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1
Vasiliev, A. A., A. E. Uzhanov i Yu V. Pechatnova. "Memorial Law: National and International Aspects". Journal of Law and Administration 19, nr 4 (6.02.2024): 63–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.24833/2073-8420-2023-4-69-63-84.
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Introduction. This article conducts an interdisciplinary study of memory policy, which includes terminological explication and legal analysis of concepts similar in meaning, assessment of the relevance and need to legalize terms related to memory policy, determination of the effectiveness of official memory policy, prediction of its political and social consequences in the long term and exploring the normative limits of national memorial legislation. The purpose of the study is the conceptualization of memorial law.Materials and methods. The main research method is participant observation of the processes of implementation in Russian society and abroad of the concepts of national, historical and social memory, as well as the construction of norms and regulations for establishing legal relations in the field of conservation of military memorial heritage objects. Methods of express diagnostics of problem situations, legal assessment of incidents, sociological and expert surveys (including questionnaires and testing), and modeling were used.Research results. As a result of the study, the need to develop a special federal law on the protection of the military memorial heritage of the Russian Federation, as well as the development of an international (universal) Charter (Convention) on the protection of military memorial heritage sites formed as a result of the Second World War, was substantiated. Discussion and conclusion. It has been established that there is no single position in the scientific community regarding the need for memorial legislation. This largely depends on the political and ideological preferences of a particular author. At the same time, it was concluded that in legal science the conceptual foundations for the formation of memorial law as a special legal complex for the preservation, transmission and protection of historical memory and memorial (war memorial) heritage have been poorly studied. In addition, both at the level of legal doctrine and according to law enforcement practice, the issue of the status and legal means of preserving military memorial heritage has been practically not studied. In this connection, the authors propose the development of a Union Nation Charter for the Protection of Military Memorial Heritage for the purpose of holistic and comprehensive legal regulation of the area under study.
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Klabbers, Jan. "Towards a Political Economy of International Organizations Law". International Organizations Law Review 20, nr 1 (7.06.2023): 82–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15723747-20010005.
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Abstract This article is part of the Special Forum on Contested Fundamentals of the Law of International Organizations. It endorses a possible political economy of international organizations law, and explains why such would be desirable. The dominant approach to international organizations is unable to explain much of what is going on, and thus needs to be replaced by an approach more sensitive to the economic and organizational aspects of international organizations.
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Mammadov, Sadir Surkhay. "International Law and the Nagorno–Karabakh War: Opinion on Political Aspects". Polish Political Science Yearbook 45 (1.12.2016): 385–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2016028.
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ZADOROZHNA, Svitlana. "Political and Moral Aspects of Guaranteeing the Principles of International Law". European Journal of Law and Public Administration 5, nr 1 (20.10.2018): 156–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.18662/eljpa/36.
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McKeown, Ryder. "International law and its discontents: Exploring the dark sides of international law in International Relations". Review of International Studies 43, nr 3 (30.03.2017): 430–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260210517000092.
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AbstractInternational law is generally considered to be a good thing. With important exceptions, such as Critical Legal Studies, scholarship in both International Relations (IR) and International Law (IL) reinforces this ‘nice law’ assumption and therefore overlooks or underestimates the law’s negative aspects. In contrast, this article assumes the power of international law to examine how international law can have effects that are unintended, unhelpful, or even perverse. In particular, I argue that international law distorts policy- and decision-making processes in liberal democracies by eroding personal responsibility and decreasing accountability; legal expertise and legal virtues crowd out important virtues of statecraft and prudence while shrinking our capacity for sophisticated moral and political thought; and an excessive focus on law can lead to suboptimal foreign policy outcomes. Rather than law being a bad thing per se, I examine the significant strategic and moral limits of international law. This raises the need to lower our expectations of international law, carefully examine the relationship between power and international law, and political responsibility and legal ethics, and more fully embrace our own personal responsibility. The article closes by suggesting a research programme on the dark sides of international law from various theoretical perspectives.
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Ratushny, S. "INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION LAW: HISTORICAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS OF ESTABLISHMENT". Scientific Notes Series Law 1, nr 13 (marzec 2023): 166–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.36550/2522-9230-2022-13-166-171.
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The article examines the historical and legal aspects of the emergence and development of international migration law. An attempt is made to study the patterns of evolutionary development of international legal regulation of relations in the field of international migrations, the place and conceptual foundations of international migration law as a separate branch of international public law. The growth of migration flows, their acquisition of new quantitative and qualitative characteristics, being determined by economic, ecological, military-political, demographic and other factors, exerts a strong influence on all aspects of the functioning of the world system, becoming an indispensable component of many spatial changes that determine the essence of territorial identity social groups and form a new culture of thinking, which is based on various social norms, including the principles and norms of international law. The most obvious and effective way of regulating international migration, taken in the dynamics of qualitative changes in its trends and forms, social relationships, socio-economic and political-legal processes, development of technical capabilities of means of communication, is its international legal regulation, carried out as universal and at the regional levels of interstate cooperation, taking into account the evolution and historical development of international legal doctrine and practice. At the same time, the accuracy of the expected assessment of the results of international legal regulation directly depends on the adequacy of the understanding of the legal nature, essence and place of international migration law in the general legal system. It should be fundamental to understand and accept the thesis that the ideology and philosophy of legal regulation of relations in the field of international migration is based on the thesis of the need to find and ensure a balance between state sovereignty - the cornerstone of the international legal order and freedom of movement - one of the basic human freedoms. These basic elements remained practically unchanged during the entire historical period of international legal regulation of relations in the field of international migrations, although the level of tension between them and the ways of articulation of the latter changed throughout the history of international law at the doctrinal level and in the practice of state approaches.
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The Review. "ASPECTS OF DISSEMINATION". International Review of the Red Cross 27, nr 257 (kwiecień 1987): 152–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020860400025286.
