam 5, nr 2 (13.12.2024): 94–112. https://doi.org/10.47625/fitua.v5i2.650.

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This research seeks to examine in depth the deepening and reconstruction of the theoretical concepts of norm development and legal discovery. This research will use a qualitative research method with a type of literature study that analyzes pre-existing theories, concepts and phenomena. The results of the research can be formulated as follows: first, Islamic law has a structure of levels of legal norms, but the validity of Islamic legal norms (syar'i law) is not formal validity which is determined by a higher norm underlying the creation of these norms, as is the theory of the formal validity of legal norms. Second, there are three hierarchical levels of basic norms in Islamic law 1). al-mabadi' al-asasiyyah/al-qiyam al-asasiyyah (basic principles of Islamic law/basic values of Islamic law), 2). al-usul al-kulliyyah (general principles/general principles of Islamic law), 3). al-ahkam al-far'iyyah /al-furu’ (detailed/concrete legal provisions). Third, the existence of a theory of increasing norms in Islamic law can answer the problems of Islamic law which are not only seen in taklifi and wad'i law which are concrete sharia law, but must be seen from the perspective of general principles of law and universal principles so that it can answer the problems of all people.
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Sudarsono, Heri, Akhsyim Afandi i Andika Ridha Ayu Perdana. "Determinants of Consumer Decisions to Adopt Islamic Banking Services in Indonesia". Amwaluna: Jurnal Ekonomi dan Keuangan Syariah 7, nr 1 (31.01.2023): 144–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.29313/amwaluna.v7i1.8214.

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This study examines the influence of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavior control, and religiosity on consumer intention to adopt Islamic bank services. This study used 550 respondents from 26 provinces in Indonesia. The study develops a structural equation model (SEM) to achieve its purpose. The results show that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceptions of behavioral control affect people's interest in adopting Islamic banking services. Likewise, awareness, uncertainty, suitability, and relative advantage, affect the intention of the consumer to adopt Islamic banks' services. In contrast, religiosity does not affect community interest in adopting Islamic bank services. Further, normative beliefs affect subjective norms and self-efficacy, whereas facility conditions affect perceived behavior control of consumers' intention to adopt Islamic banking services. Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavior control influence consumers' intention to adopt Islamic banking services. Accordingly, Islamic banks need to improve services to the public. Also, Islamic banks need to increase their understanding of religious religiosity to foster interest in adopting Islamic bank services
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Akgunduz, Ahmed. "The Values and Norms of Islam". Journal of Rotterdam Islamic and Social Sciences 1, nr 1 (1.01.2010): 1–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/jriss-2013-0008.

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AbstractIslamic Law is one of the broadest and most comprehensive systems of legislation in the world. It was applied, through various schools of thought, from one end of the Muslim world to the other. It also had a great impact on other nations and cultures. We will focus in this article on values and norms in Islamic law. The value system of Islam is immutable and does not tolerate change over time for the simple fact that human nature does not change. The basic values and needs (which can be called maṣlaḥa) are classified hierarchically into three levels: (1) necessities (Ḍarūriyyāt), (2) convenience (Ḥājiyyāt), and (3) refinements (Kamāliyyāt=Taḥsīniyyāt). In Islamic legal theory (Uṣūl al‐fiqh) the general aim of legislation is to realize values through protecting and guaranteeing their necessities (al-Ḍarūriyyāt) as well as stressing their importance (al‐ Ḥājiyyāt) and their refinements (taḥsīniyyāt).In the second part of this article we will draw attention to Islamic norms. Islam has paid great attention to norms that protect basic values. We cannot explain all the Islamic norms that relate to basic values, but we will classify them categorically. We will focus on four kinds of norms: 1) norms (rules) concerned with belief (I’tiqādiyyāt), 2) norms (rules) concerned with law (ʿAmaliyyāt); 3) general legal norms (Qawā‘id al‐ Kulliyya al‐Fiqhiyya); 4) norms (rules) concerned with ethics (Wijdāniyyāt = Aḵlāqiyyāt = Ādāb = social and moral norms).
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Karatash, Mustafa, i Rakhmanov Abdumukhtor Rejjabbaevich. "Islamic System Of Human Rights And Types Of Contracts In Islamic Law". American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology 03, nr 06 (12.06.2021): 147–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.37547/tajpslc/volume03issue06-22.

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The article deals with the application of the norms of Islamic law on obligations and contracts, particularly, principles of close to the moral values of our people, and calls on the parties to contracts to be honest and conscientious in their obligations, timely and proper execution, tolerance and generosity, at the same time some types of contacts in Islamic law such as muzaraba, musharaka and murabah are discussed in detail.
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Petersen, Marie Juul. "Translating global gender norms in Islamic Relief Worldwide". Progress in Development Studies 18, nr 3 (10.05.2018): 189–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1464993418766586.

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Based on a case study of Islamic Relief Worldwide (IRW), this article analyses organizational processes of norm translation, asking how IRW understands and employs global norms of gender equality. Approaching IRW as an organization positioned in between two different normative environments, the analysis explores the ways in which it seeks to align different sets of norms, balance between different kinds of expectations and create resonance with different audiences. In these processes, actors make use of a range of different strategies, including bridging, thinning and parallel co-existence, testifying to the complexities involved in translating organizational norms.
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Rozprawy doktorskie na temat "Islamic norms"

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Al-Ghazal, Nahed Mohammed. "Islamic norms and traditional forms : tha case of Tripoli". Thesis, Open University, 1992. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.316678.