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The year 1977 may be considered a turning point for the dissemination of knowledge of international humanitarian law and the Principles and the ideals of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. If we briefly review events of that year, we see that from 21 to 30 March 1977 the first European Red Cross Seminar on the Dissemination of the Geneva Conventions, organized by the Polish Red Cross and the ICRC, was held in Warsaw. Representatives of European and North American National Societies and of the ICRC and the League attended the seminar which adopted the following principles:«Although dissemination of knowledge of international humanitarian law is a responsibility of governments, it should be a direct concern of the Red Cross in general and particularly of each National Society in its own country.
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Kusumaningrum, Adi. "Recent Development in International Treaties Relating to Aviation: New Standardization of International Air Law". PADJADJARAN Jurnal Ilmu Hukum (Journal of Law) 07, nr 02 (2020): 268–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.22304/pjih.v7n2.a7.
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Globalization is identified with the development of treaties into national domain law. Initially, such treaties did not appear as legal regulations but as standard/harmonized-setting for member states. Since the establishment of Chicago Convention on Civil Aviation, 1944, treaties on aviation keep developing well both on the aviation operational technique and economic aspect. Those treaties nowadays have turned into the source of international aviation law. Treaty has been one of the bases of domestic law for almost nations in the world. As a result, the global requirements need to be adjusted into national law of states. States are bound both legally and politically to verdicts of International organizations. The process of regulation and decision making in International organizations should be based on democratic procedures of member states either in the construction of final draft or in negotiation and arrangement of regulation or resolution drafts. Specifically, this article discusses recent development of international treaties relating to aviation from both operational and economic aspects. Following Assembly 39th Session, ICAO, member states of ICAO, including Indonesia, made several multilateral agreements. The ratification of International treaties should consider the effects on legal, political, and security aspects. For Indonesia, one of the aspects that should never be neglected is strategic airspace, both geographically and geopolitically.
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Kusumaningrum, Adi. "Recent Development in International Treaties Relating to Aviation: New Standardization of International Air Law". PADJADJARAN Jurnal Ilmu Hukum (Journal of Law) 07, nr 02 (2020): 268–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.22304/pjih.v7n2.a7.
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Globalization is identified with the development of treaties into national domain law. Initially, such treaties did not appear as legal regulations but as standard/harmonized-setting for member states. Since the establishment of Chicago Convention on Civil Aviation, 1944, treaties on aviation keep developing well both on the aviation operational technique and economic aspect. Those treaties nowadays have turned into the source of international aviation law. Treaty has been one of the bases of domestic law for almost nations in the world. As a result, the global requirements need to be adjusted into national law of states. States are bound both legally and politically to verdicts of International organizations. The process of regulation and decision making in International organizations should be based on democratic procedures of member states either in the construction of final draft or in negotiation and arrangement of regulation or resolution drafts. Specifically, this article discusses recent development of international treaties relating to aviation from both operational and economic aspects. Following Assembly 39th Session, ICAO, member states of ICAO, including Indonesia, made several multilateral agreements. The ratification of International treaties should consider the effects on legal, political, and security aspects. For Indonesia, one of the aspects that should never be neglected is strategic airspace, both geographically and geopolitically.
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Charlesworth, Hilary, Christine Chinkin i Shelley Wright. "Feminist Approaches to International Law". American Journal of International Law 85, nr 4 (październik 1991): 613–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2203269.
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The development of feminist jurisprudence in recent years has made a rich and fruitful contribution to legal theory. Few areas of domestic law have avoided the scrutiny of feminist writers, who have exposed the gender bias of apparently neutral systems of rules. A central feature of many western theories about law is that the law is an autonomous entity, distinct from the society it regulates. A legal system is regarded as different from a political or economic system, for example, because it operates on the basis of abstract rationality, and is thus universally applicable and capable of achieving neutrality and objectivity. These attributes are held to give the law its special authority. More radical theories have challenged this abstract rationalism, arguing that legal analysis cannot be separated from the political, economic, historical and cultural context in which people live. Some theorists argue that the law functions as a system of beliefs that make social, political and economic inequalities appear natural. Feminist jurisprudence builds on certain aspects of this critical strain in legal thought. It is much more focused and concrete, however, and derives its theoretical force from immediate experience of the role of the legal system in creating and perpetuating the unequal position of women.
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Rovinskaya, T. "Information Security of Russia: Political and Cultural Aspects". World Economy and International Relations, nr 11 (2011): 49–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.20542/0131-2227-2011-11-49-62.
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The article is devoted to the information security of Russia. It includes two main aspects: conceptual (political concepts, legislation, cultural specifics of the country) and practical (real law enforcements mechanisms, economic and technological opportunities). New Russia's information policy development specifics, threats to information security and the countermeasures, forms of Russia's international cooperation in the field are thoroughly examined in the paper.
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Cole, Rowland J. V. "Africa’s Approach to International Law: Aspects of the Political and Economic Denominators". African Yearbook of International Law Online / Annuaire Africain de droit international Online 18, nr 1 (2010): 287–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22116176-01801011.
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Scarffe, Eric J. "“A New Philosophy for International Law” and Dworkin’s Political Realism". Canadian Journal of Law & Jurisprudence 29, nr 1 (luty 2016): 191–213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cjlj.2016.7.
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During his career, Ronald Dworkin wrote extensively on an impressive range of issues in moral, political, and legal philosophy, but, like many of his contemporaries, international law remained a topic of relative neglect. His most sustained work on international law is a posthumously published article, “A New Philosophy for International Law” (2013), which displays some familiar aspects of his views in general jurisprudence, in addition to some novel (though perhaps surprising) arguments as well. This paper argues that the moralized account of international law we might have expected is conspicuously missing from this posthumous article; with Dworkin advancing an argument based on a form of political realism instead.
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Mansell, Wade. "Legal Aspects of International Debt". Journal of Law and Society 18, nr 4 (1991): 381. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1410315.
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Brownlie, Ian, i C. J. Apperley. "Kosovo Crisis Inquiry: Memorandum On The International Law Aspects". International and Comparative Law Quarterly 49, nr 4 (październik 2000): 878–905. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002058930006471x.
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1. This Memorandum has been prepared in accordance with the request of the Foreign Affairs Committee (letter dated 28 July 1999), which request referred to a written memorandum “on the area of international law“.1 In the course of his career as a member of the English Bar, specialising in international disputes, the writer has worked as legal adviser and/or advocate for at least 35 States. In this context it is necessary to point to the fact that, as a part of his professional involvements, he has acted as Counsel and Advocate in the recent proceedings before the International Court of Justice on behalf of Yugoslavia. It is also necessary to stress that the Memorandum represents his own views and that there has been no input from any Government or Government-related organisation.
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Clark, Roger S. "Some International Law Aspects of the East Timor Affair". Leiden Journal of International Law 5, nr 2 (październik 1992): 265–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0922156500002508.
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On December 7, 1975 Indonesian forces invaded the territory of East Timor, a Portuguese colony for some four and a half centuries. Following the 1974 Portuguese revolution, East Timor, like other Portuguese non-self-governing territories had been going through a process of self determination. Portuguese authorities evacuated the territory in August 1975 during civil disorders, condoned if not fomented by the Indonesians. The Frente Revolucianaria de Timor Leste Independente (FRETILIN), a popular group which aimed at independence for the territory after a short transitional period, gained the upper hand. It declared independence on November 28, 1975, hoping this would strengthen its hand in dealing with Indonesian border incursions. A full-scale Indonesian invasion followed.
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Mahmoudi, Said. "Some Private International Law Aspects of Transboundary Environmental Disputes". Nordic Journal of International Law 59, nr 1 (1990): 128–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157181090x00279.
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Mahnwudi, Said. "Some Private International Law Aspects of Transboundary Environmental Disputes". Nordic Journal of International Law 59, nr 2-3 (1990): 128–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157181090x00468.
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Severinova, Oleksandra. "EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT OF «ARMED CONFLICT»: HISTORICAL, LEGAL AND THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS". Law Journal of Donbass 74, nr 1 (2021): 20–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.32366/2523-4269-2021-74-1-20-26.
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The article analyzes the theoretical and methodological aspects of the formation and development of doctrinal ideas about the meaning of the concept of «armed conflict» in the history of world political and legal thought. The question of the name of the branch of law that regulates armed conflict, by analyzing its historical names such as «law of war», «laws and customs of war», «law of armed conflict», «international humanitarian law» and «international humanitarian law, used in armed conflicts». As a result of this analysis, it can be concluded that it would be most appropriate to use the terms «international humanitarian law» only in a narrow sense or «international humanitarian law applicable in armed conflicts», which is more cumbersome but most accurately describes the field. It is emphasized that due to the availability of new powerful weapons (economic, political, informational, cultural and weapons of mass destruction), which are dangerous both for the aggressor and for the whole world; the aggressor's desire to downplay its role in resolving conflicts in order to avoid sanctions from other countries and international organizations, as well as to prevent the loss of its authority and position on the world stage; the attempts of the aggressor countries to establish their control over the objects of aggression (including integrating them into their political, economic and security systems) without excessive damage to them is the transformation of methods and means of warfare. It is determined that the long history of the formation of the law of armed conflict has led to the adoption at the level of international law of the provision prohibiting any armed aggression in the world, which is reflected in such a principle as non-use of force or threat of force. At the same time, the UN Charter became the first international act in the history of mankind, which completely prohibited armed aggression and enshrined this principle at the international level, which is binding on all states of the modern world.
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Kritzman-Amir, Tally. "International Migration Law in the Current Legal and Political Reality: Review of Research Handbook on International Law and Migration". Israel Law Review 49, nr 1 (29.02.2016): 131–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021223715000242.
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The complex human phenomenon of migration is a challenging one, and throughout history has been considered by many disciplines, including, but not limited to, law, international relations and political science, sociology and anthropology, philosophy, economics, geography and demography and psychology, as well as by multi-disciplinary scholarship. All of this growing body of scholarship has attempted to come to grips with particular aspects of this phenomenon, which has an impact on states, peoples, societies, spaces, cultures, mental states, international organisations and norms.
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Burda, Mikhail A., i Ekaterina S. Shevchenko. "POLITICAL ASPECTS OF IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW IN NATIONAL LEGISLATION OF THE UNITED STATES: FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE". RUDN Journal of Political Science 21, nr 2 (15.12.2019): 254–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2313-1438-2019-21-2-254-267.
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One of the big-league participants in major international processes, the US government defines the current agenda of the modern world order, steers the vector of international relations development and affects the distribution of power on the global political arena. A supporter of the Non-Institutionalized Global Governance concept and the idea of Rule of Law, American administration demonstrates its own, specific understanding of the goals and course of action of modern international legislation. It seems to have its own insight on the nature and order of international organizations in regards to formulation and adoption of international law, the US role in determining the key features of global law enforcement, as well as the standards and principles of implementation of international law in the US federal legislation. Despite the recent tendency of the US government to roll back from participation in IO projects and revision of a number of agreements within the framework of interstate cooperation, the United States not only succeeds, one way or another, in guiding the trends of global political development, but also continues to have an impact on the interpretation and application of international law. The given article looks at the status of international law in the American legal system, focuses on the participation of the United States in proposition, discussion and adoption of conventions, declarations, agreements and other documents within the framework of the UN, and determines the main directions, according to which American jurisdiction implements international legal doctrines. The current research also brings a focus on specific issues, problems, relations, and contacts regulated at the international level but not implemented by the US federal legislation. The article analyzes political aspects of formulation and adoption of legal rules by American public administration, which are meant to supplement and specify the dominant principles of international sources of law.
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CASSESE, ANTONIO. "On Some Problematical Aspects of the Crime of Aggression". Leiden Journal of International Law 20, nr 4 (grudzień 2007): 841–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0922156507004487.
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The essay argues that the absence of an international treaty definition of aggression in international law should not preclude the prosecution of its perpetrators. Two legal regimes of responsibility, namely the prohibition against aggression as an international wrongful act and the crime of aggression have been entangled. Once one separates the criminal liability of individuals from state responsibility, a definition of the crime of aggression can be seen. According to the author, the contours of such a new definition contain the requisite degree of certainty for judicial approaches instead of merely political approaches. Consideration is also given as to whether conspiracy to wage a war of aggression may also be regarded as a separate crime within international criminal law.