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Alhomaidi, Asem. "Social norms and stock trading". ScholarWorks@UNO, 2017. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/2373.

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The dissertation consists of two essays. In the first essay we compare the performance of Islamic and conventional stock returns in Saudi Arabia in order to determine whether the Saudi market exhibits characteristics that are consistent with segmented markets and investor recognition effects. We sample the daily stock returns of all Saudi firms from September 2002 to 2015 and calculate important measures, including idiosyncratic volatility (Ang et al, 2006), market integration (Pukthuanthong and Roll, 2009), systematic turnover (Loughran and Schultz, 2005), and stock turnover and liquidity (Amihud, 2002). Integration tests report that Islamic stocks are more sensitive to changes in global and local macroeconomic variables than conventional stocks, supporting the hypothesis that the Islamic and conventional stock markets are segmented in Saudi Arabia. In addition, our results show that Islamic stocks have larger number of investors, lower idiosyncratic risk, higher systematic turnover, and more liquid than conventional stocks, which supports the investor recognition hypothesis. Our results provide new evidence on asset pricing in emerging markets, the evolving Islamic financial markets, and the potential impact of other implicit market barriers on global financial markets. In the second essay we examine the effects of shared beliefs and personal preferences of individual investors on their trading and investment decisions. We anticipate that the process of classifying stocks into Shariah compliant (Islamic) and non-shariah compliant (conventional) has an effect on investibility and acceptance of the stock especially by unsophisticated or individual investors. The wide acceptance of Islamic stocks between individual investors promote and facilitate the circulation of firm-specific information between certain groups of investors. Our results indicate that stock classification has an effect on the stock price comovement through increased stock trading correlation between the groups of Islamic investors. The commonality in preferences between Islamic stocks’ holders generate commonality in trading activity and in stock liquidity. We find that classifying a stock as an Islamic stock increases its price comovement with other Islamic stocks and also increases its commonality in liquidity.
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Shahabuddin, Charza. "La production de normes islamiques au Bangladesh : construction, négociations et violences". Electronic Thesis or Diss., Paris, EHESS, 2024. http://www.theses.fr/2024EHES0136.

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Avec 171 millions d’habitants dont 91% de musulmans sunnites (2024), le Bangladesh est le quatrième pays le plus peuplé de musulmans au monde. Ce jeune État-nation a gagné son indépendance en 1971 à l’issue d’une guerre qui, en séparant les musulmans du Pakistan occidental et oriental, a remis en cause la logique identitaire religieuse de la partition de 1947. Depuis lors, le cas du Bangladesh continue de se caractér iser par un rapport ambivalent du politique au religieux, dans la mesure où y coexistent le sécularisme comme principe constitutionnel (depuis 1972) et l’islam comme religion d’État (depuis 1988). Dans ce contexte, l’enjeu est de déterminer le rôle que joue l’islam dans la vie des citoyens, les musulmans, mais aussi les minorités ethniques et religieuses. S’il existe un consensus entre les fidèles et les principaux représentants de l’autorité religieuse islamique sur la pratique des cinq piliers de l’islam sunnite, la compétition pour établir sa propre normativité islamique a mené de nombreux entrepreneurs politiques et identitaires, des organisations islamistes, des citoyens et fidèles musulmans, des penseurs-libres, des organes étatiques, à construire, négocier et produire différentes normes islamiques. À partir de l’étude du Bangladesh, l’objet de cette thèse est d’analyser l’action et le rôle des différentes instances qui ont l’autorité de produire, valider ou rejeter ce qu’on appelle une norme islamique. Ces acteurs s’engagent dans des processus de négociations mais n’hésitent pas à recourir à la violence. Située à l’intersection de la sociologie politique et de l’anthropologie politique, s’appuyant sur neuf mois d’enquête de terrain [entre 2017 et 2023], cette thèse souligne que l’islam est une construction avant tout politique qui découle de l’action de ceux qui souhaitent produire et diffuser leurs normes islamiques, établir leur morale et représenter une autorité politico-religieuse légitime
With a population of 171 million, 91% of whom are Sunni Muslims (2024), Bangladesh is the fourth most populous Muslim country in the world. This young nation-state gained independence in 1971 following a war which, by separating the Muslims of West and East Pakistan, challenged the logic of religious identity of the 1947 partition. Since then, Bangladesh has been characterized by an ambivalent relationship between politics and religion, with secularism as a constitutional principle (since 1972) and Islam as the state religion (since 1988). In this context, the challenge is to define the role of Islam in the lives of citizens, not only Muslims but also ethnic and religious minorities. While there is a consensus between the faithful and the main representatives of Islamic religious authority on the practice of the five pillars of Sunni Islam, the competition to establish one's own Islamic normativity has led many identity and political entrepreneurs, Islamist organisations, Muslim citizens and believers, free thinkers and state bodies to construct, negotiate and produce different Islamic norms. Based on the study of Bangladesh, the aim of this thesis is to analyse the action and role of the various bodies that have the authority to produce, validate or reject what is known as an Islamic norm. These actors engage in negotiation processes but do not hesitate to resort to violence. Situated at the intersection of political sociology and political anthropology and based on nine months of fieldwork [between 2017 and 2023], this thesis emphasises that Islam is above all a political construct that stems from the actions of those who wish to produce and disseminate their Islamic norms, establish their morality and represent a legitimate politico-religious authority
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Al, Rifai Aroub A. Y. "Stakeholders and corporate philanthropy of non-economic nature in a developing country of intense Islamic beliefs, values and norms : an institutional framework". Thesis, Brunel University, 2013. http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/7647.