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Barnidge, Robert P. "International Law and Drone Strikes in Pakistan: The Legal and Socio-Political Aspects". Journal on the Use of Force and International Law 3, nr 1 (2.01.2016): 171–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20531702.2016.1183971.
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Voynikov, Vadim V. "Confiscation Estonian style: legal and political aspects of potential seizure of Russian assets in EU countries". Baltic Region 16, nr 1 (2024): 4–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.5922/2079-8555-2024-1-1.
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The possible confiscation of Russian assets by Western countries is one of the serious challenges to modern international law and the system of international relations. Since the greater part of the frozen assets is under the jurisdiction of EU countries, special attention should be paid to studying mechanisms for the use of Russian assets within the EU. The purpose of this article is to identify the key characteristics of the EU’s approaches to the use of frozen Russian assets, determine their compliance with international law and investigate possible consequences for the modern system of international relations. To achieve this goal, the author analysed the legal aspect of this problem, examined the compliance of the initiatives to confiscate Russian property with the norms of modern international law and pinpointed the potential consequences of such actions. It is concluded that possible options for seizing sovereign assets contradict the norms of international and national law. Therefore, all these methods are unfeasible within the current legal framework. Yet, the main obstacle to implementing the plans to seize Russian sovereign assets lies not within the legal realm, but in the political sphere since such actions could result in unforeseeable ramifications. The mechanism proposed by the European Commission for seizing private property within the framework of criminal proceedings implies the use of criminal law to solve political problems, which is at variance with the objectives of criminal policy.
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Ginting, Jamin, i Patrick Talbot. "Fundraising Aspect of International Terrorism Organization in ASEAN: Legal and Political Aspects". Lex Scientia Law Review 7, nr 1 (30.05.2023): 1–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.15294/lesrev.v7i1.60074.
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Since the Bali Bombing I and Bali Bombing II Tragedy, the seriousness of combating international terrorism have become increasingly apparent. Each member of ASEAN hand in hand together enforces both international cooperation and bilateral cooperation to prevent and counteract, through appropriate domestic measures, the financing of terrorists and terrorist organizations, whether such financing is direct or indirect through organizations. International community efforts to combat terrorism activities, not only comprise the criminalization of terrorists the act criminalization financing of terrorism, and the criminalization of terrorist financing. Since that moment, the topic of money laundering is an inherent element of organized crime, with its strong linkage to terrorism, has found and always will find new methods to satisfy the also new necessities for financing terrorism. ASEAN already make a policy about terrorism which is the convention on counter-terrorist called ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism (ACCT). The convention of ACCT, in article 6 Areas of Cooperation, ASEAN emphasizes the prevention of giving the fund to the terrorist group. Indonesia had given responses to financing terrorism by ratifying The International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, 1999, and subsequently with the enacted Law Number 6 Year 2006 and also enacted the new Prevention and Eradication Money Laundering Offence, Law Number 8 of 2010.
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Danelyan, A. A., i E. E. Gulyaeva. "International Legal Aspects of Cybersecurity". Moscow Journal of International Law, nr 1 (25.07.2020): 44–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.24833/0869-0049-2020-1-44-53.
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INTRODUCTION. In the modern world, the number of crimes committed in cyberspace has significantly increased. New types of malware used to achieve illegal goals appear regularly. According to experts, the material damage to the global economy from crimes committed with the help of information and communication technologies amounts to trillions of US dollars. Such a scale requires effective means of legal regulation of relations in cyberspace. Cybersecurity is considered one of the most relevant topics of current international law, which is extremely important for ensuring the national security of states. Information and communication technologies can be used to negatively affect economic, social, cultural and political relations, to damage the economic, military, and defense potential of the state and society. In this regard, the international community is deeply interested in developing a multilateral legal framework for cooperation in the field of cybersecurity. However, a unified approach to solving this problem in the international arena has not yet been developed. Legal regulation of cyberspace is very complex due to the virtual interface characteristics of this area.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The material for the study is the works of Russian and foreign researchers in the field of international law, international legalacts adopted in the framework of the UN and the European Union, draft UN conventions, national regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, the People’s Republic of China and other states as well as judicial practice of international courts. Th research methodology is based on general and specific scientific methods of cognition (the dialectical method, methods of analysis and synthesis, deduction and induction, comparative legal and historical legal methods).RESEARCH RESULTS. The analysis showed that despite the applicability of the principles and rules of current international law to the information sphere, the universalization of the international legal regulation of cyberspace is required, taking into account its characteristics and in order to effectively combat the use of information and communication technologies for illegal purposes. The efforts of states to develop special rules of conduct in cyberspace are currently concentrated on a narrow sphere of issues related to human rights, data privacy, etc. Not all states are interested in creating a modern and effective mechanism for cooperation in cyberspace. Many states are openly opposing the development of new international legal instruments. For this reason, the Russian initiative to adopt the UN Convention on Cooperation in Combating Information Crimes has not been support-ed. This fact has entailed the absence of a full-fledged universal international legal framework for cooperation in the field of cyberspace.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. Based on the analysis of doctrine and practice, the authors conclude that there is a need to create a universal international legal framework for cooperation in the fi ld of cyberspace. In modern international law, cybersecurity is one of the most pressing problems directly related to state security. The difference in the approaches of states to the problem of ensuring cybersecurity at the present stage entails the absence of an effective multilateral legal framework for cooperation in this area.
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Shcherbanyuk, Oksana, i Laura Bzova. "Rule of Law and Human Rights: Analysis of International Standards and Case Law". Perspectives of Law and Public Administration 13, nr 1 (25.03.2024): 25–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.62768/plpa/2024/13/1/03.
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The EU's human rights policies and actions have two main components: protecting the fundamental rights of EU citizens and promoting human rights around the world. One of the aspects that the UN focuses on is the relationship between democracy and human rights, as the organisation upholds the importance of equal political participation of citizens of its states and full respect for human rights, including the recognition, protection and promotion. As defined by the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), human rights are norms that recognise and protect the dignity of all people, meaning they apply to everyone, without distinction of race, gender, education, political opinion, sexual orientation or any other type of moral judgement. The realisation of human rights also obliges states to be responsible for protecting these norms and prohibits certain acts that violate them. Human rights can be said to be one of the greatest achievements of mankind. One of the most important human rights documents is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, signed in 1948 at the UN General Assembly. Consisting of 30 articles, the Declaration formalises all the theoretical developments made earlier on civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights. Another innovation of the Declaration was the inclusion of human rights in the universal character, becoming the rights of all peoples. Thus, for the UN, human rights "are universal legal guarantees that protect individuals and groups from acts and omissions by governments that violate human dignity"3. Human rights are fundamental and therefore inalienable human rights, i.e. those rights whose violation would lead to an attack on the very essence of humanity. For this reason, it is important that everyone is aware of and knows about human rights, their content and the forms of protection provided for them, as everyone should be able to enjoy their fundamental rights for the sole purpose of living in peace, without distinction. Human rights, democracy and the rule of law create an environment in which countries can promote development, protect people from discrimination and ensure equal access to justice for all.
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Diggelmann, Oliver. "Beyond the Myth of a Non-relationship: International Law and World War i". Journal of the History of International Law 19, nr 1 (16.02.2017): 93–120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718050-12340082.
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This article examines the relationship between international law and World War i from a basic perspective. The first question is whether, and to what degree, international law can or should be regarded as a contributing cause for the outbreak of World War i. Three aspects of international law prior to World War i are discussed: the silent ‘alliance’ between the ius ad bellum and social Darwinism, the lack of individual accountability of the members of the political and military elites under international law, and the role of the law of reprisal as a ‘fire accelerant’ of conflicts. The second focal point lies on central questions of international law during the war. Again, three aspects are addressed: the relationship between international law and new weapons as well as new methods of warfare, legal issues related to long-term occupations and the role of international law with respect to prisoners of war.
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Chechi, Alessandro. "Migrants’ Cultural Rights at the Confluence of International Human Rights Law and International Cultural Heritage Law". International Human Rights Law Review 5, nr 1 (15.07.2016): 26–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22131035-00501001.
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Contemporary migration flows and the related humanitarian emergency have received overwhelming media coverage and political attention. It appears, however, that the sorrow provoked by the heart-breaking stories of migrants has been all too often quickly replaced by the rhetoric that describes this influx as the principal cause for the problems that Western States face today – unemployment, crime, drugs and violent extremism – and as a threat for national culture and identity. This article looks at the cultural rights of migrants and at the international instruments that regulate one or more aspects of the phenomenon of migration and the protection of cultural heritage. Its objective is to challenge existing prejudices against migrant communities and to answer the question whether migration and migrants are a burden or a blessing for the culture of receiving States.
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Hill, Jonathan. "Some Private International Law Aspects of the Arbitration Act 1996". International and Comparative Law Quarterly 46, nr 2 (kwiecień 1997): 274–308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020589300060449.
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As a method for resolving commercial disputes which have connections with two or more countries, arbitration has been given a tremendous boost this century by two developments at the international level. The New York Convention of 1958—which was first implemented in England and Wales by the Arbitration Act 1975—introduced a regime which went a long way toward ensuring that arbitration agreements are respected and that arbitral awards are easily enforceable. The Convention has been hugely successful in that it has been ratified by upwards of 90 States, including all the countries of Western Europe (with the exception of Iceland) and nearly all countries which are significant commercial centres. More indirect has been the influence of the Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration, which was adopted by UNCITRAL in 1985. Although the Model Law, which seeks to encourage States to modernise their arbitration laws, has not been enacted by a very large number of countries, it has had a significant impact in that it has set an agenda for reform—even for those countries which have decided not to enact it. The Model Law has become “a yardstick by which to judge the quality of… existing arbitration legislation and to improve it”.
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Brownlie, Ian, i C. J. Apperley. "Kosovo Crisis Inquiry: Further Memorandum on the International Law Aspects". International and Comparative Law Quarterly 49, nr 4 (październik 2000): 905–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020589300064721.
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1. In his letter dated 16 February 2000 Mr Silk, on behalf of the Committee, invited me to prepare an additional memorandum on any of the issues raised during the taking of evidence on 8 February. I have also been supplied with the transcript and the additional written questions.
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Kahraman, Filiz, Nikhil Kalyanpur i Abraham L. Newman. "Domestic courts, transnational law, and international order". European Journal of International Relations 26, nr 1_suppl (wrzesień 2020): 184–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1354066120938843.
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This article revisits the relationship between law and international order. Building on legal research concerned with transnational law, we argue that domestic courts are endogenous sites of international political change. National courts are constitutive of international order by generating new rules, adjudicating transnational disputes, and bounding state sovereignty. We illustrate the ways in which national courts create new political opportunities by updating three core international relations theory debates. Recognizing the role of domestic courts as global adjudicators enhances our understanding of regime complexity and international forum shopping. By re-interpreting aspects of conventional international law, and engaging in cross-border dialogue, domestic courts challenge our understanding of international diffusion and judicialization. By redefining the boundaries of state authority and sovereignty, national courts create potential for conflict and cooperation. A transnational law perspective illustrates the porous nature between domestic and international spheres, highlighting how domestic courts have become adjudicators for state and non-state actors that operate across mainstream levels of analysis. Our approach calls on scholars to move beyond analyzing national legal systems as mechanisms of compliance to instead consider domestic courts as co-creators of international order.
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Dorofeyeva, E. S., i A. V. Chekmareva. "POLITICAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS OF STATE REGULATION OF INTERETHIC RELATIONS". Current Issues of the State and Law, nr 7 (2018): 5–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.20310/2587-9340-2018-2-7-5-22.