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The widespread use of Corporate Philanthropy (CP) in the US and the UK has resulted in a significant body of literature on the phenomena and its use. However, the literature generated around CP is criticised for being of an economic nature and for being biased toward the context of developed Western countries. This thesis suggests that the context of developing countries is important in relation to the non-economic nature of CP, due to the existence of intense religious beliefs and values. However, there has been little attempt to explicitly examine how the institutional pressures within this context shape the CP of a non-economic and more precisely of an altruistic nature, and how firms act in response to these influences. This thesis leverages institutional theory by proposing that stakeholders – including communities, competitors, NGOs and politicians – may impose coercive and mimetic pressures encouraging isomorphic field-level CP of a non-economic nature in a context of intense Islamic beliefs, values and norms. However, the way in which firms perceive and act upon these pressures may differ depending on specific factors related to the firm itself, including the identity of the firm, the competitive position of the firm, and shareholder pressures. These differences between firms result in the adoption of different CP strategies as decided by each firm, expressing its appropriate responses to field pressures. This study uses a qualitative methodology using data collected from 27 of the key personnel responsible for CP decisions (shareholders and managers) in the Kuwaiti banking sector. Questions were developed to assess the relationships between institutional pressures at the field and organisational levels of analysis. Data was collected through multiple sources such as in-depth interviews, documentation, and archival records. The contributions of the thesis are in relation to: a) the institutional theory; b) gaining more understanding of CP in developing countries; C) offering a robust understanding of altruistic CP influenced by an Islamic context; and d) practical implementations of CP in Islamic banks.
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Wilk, Alexander. "Blue gold : the utilisation of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System in light of Islamic norms and its impact on the emerging law of transboundary fossil aquifers". Thesis, University of Essex, 2016. http://repository.essex.ac.uk/20042/.

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The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System is one of the world’s largest transboundary fossil aquifers and stretches underneath the territories of the North African States of Egypt, Libya, Sudan and Chad. All four States have strong Islamic cultural backgrounds, and Egypt, Libya and Sudan have enshrined Shari'a as a fundamental source of law in their constitutions. This thesis assesses the extent to which the 2008 Draft Articles on the Law of Transboundary Aquifers, proposed to the UN General Assembly by the International Law Commission, are compatible with general principles of Islamic water law. Both the 2008 Draft Articles as the current culmination of international groundwater law and Islamic law suffer from certain shortcomings. Whilst the former lacks the same binding authority Islamic law enjoys and to date does not elaborate the potential issue of water commercialisation in water scarce regions, the latter lacks the transboundary perspective in relation to groundwater. This highlights the impact Islamic law could have on the on-going negotiations between the NSAS Aquifer States, whereby specific Islamic provisions could provide stepping-stones towards an innovative utilisation framework for the NSAS that adequately addresses the need for precaution and intergenerational equity, which, inter alia, could instil new impetus for a refined set of Draft Articles. An alternative future is likely to evolve along the lines of separate agreements and a more fragmented corpus of international law rather than a coherent body of codified international law on transboundary fossil aquifers, which would run counter to the International Law Commission’s objective.
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Khateb, Hamzi. "La responsabilité morale des convertis à l’islam, entre normes islamiques et laïcité". Thesis, Paris, Institut d'études politiques, 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017IEPP0032.

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Après la « ṧahada » (témoignage de foi), qui est le premier pilier de l’islam, la conversion impose au nouveau musulman d’obéir aux lois et aux règles inspirées du Qur’ân et de la tradition prophétique (Sunna). Un tel témoignage implique de suivre un ensemble de normes liées à la pratique religieuse qu’un musulman s’engage à respecter. Cette thèse analyse des cas de conversion, et tout en tenant compte des origines familiales et sociales de chaque converti. Elle s’est penchée sur les changements opérés dans la vie de ces nouveaux musulmans, suite à leur acte de conversion. Partant de là, la question posée est de savoir si, chez les convertis, un tel changement engendre des dilemmes avec les normes de vie antérieures, en vigueur dans un pays laïc, et si oui si ces dilemmes sont ou non durables ou intraitables. Ces dilemmes, loin de se limiter à quelques domaines précis (comme le port du voile, les prières etc.), s’étendent à une vision bien plus globale et plus générale, touchant le sujet dans sa complexité - autrement dit dans tous les domaines de son existence. Cette thèse a également pour objectif de préciser la vision portée globalement sur la place des convertis dans ce que l’on nomme « l’islam en France ». Or, cette vision suppose que l’islam est pensé en association avec l’immigration, alors que ces convertis, depuis un certain temps se multiplient en France, en n’étant pas des immigrés. Pour répondre à ces questions, cette thèse aborde la question de la responsabilité morale selon une approche en lien avec la sociologie de la morale et la sociologie des religions, en focalisant l’attention sur le respect des normes islamiques dans un pays laïc comme l’est la France
After the "ṧahada" (the testimony of faith), which is the first pillar of Islam, conversion requires the new Muslim to obey the laws and rules inspired by the Qur'ân and the prophetic tradition (Sunna). It implies following a set of norms related to the religious practice that a Muslim commits himself to respect. This thesis analyzes cases of conversion, while taking into account the family and social origins of each convert. It examines the changes in the lives of these new Muslims, following their conversion. From this point of view, the question is whether, in the case of converts, such a change leads to dilemmas related to the pre-conversion respect of norms in a secular country, and whether or not these dilemmas are sustainable or intractable. These dilemmas, far from being limited to a few specific areas (such as wearing the veil, prayers, etc.), extend to the much broader field of the subject’s existence, in its complexity. This thesis also aims at clarifying the overall vision of the place of converts in is the so-called "Islam in France". However, this vision assumes that Islam is thought in association with immigration, whereas these converts are not immigrants. In order to answer these questions, this thesis addresses the question of moral responsibility according to an approach related to the sociology of morality and the sociology of religions, focusing on the respect of Islamic norms in a secular country such as France
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Dionigi, Filippo. "The impact of international norms on Islamist politics : the case of Hezbollah". Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science (University of London), 2011. http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/3345/.

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In an increasingly interconnected global political sphere, Islamist political actors have undergone a process of transformation, notwithstanding the self-referential character of their ideology. The present study assesses to what extent international norms have influenced this process. The argument is that these norms challenge the self-referential character of Islamism and its communitarian assumptions. The thesis initially provides an overview of Islamist political theory with reference to Muḥammad ʿAbduh, Sayid Quṭb, Bāqir al-Ṣadr and Ruhollah Khomeini, and argues that Islamism is not a particularly original critique of liberalism, but can be considered a form of communitarianism. The study then focuses on the case of Hezbollah to substantiate the claim that international norms influenced Islamist politics. It conducts an empirical analysis of four instances of Hezbollah’s interaction with international norms. The norms in question are non-combatant immunity, human rights, and maintenance of international peace, whereas the fourth example provides a more general overview on the impact of international norms on Hezbollah’s political language. The case study shows that by interacting with international actors and state institutions, and by looking for legitimacy for its actions - not only vis-à-vis its community - but also within the international normative system; Hezbollah’s political identity was modified by the influence of international norms. International norms then challenge the communitarian assumptions underlying Islamist politics. They are important factors in the socialisation of Islamist actors within the international normative system and become constitutive elements of the political identity of Islamist movements such as Hezbollah.
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Fassatoui, Omar. "Biomédecine, religions et droit : étude comparative entre islam et judaïsme". Thesis, Aix-Marseille, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013AIXM1032.

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La biomédecine en tant que médecine nouvelle a changé plusieurs réalités dans son contexte occidental original. Dans d'autres contextes dans le monde où la religion est présente au niveau politique et légal, la question biomédicale peut être problématique puisqu'elle peut entrer en conflit avec la normativité religieuse ou la construction religieuse de la réalité sociale. Dans tous les contextes, il incombe au droit positif de répondre à la question biomédicale tout en trouvant un équilibre entre la demande de solutions médicales et les questions ethico-religieuses. L'analyse du droit de la biomédecine dans les contextes étudiées (Egypte, Israël, Tunisie) s'avère être intéressant à plus d'un niveau.D'abord lors de la production de la norme positive entre Etat et religion
Biomedecine as a new form of medecine changed many social realities its original context. In others conttexts of the world where religion is present on a political and legal level, biomedecine can be more that problematic as it may be in contradiction with religious rules or religious consturctions of social realities. In all contexts, it' is up to the law to solve these problems and find a way to balance the need for medical solutions and religious and ethical issues
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Khatib, Ahmed Sameer El. "Contabilidade islâmica: uma análise comparativa das diferenças e semelhanças entre as normas contábeis internacionais emitidas pelo AAOIFI e IASB". Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo, 2013. https://tede2.pucsp.br/handle/handle/1559.