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The relevance of political and legal regulation of interethnic relation consists of new model of modern multicultural state formation and challenges of inner and international character overcoming. Inner challenges are connected with separatist sentiments of national institutions, historical factors, territorial and ethic and national submission to the centre, resurrection of people cultural independence, bureaucratization of ethnic leaders in national republics. Among international challenges the most important are facts of terrorism and globalization, corrupted past historical facts in Post-Soviet republics. The aim of the research is to decide the level of interaction of politics and law on developing ethnos in multicultural society, historical faults exposure, balance between two substances formation, determination of most important legal and political regulators of interethnic relations on the Russian and foreign examples. In the process of the work we use following methods: analysis, synthesis, comparative, historical, civilizational. It is proved that politics and law have a key role in regulations of interethnic relations. However in historical faults the first place has politics and it foresees legal system formation. We analyze Russian and foreign experience on form and methods exposure in the interethnic relations regulation with political and legal means. It is proved that Russian experience of interethnic communication gives an opportunity to use it not only in Russian but in the other countries, especially because of overloading them with escapers and migrants. Conclusions about necessity of the balance of politics and law, of historical past informational base formation, of using national and cultural autonomies for ethnic development realization, of Agency on National Affairs activity improvement may have practical use.
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ULFSTEIN, GEIR. "Transnational constitutional aspects of the European Court of Human Rights". Global Constitutionalism 10, nr 1 (marzec 2021): 151–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s2045381719000303.
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AbstractThe European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) is an international court operating in the international legal order. Its judgments are not given direct effect in national law. In this sense we have a system of legal pluralism between international and national law. But the ECtHR has constitutional effects in national law through the weight placed on the Court’s practice by national courts. Therefore, constitutional principles are applicable in the interaction between the ECtHR and national courts. This article discusses the transnational constitutional aspects of the Court, and how this should guide the roles of, respectively, the ECtHR and national courts.
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Yavorska, Victoria, Oleksii Buriachenko, Liudmyla Vasechko, Valerii Shapoval, Oleksii Vasechko i Roman Yedeliev. "Examining the international political and legal accountability of states for genocide, ecocide, and weapons of mass destruction: current norms, practices, and political implications". Multidisciplinary Science Journal 6 (7.05.2024): 2024ss0739. http://dx.doi.org/10.31893/multiscience.2024ss0739.
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The article reveals the international framework of political and legal liability of states for committing acts of genocide, ecocide, and using weapons of mass destruction. It is emphasized that these areas form a separate legal responsibility institution within international law. The author emphasizes the lack of unity between theoretical and practical aspects of legal regulation of using weapons of mass destruction, as well as the role that liability plays in the progressive development of law. The paper also highlights topical issues related to the paradigm shifts in modern international law due to the cases of genocide, ecocide, and WMD. The study aims to analyze international legal norms and practices of holding states accountable for the crimes of genocide, ecocide, and use of weapons of mass destruction. The following methods were employed in the course of this research: systemic, comparative legal, historical and legal, structural and functional, and generalization. The article emphasizes that most international crimes are committed with the support or under the control of collective entities, especially states. Nevertheless, international law has tended to impose responsibility for such crimes not only on certain people but also on states. The predominant response of the international community to international crimes was to impose responsibility on specific persons to the extent that it has been directed through international responsibility law. In this regard, it has been symbolized by prosecuting particular criminals through international criminal courts and tribunals.
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Graf, Sinja. "To Regain Some Kind of Human Equality: Theorizing the Political Productivity of ‘‘Crimes against Humanity’’". Law, Culture and the Humanities 15, nr 3 (28.10.2015): 744–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1743872115612326.
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This article theorizes the politically productive aspects of the term ‘‘crimes against humanity’’ in contradistinction to normative political theories that conceive of international law as applied ethics and to Schmittian approaches to law as the medium of depoliticization. I argue that the criminal against humanity must be distinguished from the enemy of humanity, because crimes against humanity provide a universal yet minimal normative recognition to the offender within a global legal order. Analyzing the distinct patterns of agency and authority that arise from rights and crime respectively, I outline the communal dimension of the criminal law and discuss the performative claim to humanity as a global body politic that attends pronouncements of crimes against humanity by international authorities.
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Richardson, John B. "International Trade Aspects of Telecommunications Services". Common Market Law Review 23, Issue 2 (1.06.1986): 385–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/cola1986018.
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Scott, Shirley V. "Is there room for international law in realpolitik?: accounting for the US ‘attitude’ towards international law". Review of International Studies 30, nr 1 (2.12.2003): 71–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260210504005832.
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The United States has in recent years come under considerable criticism for its apparently cynical attitude towards international law. While the US administration refers often to the importance of the international rule of law it appears unwilling to itself be bound by that law. While the US took the lead in the post World War II years in establishing international law and institutions it has in recent years appeared unwilling to give those same institutions its full support. This article begins by examining a range of explanations for the seemingly undesirable US attitude towards international law. Dismissing each as inadequate on its own, the article demonstrates how what often appear to be contradictory aspects of the United States' relationship with international law can in fact be reconciled through the application to United States' behaviour of the basic tenets of classic modern realism as it pertains to the conduct of foreign policy. This is surprising since international law and realpolitik are more often contrasted. The United States' ‘attitude’ towards international law is better explained not as a post-Cold War anomaly but as having been an integral aspect of the rise of the United States to sole superpower status.
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Firdaus. F, M. Waritsul, i Radiyatam Mardiah. "International Law: Existence in International Dispute Settlement Efforts as a Symbol of Peace in the International Community". Muhammadiyah Law Review 7, nr 2 (7.08.2023): 24. http://dx.doi.org/10.24127/mlr.v7i2.2766.
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The settlement of disputes has been a significant concern in the international community since the 20th century. In its early development, dispute resolution could be achieved either peacefully or through the use of force. However, with the growing awareness of the dangers of war and the advancement of weapon technology, the international community has increasingly recognized the importance of peaceful dispute resolution. In the dynamics of its development, international dispute resolution can be distinguished between legal and political disputes. The opinions of international law experts regarding this distinction vary. There is also a middle ground view that states every dispute has its own political and legal aspects. The development of peaceful dispute resolution has been taking place since the Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907. During these conferences, rules for peaceful dispute resolution between nations were established. International law also regulates the obligations of states to settle disputes peacefully, as stated in the UN Charter. Technological advancements and the existence of official rules from the UN have strengthened the presence of international law in maintaining international peace and security. The obligation of states to settle disputes peacefully and refrain from the use of force is a recognized principle in international law.