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Most world countries communicates with investors and stakeholders about the corporate financial performance in accordance with the International Accounting Standards issued by the International Accounting Standards Board - IASB. A group of countries, however, are not comfortable with the adoption of these standards, because understanding that they wound their principles, as is the case in Islamic countries, where religion influences the economic and financial activities of the company. Some of these countries adopt and adhere to the rules contained in the Sharia ( Islamic Law ) which brings together , in one book , a guide to social conduct, moral , ethical , religious and economic , as well as aspects of finance . Such rules have emerged with the advent of Islam in the seventh century AD and are followed to the present day, being based, including for Islamic accounting standard setters of each country and the Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institution - AAOIFI, which promotes adoption of Islamic Standards of Accounting and Auditing for Islamic Financial Institutions - IFIs worldwide. Whereas research involving Islamic accounting in Brazil is still incipient and there is significant international importance , especially in relation to Islamic finance , given the volume of transactions that it focuses on an annual basis , as well as the existence of a body that issues accounting standards for IFIs , it was intended with this work to answer the following research question : What are the differences and similarities between Islamic Accounting Standards issued by AAOIFI and the International Accounting Standards issued by the IASB ? Therefore, the research involved, initially approach the characteristics and particularities of religion and Islamic finance, to then be about Islamic accounting. It has become necessary for meeting various research sources in the literature since the subject involving practically nonexistent in Brazil. We analyzed all 25 international accounting standards issued by AAOIFI by the year 2012 and the understandings of the IASB on related topics. It was concluded that there are differences in most standards, especially with regard to the Conceptual Framework, the basis for the issuance of regulations, hindering the adoption of IFRS by the Islamic Financial Institutions
A maior parte do mundo já se comunica com os investidores e as partes interessadas, sobre o desempenho financeiro corporativo, nos termos das normas internacionais de contabilidade, emitidas pelo International Accounting Standards Board - IASB. Existe um conjunto de países, entretanto, que não está confortável com a adoção dessas normas, por entender que elas ferem seus princípios, como é o caso dos países islâmicos, onde a religião influencia as atividades econômicas e financeiras da sociedade. Alguns desses países adotam e respeitam as regras contidas na Sharia (Lei Islâmica) que reúne, num só livro, um guia de conduta social, moral, ética, religiosa e econômica, bem como aspectos de finanças. Tais regras surgiram com o advento do islamismo no século VII d.C. e são seguidas até os dias atuais, sendo base, inclusive, para os normatizadores contábeis islâmicos de cada país e para o Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institution - AAOIFI, que promove a adoção das normas islâmicas de contabilidade e auditoria para as Instituições Financeiras Islâmicas IFIs espalhadas pelo mundo. Considerando que as pesquisas envolvendo contabilidade islâmica no Brasil ainda são incipientes e que existe significativa relevância internacional, sobretudo em relação às finanças islâmicas, dado o volume de operações que ela concentra anualmente, bem como a existência de um órgão que emite normas de contabilidade para as IFIs, pretendeu-se com esse trabalho responder a seguinte questão de pesquisa: Quais são as diferenças e semelhanças entre as Normas Islâmicas de Contabilidade emitidas pelo AAOIFI e as Normas Internacionais de Contabilidade emitidas pelo IASB? Para tanto, a pesquisa envolveu, inicialmente, uma abordagem das características e particularidades da religião e das finanças islâmicas, para em seguida versar sobre a contabilidade islâmica. Tornou-se necessária a reunião de várias fontes de pesquisa, na medida em que a bibliografia envolvendo o tema praticamente inexiste no Brasil. Foram analisadas todas as 25 normas internacionais de contabilidade emitidas pelo AAOIFI até o ano de 2012 e os entendimentos do IASB sobre os temas correlatos. Concluiu-se que existem diferenças na maioria das normas, especialmente no que diz respeito à Estrutura Conceitual Básica, base para a emissão dos normativos contábeis, dificultando a adoção das IFRS por parte das Instituições Financeiras Islâmicas
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Bakhshizadeh, Marziyeh [Verfasser], Ilse [Gutachter] Lenz i Stefan [Gutachter] Reichmuth. "Changing gender norms in islam between reason and revelation / Marziyeh Bakhshizadeh ; Gutachter: Ilse Lenz, Stefan Reichmuth". Bochum : Ruhr-Universität Bochum, 2018. http://d-nb.info/116530466X/34.

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Książki na temat "Islamic norms"

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Hashmi, Yusuf Abbas. Western ethical norms and Qur'anic responses. Karachi: Area Study Centre for Europe, University of Karachi, 1994.

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Johansen, Baber. Contingency in a sacred law: Legal and ethical norms in the Muslim fiqh. Leiden: Brill, 1999.

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Wani, M. A. Treatise on competing faith oriented family norms: Hindu, Christian, and Islamic principles. Noonamy, Kashmir: Upright Study Home, 1990.

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Achour, Yadh Ben. Normes, foi et loi. Tunis: Cérès Editions, 1993.

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Achour, Yadh Ben. Normes, foi et loi. Tunis: Cérès Productions, 1993.

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Astrid, Meier, Pahlitzsch Johannes i Reinfandt Lucian, red. Islamische Stiftungen zwischen juristischer Norm und sozialer Praxis. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2009.

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Astrid, Meier, Pahlitzsch Johannes i Reinfandt Lucian, red. Islamische Stiftungen zwischen juristischer Norm und sozialer Praxis. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2009.

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Farahat, Omar Mohamed Nour. Between God and Society: Divine Speech and Norm-Construction in Islamic Theology and Jurisprudence. [New York, N.Y.?]: [publisher not identified], 2016.

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Gimaret, Daniel. Les noms divins en islam: Exégèse lexicographique et théologique. Paris: Editions du Cerf, 1988.

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al-ʻArabī, Ibn. Le secret des noms de Dieu. Beyrouth, Liban: Dar Albouraq, 2010.

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Części książek na temat "Islamic norms"

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Tottoli, Roberto. "Ḥadīth and Muslim Dietary Norms". W Studies in Islamic Traditions and Literature, 91–105. London: Routledge, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003080756-8.

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Rane, Halim. "The Islamic Doctrines of War And Peace". W Reconstructing Jihad amid Competing International Norms, 135–58. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230620988_6.

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Sugie, Ai. "Do ‘Islamic Norms’ Impede Inclusive Development of Women?" W Inclusive Development in South Asia, 250–72. London: Routledge, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003304760-14.

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El Maghrebi, Nabil, Abbas Mirakhor, Tarık Akın i Zamir Iqbal. "Behavioural Norms and Institutional Structure of Iqtiṣād". W Palgrave Studies in Islamic Banking, Finance, and Economics, 241–84. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41134-2_7.

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Cesari, Jocelyne. "Salafization of Islamic Norms and Its Influence on the Externalization of Islam". W Why the West Fears Islam, 129–37. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137121202_7.

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Ahmed, Abdelrahman H. "The Impact of Attitude and Subjective Norms on Customers Behavior Toward Islamic Banking: Evidence from Palestine". W Research on Islamic Business Concepts, 53–69. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18663-9_4.

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Arifianto, Alexander R. "Moderate Islamic Organisations and Contestation Over Political Theology: The Responses by Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah Towards Islamism in Indonesia". W The Palgrave Handbook of Political Norms in Southeast Asia, 337–55. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9655-1_20.

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Sait, M. Siraj, i M. Adil Sait. "The paradox of Islamic land governance and gender equality." W Land governance and gender: the tenure-gender nexus in land management and land policy, 153–66. Wallingford: CABI, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/9781789247664.0013.

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Abstract The curious case of Islamic land perspectives in the context of African countries highlights the prospects and tensions in acknowledging distinctive Islamic land occurrences as part of the Islamic land governance or more broadly hybrid land governance regimes. Muslim customary land norms recall its history and context to produce land systems that appear more effective on the ground. These sociohistorical patterns mapping faithbased tenure contribute to additional types of land and property rights regimes that potentially increase access to land for women and marginalized groups. Examples from Kenya and Tanzania to Nigeria, Senegal and Somalia highlight that Islamic land perspectives cannot be seen as either homogeneous or existing in a vacuum. Shaped in various forms by customary practices, classical Islamic law, as well as colonial-era policies, Islamic land perspectives highlight the need for appropriate land governance. The paradox of 'Islamic' land governance is that while Islamic law has often been invisible and sometimes dismissed, it is an additional useful lens in rethinking the role of faith in land governance. The compelling and volatile relationship between Islamic land practices and governance query whether Islamic tenures need religious informed land governance to be effective.
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Roberts, Ryan J., i Andrew Collins. "Islamic Extremism and the Crystallization of Norms: AnAgent-Based Model of Prison Radicalization". W Proceedings of the 2018 Conference of the Computational Social Science Society of the Americas, 67–81. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35902-7_5.

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Arnakim, Lili Yulyadi. "Islamic Norms and Values in International Relations and Their Reinterpretation in AKP-Governed Turkey". W Islam and International Relations, 32–49. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-49932-5_2.

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Streszczenia konferencji na temat "Islamic norms"

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Hasanuddin, Muhammad, i Sofian Al-Hakim. "Institutionalization of Sharia Financial Norms in Indonesia". W 1st International Conference on Islamic Ecnomics, Business and Philanthropy. SCITEPRESS - Science and Technology Publications, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5220/0007077701060111.

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Baidhowi i Andry Setiawan. "Harmonization of Islamic Law Norms in Sharia Banking Laws". W Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Indonesian Legal Studies (ICILS 2019). Paris, France: Atlantis Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.2991/icils-19.2019.39.

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Nuruzade, Shahla. "Sharia and its place in the daily life of Azerbaijanis". W Development of legal systems in Russia and foreign countries: problems of theory and practice. ru: Publishing Center RIOR, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.29039/02061-6-212-218.

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The article is dedicated to Islamic law, where Islamic norms and traditions are formed in Azerbaijan. Sharia is primarily a complex of Muslim law established by the Quran and Sunnah. Although Azerbaijan is a secular state, Azerbaijanis still follow Sharia law in everyday life.
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Абдулагатов, З. М. "Islamic educational process in Dagestan: features and prospects". W РЕГИОНАЛЬНЫЕ АСПЕКТЫ СОЦИАЛЬНОЙ ПОЛИТИКИ, 31–46. Crossref, 2022. https://doi.org/10.34775/v4344-7606-6733-j.

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В статье показаны некоторые особенности исламского современного образовательного процесса в Республике Дагестан (РД). Приводятся результаты анализа официальной статистики исламского образовательного процесса в регионе, которая, по оценкам автора, весьма приблизительна в отношении примечетских школ и зарубежного исламского образования дагестанских мусульман. Подчеркивается роль примечетских школ в исламской социализации дагестанцев. Обобщаются результаты социологического опроса повыявлению роли исламского образования в развитии российского патриотизма дагестанцев. Делается вывод о том, что деятельность начального уровня исламского образования в республике необходимо ввести в русло правовых норм светского государства. The paper shows some features of the Islamic modern educational process in the Republic of Dagestan (RD). The results of the analysis of the official statistics of the Islamic educational process in the region are presented, which, according to the author, are very approximate in relation to madrassehs and foreign Islamic education of Dagestan Muslims. The role of madrassehs in the Dagestanis’ Islamic socialization is emphasized. The results of a sociological survey to identify the role of Islamic education in the development of Dagestanis’ Russian patriotism of the are summarized. It is concluded that the activities of the initial level of Islamic education in the republic must be brought into line with the legal norms of a secular state.
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Windiarti, Ika, Norcahyono Norcahyono i Agung Prabowo. "Digital Literacy for the Millennial Generation in Industrial Revolution 4.0 Era in Islamic Norms Perspective". W Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Islamic Civilization, ICIC 2020, 27th August 2020, Semarang, Indonesia. EAI, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4108/eai.27-8-2020.2303180.

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Aprilyana Sembiring, Idha, Edi Ikhsan, Rosnidar Sembiring i Yohanes Orlando. "Acculturation of Islamic and Buddhist Religious Norms in the Culture of the Akit Community in Rupat Island, Riau Province". W International Conference on Natural Resources and Sustainable Development. SCITEPRESS - Science and Technology Publications, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.5220/0009900100002480.