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Firdaus F, M. Waritsul, i Radiyatam Mardiah. "International Law: Existence in International Dispute Settlement Efforts as a Symbol of Peace in the International Community". Muhammadiyah Law Review 7, nr 2 (10.08.2023): 24. http://dx.doi.org/10.24127/mlr.v7i2.2771.
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The settlement of disputes has been a significant concern in the international community since the 20th century. In its early development, dispute resolution could be achieved either peacefully or through the use of force. However, with the growing awareness of the dangers of war and the advancement of weapon technology, the international community has increasingly recognized the importance of peaceful dispute resolution. In the dynamics of its development, international dispute resolution can be distinguished between legal and political disputes. The opinions of international law experts regarding this distinction vary. There is also a middle ground view that states every dispute has its own political and legal aspects. The development of peaceful dispute resolution has been taking place since the Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907. During these conferences, rules for peaceful dispute resolution between nations were established. International law also regulates the obligations of states to settle disputes peacefully, as stated in the UN Charter. Technological advancements and the existence of official rules from the UN have strengthened the presence of international law in maintaining international peace and security. The obligation of states to settle disputes peacefully and refrain from the use of force is a recognized principle in international law.
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Strijards, Gerard. "The Institution of the International Criminal Court". Leiden Journal of International Law 12, nr 3 (wrzesień 1999): 671–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0922156599000357.
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This article discusses certain key aspects arising from the negotiations leading up to the adoption of a Statute for an International Criminal Court (ICC), to have its seat in The Hague. These aspects include individual criminal responsibility regardless of status as Head of State or constitutional organ and the transformation of international criminal law into domestic law. Also discussed are the two appendices to be added to the Statute pertaining to substantive criminal law and rules of criminal evidence and procedure to be used by the Court. The author argues that the appendix on the law of criminal procedure will be of particular importance to the Netherlands as the host state. The obligations regarding legal assistance of the host state will be dependent on this.
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Ivanov, DMITRY V., i VALERIA V. Pchelintseva. "INTERNATIONAL LAW ASPECTS OF THE POST-BREXIT MIGRATION POLICY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM". Journal of Law and Administration 18, nr 4 (30.12.2022): 34–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.24833/2073-8420-2022-4-65-34-46.
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Introduction. In March 2022, the Home Office of the United Kingdom of Great Britain published the Statement on New Immigration Plan according to which persons having no right to reside on its territory would be removed to “safe third countries” according to the agreements with such states. On April 13th, 2022, a Memorandum of Understanding between Great Britain and Rwanda was signed prescribing that persons whose applications for asylum were not considered by Great Britain be removed to Rwanda for those applications to be considered by the latter. Incompatibility of the contemporary immigration policy of Great Britain with its international law obligations justifies the topicality of the assessment of its implications for codification and progressive development of international law. Materials and Methods. The assessment of the contemporary immigration policy of Great Britain from the standpoint of international law includes the matching of the provisions of the international and national acts adopted by Great Britain as well as official statements of its state bodies and officials and the provisions of universal treaties and “soft law” acts. The writings of the publicists studying international law aspects of forced migration, asylum and human rights served as theoretical framework of the present study. Research Results. The assessment of the Memorandum of Understanding reveals the incompatibility of its provisions with the international law norms on asylum and human rights. Such international law policy of the state should be regarded as an example of rejection of international law which is referred to as “international law nihilism” in Russian legal doctrine.Discussions and conclusions. The authors argue that further adoption of legal and political measures contrary to states’ obligations under treaties and international custom as well as the absence of expressed official positions of states with regards to such measures may have an impact on construction and application of international law norms governing legal status of forced migrants.
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North, Peter. "Private International Law: Change Or Decay?" International and Comparative Law Quarterly 50, nr 3 (lipiec 2001): 447–508. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/iclq/50.3.477.
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The aim of this article is to survey the private international law scene in a number of regards, tracing developments in this country over recent decades, offering some thoughts on how such changes have come about and on their impact, concluding with an element of crystal gazing for the future. The turn of the century, to say nothing of the millennium, is as good a time as any to reflect on these developments. How then has the subject changed since the end of the nineteenth century? A useful, though unsophisticated, yardstick with which to start is to look at the approaches of the two major English books on the subject and to see how their coverage of different aspects of the subject has changed over the decades.
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SINCLAIR, ADRIANA. "Law, caution: towards a better understanding of law for IR theorists". Review of International Studies 37, nr 3 (14.07.2010): 1095–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260210510000604.
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AbstractThe aim of this article is to provide International Relations (IR) theorists with a better understanding of law. This is important for all IR theorists, not just those who focus on international law, because the legalistic way of viewing the world colours all aspects of our world, from teaching us what justice is and providing the means to achieve it, to framing our understanding of human relations and giving us the language of rights with which to articulate it. This article has two main goals: first, to question our own assumptions about law; and second, to introduce IR theorists to the basics of legal methodology and demonstrate how law actually operates.
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ASTAFICHEV, P. A., i E. Yu ASTAFICHEVA. "PRINCIPLES AND NORMS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF MODERN RUSSIA". Central Russian Journal of Social Sciences 17, nr 3 (2022): 109–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.22394/2071-2367-2022-17-3-109-122.
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The purpose of the article is to study a number of topical issues related to the relationship between international and Russian law in political, social and psychological aspects. It is emphasized that even extraordinary foreign policy circumstances don’t give grounds for a complete denial of international legal regulation, since this is a manifestation of international legal nihilism condemned by modern morality. On the other hand, it is stressed that the requirements of international law shouldn’t be absolutized. As a result of the research, the authors draw conclusions that in case of divergence of international legal regulations with foreign policy interests of the country, Russia has an opportunity to challenge the universal recognition of certain principles and norms of international law. In addition, the authors conclude that it is possible to abandon the previously assumed international legal obligations in the procedures established by international and national law and to use the tools of constitutional justice according to the current situation.