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Badriyah, Siti, R. Suharto, Siti Mahmudah, Bambang Turisno i Muhammad Wafi. "Conflict of Legal Norms Regarding Regulation of Creditors of Encumbrance Rights Holders in the Debtor's Bankruptcy in Indonesia". W The First International Conference On Islamic Development Studies 2019, ICIDS 2019, 10 September 2019, Bandar Lampung, Indonesia. EAI, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4108/eai.10-9-2019.2289383.

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Bartulović, Željko, i Naum Milković. "O SPECIFIČNOSTI PREDMETA PRAVNA POVIJEST RELIGIJSKIH ZAJEDNICA NA PRAVNOM FAKULTETU SVEUČILIŠTA U RIJECI". W MEĐUNARODNI naučni skup Državno-crkveno pravo. University of Kragujevac, Faculty of law, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.46793/dcp23.061b.

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In the paper, the authors analyze the need to carry out a legal course that deals with the organization and legal regulations of religious communities, especially those operating in the territory of the Republic of Croatia, in the legal study program. In their practice, lawyers encounter religious communities and their legal acts, and there is a need to become familiar with basic terms, legal institutes, norms that regulate this matter, and legal practices, including international ones. The question arises whether should be studied only one religious community and its canonical, legal regulations or several religious communities within the framework of the state. The "Rijeka" program includes several communities important for the Republic of Croatia according to numerical and traditional criteria (Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant-Evangelical, Islamic and Jewish), combining a legal-historical, comparative and positive legal approach. Guest lecturers are prominent members of religious communities, including the Serbian Orthodox Church. In this way, the inter- and multi-religious, humanistic and cultural approach to religion that is characteristic of Rijeka stands out.
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Keles, Ozcan. "PROMOTING HUMAN RIGHTS VALUES IN THE MUSLIM WORLD: THE CASE OF THE GÜLEN MOVEMENT". W Muslim World in Transition: Contributions of the Gülen Movement. Leeds Metropolitan University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.55207/lfko6932.

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The premise of this paper is that human rights values are a persistent theme of Fethullah Gülen’s thought and tajdid and expressed by the Gülen movement through example. That tajdid is collectively constructed and communicated by allowing for adaptation and indigenisation in flexible response to different socio-cultural con- texts. What is more, Gülen’s views on democracy, pluralism, human rights and free- dom of belief directly promote human rights values and norms. The paper argues that the Muslim world is very important to Gülen’s overall aspiration for an inclusive civilisation and thus the movement is now active in most parts of that world. In time, as in Turkey, Gülen’s ideas will enable and empower the periphery in Muslim socie- ties to influence the centre ground and open the way for wider enjoyment of freedom and human rights. The paper is in three sections. The first looks at the underlying dynamics of Gülen’s influence and the nature of his tajdid, to assess whether his influence is transferable elsewhere. The second appraises the content of Gülen’s tajdid arguing that human rights values are an inherent theme of his discourse on Islam. Here, the paper analy- ses Gülen’s views on Anatolian Muslimness, democracy and politics, human rights and freedom of belief, illustrating Gülen’s incremental ijtihad on temporal punish- ment for apostasy in Islamic law. The third part traces the movement’s activities in the Muslim world, arguing that the movement has now entered a phase of adoles- cence, and asks whether Gulen’s tajdid and discourse, through the practice of the movement, can indeed promote human rights values in this world.
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Идрисов, Хусейн Вахаевич. "ON THE CONCEPT OF FIQH AND RESPONSIBILITY IN THE SYSTEM OF MUSLIM LAW". W Высокие технологии и инновации в науке: сборник избранных статей Международной научной конференции (Санкт-Петербург, Март 2021). Crossref, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.37539/vt190.2021.79.17.011.

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Статья посвящена правовой характеристике фикха и ответственности в мусульманской системе права. Перечислены этапы возникновения и развития фикха. В статье выявляется трехуровневая система наказаний по мусульманскому праву, элементами которой являются такие виды наказаний как: «худуд», «кисас» и «тазир». В заключении работы формулируется вывод о том, что фикх представляет из себя совокупность теоретических знаний об исламской вере и ее практических положений правоприменения (Шариат) на основе норм главных источников мусульманской системы права - Священного Корана и Сунны Пророка Мухаммада (да благословит его Аллах и приветствует). The article is devoted to the legal characteristics of fiqh and responsibility in the Muslim legal system. The stages of the origin and development of fiqh are listed. The article reveals a three-level system of punishments under Muslim law, the elements of which are such types of punishments as: "Hudud", "qisas" and "tazir". In conclusion, the article concludes that fiqh is characterized as a set of theoretical knowledge about the Islamic faith and its practical provisions of law enforcement (Sharia) based on the norms of the main sources of the Muslim legal system - the Holy Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him).
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Raporty organizacyjne na temat "Islamic norms"

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Baharom, Hazman. Malaysia's childfree choices challenge Islamic norms. Redaktor Shahirah Hamid. Monash University, wrzesień 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.54377/f20b-0ba3.

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Gedi,, Zeri Khairy. “Freedom Belongs to Everyone”: The Experiences of Yazidi Women in Bashiqa and Bahzani. Institute of Development Studies, grudzień 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.19088/creid.2022.009.

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This CREID Policy Briefing provides recommendations to address the marginalisation, discrimination and exclusion faced by Yazidi women in Bashiqa and Bahzani. Yazidi women in Bashiqa and Bahzani today are still living through the trauma and consequences of the genocide committed by the Islamic State (ISIS). In addition, they face a range of further challenges as marginalised women from a minority religion. While more Yazidi girls and young women are progressing in education, harmful social norms, customs and practices – originating from both wider Iraqi society and the Yazidi community itself – create barriers for Yazidi women who want or need to work outside of the home, access healthcare or engage in public life. Widows and divorced women face specific challenges as they are seen as without male protection. Yazidi women also face the stigma that comes from being a former captive of ISIS, and the discrimination that comes from being judged an “infidel” due to their religion.
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Gallien, Max, Umair Javed i Vanessa van den Boogaard. Between God, the People, and the State: Citizen Conceptions of Zakat. Institute of Development Studies, sierpień 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.19088/ictd.2023.041.

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Zakat – one of the five pillars of Islam – is an annual obligatory payment, typically equivalent to 2.5 per cent of an individual’s productive wealth, to a set of appropriate recipients, including the poor. The annual global zakat pool is estimated to make up between US$200 billion and 1 trillion. States have long sought to harness zakat for their own budgets – and legitimacy. To date, however, there has been no systematic empirical discussion of how citizens perceive and engage with state involvement in zakat and how they perceive state-run zakat funds. These perceptions and experiences are central to important questions of how we conceptualise fiscal transfers and the relationship between citizens and states: if zakat is legally treated as a tax, does it function like one too? Do citizens engage with it differently? Does its formalisation strengthen or undermine the social norms in which it is embedded? Summary of Working Paper 167.
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Yilmaz, Ihsan, i Kainat Shakil. Religious Populism and Vigilantism: The Case of the Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan. European Center for Populism Studies (ECPS), styczeń 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.55271/pp0001.

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Religious populism and radicalism are hardly new to Pakistan. Since its birth in 1947, the country has suffered through an ongoing identity crisis. Under turbulent political conditions, religion has served as a surrogate identity for Pakistan, masking the country’s evident plurality, and over the years has come to dominate politics. Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan (TLP) is the latest face of religious extremism merged with populist politics. Nevertheless, its sporadic rise from a national movement defending Pakistan’s notorious blasphemy laws to a “pious” party is little understood. This paper draws on a collection of primary and secondary sources to piece together an account of the party’s evolution that sheds light on its appeal to “the people” and its marginalization and targeting of the “other.” The analysis reveals that the TLP has evolved from a proxy backed by the establishment against the mainstream parties to a full-fledged political force in its own right. Its ability to relate to voters via its pious narrative hinges on exploiting the emotional insecurities of the largely disenfranchised masses. With violence legitimized under the guise of religion, “the people” are afforded a new sense of empowerment. Moreover, the party’s rhetoric has given rise to a vigilante-style mob culture so much so that individuals inspired by this narrative have killed in plain sight without remorse. To make matters worse, the incumbent government of Imran Khan — itself a champion of Islamist rhetoric — has made repeated concessions and efforts to appease the TLP that have only emboldened the party. Today, the TLP poses serious challenges to Pakistan’s long-standing, if fragile, pluralistic social norms and risks tipping the country into an even deadlier cycle of political radicalization.
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Gallien, Max, Umair Javed i Vanessa van den Boogaard. Between God, the People, and the State: Citizen Conceptions of Zakat. Institute of Development Studies, maj 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.19088/ictd.2023.027.

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The global pool for zakat – one of the five pillars of Islam mandating an annual payment typically equivalent to 2.5 per cent of an individual’s productive wealth – is estimated to make up between USD 200 billion and 1 trillion. States have long sought to harness zakat for their own budgets – and legitimacy. To date, however, there has been no systematic empirical discussion of how citizens perceive and engage with state involvement in zakat and how they perceive state-run zakat funds. These perceptions and experiences are central to important questions of how we conceptualise fiscal transfers and the relationship between citizens and states: if it is legally treated as one, does zakat function like a tax? Do citizens engage with it differently? Does its formalisation strengthen or undermine the social norms in which it is embedded? This paper provides, to the best of our knowledge, the first comparative analysis of how citizens in Muslim-majority countries conceptualise zakat, attempting to situate it between religion, charity, and the state. We do so in the context of three lower middle-income countries (LMICs) – Morocco, Pakistan, and Egypt – representing variation in state involvement in zakat, relying on nationally representative surveys covering 5,484 respondents, of whom 2,648 reported that they had paid zakat in the preceding 12 months. Despite heterogeneity in state practice across the three countries, and in contrast to our expectations, we find commonalities in how citizens perceive zakat. Across our cases, citizens understand zakat as existing beyond the state, even where the state is involved in zakat administration and enforcement. Rather than viewing it as a legal obligation akin to taxation or merely as a charitable payment, Muslims across diverse religious and institutional contexts predominately conceive of zakat as a form of informal tax, rooted in social pressures and sanctions in the afterlife, but existing beyond the limits of state authority. This has important conceptual implications for the study of public finance, which has been predominately state-centric, while suggesting that there are clear limits to states’ ability to harness zakat payments into public finance systems. It also suggests clear limits to the ability of states to ‘harness’ zakat as a fiscal tool through centralised administration or mandated enforcement.
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