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Warbrick, Colin, Dominic McGoldrick i Coun Warbrick. "III. Extradition Law Aspects of Pinochet 3". International and Comparative Law Quarterly 48, nr 4 (październik 1999): 958–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020589300063788.
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The prominence of the immunity issue in Pinochet 12 rather obscured the fact that the proceedings were ultimately about extradition. Perhaps that was how it should have been because immunity questions are recognised as preliminary matters, going to the very competence of a court to hear and determine the substantive claim. However, there can be questions which are, as it were, even more preliminary than ones about immunity. One example is where a party argues that there is no substance whatever to the right a State claims and which it is seeking to protect from adjudication by relying on one version or another of immunity.3 When the extradition aspects of the case resurfaced in Pinochet 3, the opposite, pre-preliminary situation was presented: did the extradition crimes specified in the warrants from Spain require any answer from Pinochet, such that could he avoid being handed over, without it being necessary for him to raise any claim of immunity?
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Lev, Amnon. "Internationalisation of Law: Historical and Cultural Aspects". Nordic Journal of International Law 80, nr 3 (2011): 241–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157181011x581155.
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Zabara, І. "INTERNATIONAL LEGAL ORDER: ON THE ISSUE OF PREMISES, AREAS INSTALLATION AND PERIODIZATION (THEORETICAL ASPECTS)". ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 1, nr 127 (2016): 87–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/apmv.2016.127.1.87-94.
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Article considers some theoretical aspects related to international legal order. By consistently explores issues prerequisites of becoming international legal order, the areas of its installation and operation, as well as the periodization. The author summarizes the doctrinal international legal opinions and notes that the prerequisites of becoming international law serves several components (social, political, economic and legal) that determine the current state and contribute to the formation and draws attention to the reasons that justify the science of international law. By separately identifies conditions that contribute to the formation of the current state of international law. In order to establish the scope and characteristics of the international law, the author considered traditional doctrinal international legal views on the category of «the international society» and «the interstate society». However, the author is considered and a new approach proposed in the science of international law, according to which international law relevant to twenty-first century is a new category – «the international community». The author notes that the change in the theoretical approach serves not only the result of global world processes, but also their long and deep scientific understanding. However, the author points out that the theoretical problem areas and establishment of the international legal order encompasses and extends to categories such as party and members and international legal order. Separately, the author addresses the issue of periodization and international law. Noting that the issues of periodization have not been the subject of special research, the author summarizes the views of a few researchers. The author, noting the differences in theoretical approaches notes hat common in these scientific views on the issue of periodization research is the isolation of the modern period «era of international legal order of the UN».
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Zharylouskaya, Maryia. "LEGAL ASPECTS OF GENDER EQUALITY IN THE LABOUR MARKET". Topos, nr 2023-2 (28.12.2023): 38–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.61095/1815-0047-2023-2-38-54.
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The article elaborates on existing international standards for gender equality in the labour market and the main challenges that cause its insufficient effectiveness. The object of the research is the norms of international law establishing human rights standards related to ensuring gender equality in the labour market at the worldwide level through the UN system and, in particular, such legal instruments as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979), and the ILO jurisprudence. The research methodology is based on a comprehensive approach, including an analysis of acts of international law, case law of relevant international organisations, and authorities. Inter alia the following methods of scientific knowledge were used in the research: (i) general methods, in particular: scientific abstraction, analysis, synthesis, generalisation, comparison, principles of dialectics and formal logic, historical and systemic approaches; (ii) specific methods, in particular: method of comparative legal research. Based on the research conducted, three main contemporary challenges for the legal regulation of gender aspects of the labour market were identified: (i) the historically determined predominant use of binary perception of sex as a basis for gender discrimination, including in the labour market. Despite the existence of positive implementation practices of HRC, the ILO and CEDAW legal concepts on sex-based and gender-based discrimination should be further developed through both holistic theoretical analysis and the incorporation of relevant legal norms into acts of “hard” international law; (ii) the legal status of men with family responsibilities does not have enough legal regulation on the level of obligatory international guarantees, therefore, subsequent international law should to be adopted; (iii) enforcement mechanisms are weak enough and their implementation is often conditional on the “goodwill” of a State concerned without the possibility of international external enforcement (with the exception of certain ILO mechanisms, which are, however, procedurally difficult to enforce due to the tripartite system of organisation).
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NIKIFORENKO, VOLODYMYR, YURII KURYLIUK i IGOR KUKIN. "GEOSTRATEGIC ASPECTS OF GLOBAL SECURITY (USING THE EXAMPLE OF RUSSIAN AGGRESSION)". 12 12, nr 2 (31.12.2022): 170–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.33543/1202170175.
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This article examines the issue of violation of the principle of territorial integrity (integrity) or political independence of states from 1946 to 2022. The approach is based on the study and understanding of domestic and foreign literary sources, statistics, legal acts. Russia gained the status of an independent entity in the international arena immediately after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Almost immediately, it began to show signs of aggression. To promote its geopolitical ambitions, it uses gaps in international law, information and psychological measures, corruption, mercenaries, collaborators, blackmail, the law of force, and tries to rewrite history. The course of military conflicts involving Russia in the Republic of Moldova, Chechnya, Georgia, Syria and Ukraine shows that the scale of violations of international treaties, human rights and the rules of warfare has increased in line with the strengthening of its military capabilities. During the hostilities on the territory of independent Ukraine, Russia showed a complete list of signs of aggression, as defined by UN General Assembly Resolution 3314 (XXIX) of December 14, 1974. This shows that before the armed attack on Ukraine, the aggressor was convinced that it could not be brought to justice and punished. It also hoped that his next victim would not be able to receive international political, economic, military and social assistance. Some actions of Russia in the international arena have signs of state terrorism. During the last ten years, a fascist regime has formed in Russia. The abuse of the veto did not lead to the expulsion of the aggressor country from the UN Security Council. To stop Russia’s aggression and prevent similar developments in the future, the issues of improving international law, bringing to justice the political and military leadership of the republic of Belarus and the Russian federation, improving the UN Charter, the powers of the UN General Assembly, depriving Russia of the right to participate in peacekeeping operations.