Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Hydrodynamics- Liquid flow”

Cette thèse porte sur l'étude de l'écoulement d'un film liquide mince tombant sous l'effet de la gravité, et soumis ou non à un contre-courant de gaz, dans une conduite cylindrique verticale. Un des objectifs principaux est la caractérisation de la forme de la surface de ce film. Pour aboutir aux équations de cette surface, nous utilisons une technique de réduction du nombre des variables et des équations du problème formulé à partir du système des équations de Navier-Stokes et des conditions aux limites. Le modèle qui en découle constitue une généralisation de la plupart des modèles existant dans la littérature et montre que la structure ultime de la surface est une compétition entre les effets de la gravité, de la tension superficielle et du frottement interfacial. L’analyse de la solution de base nous a permis de caractériser la transition du film descendant au film ascendant, qui pourrait en résulter par une variation de débit de l'une quelconque des deux phases. L’étude linéaire de la stabilité confirme les travaux effectués sur le film plan et complète ces derniers grâce à l'analyse des instabilités convectives. La dérivation asymptotique de l'équation de l'amplitude montre que cette dernière est une équation de Schrödinger non linéaire avec un potentiel cubique. Une résolution numérique des équations du modèle nous a permis de caractériser l'évolution des amplitudes des modes instables et de leurs harmoniques. Les comparaisons entre les amplitudes des vagues et leurs célérités, avec les prédictions de la théorie linéaire sont très satisfaisantes. La simulation numérique directe par la méthode des éléments finis a permis de conforter les prédictions de la théorie linéaire. L’analyse des spectres montre un comportement plus complexe des amplitudes par rapport aux solutions de la méthode intégrale. La détermination de la forme locale du champ des vitesses pour un nombre de Reynolds inferieur à 500, constitue un résultat remarquable

In this thesis, we study mathematical models that describe the morphology of a generalized biological cell in equilibrium or under the influence of external forces. Within these models, the cell is considered as a thermodynamic system, where streaming effects in the cell bulk and the surrounding are coupled with a Helfrich-type model for the cell membrane. The governing evolution equations for the cell given in a continuum formulation are derived using an energy variation approach. Such two-phase flow problems that combine streaming effects with a free boundary problem that accounts for bending and surface tension can be described effectively by a diffuse interface approach. An advantage of the diffuse interface approach is that models for e.g. different biophysical processes can easily be combined. That makes this method suitable to describe complex phenomena such as cell motility and multi-cell dynamics. Within the first model for cell motility, we combine a biological network for GTPases with the hydrodynamic Helfrich-type model. This model allows to account for cell motility driven by membrane protrusion as a result of actin polymerization. Within the second model, we moreover extend the Helfrich-type model by an active gel theory to account for the actin filaments in the cell bulk. Caused by contractile stress within the actin-myosin solution, a spontaneous symmetry breaking event occurs that lead to cell motility. In this thesis, we further study the dynamics of multiple cells which is of wide interest since it reveals rich non-linear behavior. To apply the diffuse interface framework, we introduce several phase field variables to account for several cells that are coupled by a local interaction potential. In a first application, we study white blood cell margination, a biological phenomenon that results from the complex relation between collisions, different mechanical properties and lift forces of red blood cells and white blood cells within the vascular system. Here, it is shown that inertial effects, which can become of relevance in various parts of the cardiovascular system, lead to a decreasing tendency for margination with increasing Reynolds number. Finally, we combine the active polar gel theory and the multi-cell approach that is capable of studying collective migration of cells. This hydrodynamic approach predicts that collective migration emerges spontaneously forming coherently-moving clusters as a result of the mutual alignment of the velocity vectors during inelastic collisions. We further observe that hydrodynamics heavily influence those systems. However, a complete suppression of the onset of collective migration cannot be confirmed. Moreover, we give a brief insight how such highly coupled systems can be treated numerically using finite elements and how the numerical costs can be limited using operator splitting approaches and problem parallelization with OPENMP
Diese Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit mathematischen Modellen zur Beschreibung von Gleichgewichts- und dynamischen Zuständen von verallgemeinerten biologischen Zellen. Die Zellen werden dabei als thermodynamisches System aufgefasst, bei dem Strömungseffekte innerhalb und außerhalb der Zelle zusammen mit einem Helfrich-Modell für Zellmembranen kombiniert werden. Schließlich werden durch einen Energie-Variations-Ansatz die Evolutionsgleichungen für die Zelle hergeleitet. Es ergeben sie dabei Mehrphasen-Systeme, die Strömungseffekte mit einem freien Randwertproblem, das zusätzlich physikalischen Einflüssen wie Biegung und Oberflächenspannung unterliegt, vereinen. Um solche Probleme effizient zu lösen, wird in dieser Arbeit die Diffuse-Interface-Methode verwendet. Ein Vorteil dieser Methode ist, dass es sehr einfach möglich ist, Modelle, die verschiedenste Prozesse beschreiben, miteinander zu vereinen. Dies erlaubt es, komplexe biologische Phänomene, wie zum Beispiel Zellmotilität oder auch die kollektive Bewegung von Zellen, zu beschreiben. In den Modellen für Zellmotilität wird ein biologisches Netzwerk-Modell für GTPasen oder auch ein Active-Polar-Gel-Modell, das die Aktinfilamente im Inneren der Zellen als Flüssigkristall auffasst, mit dem Multi-Phasen-Modell kombiniert. Beide Modelle erlauben es, komplexe Vorgänge bei der selbst hervorgerufenen Bewegung von Zellen, wie das Vorantreiben der Zellmembran durch Aktinpolymerisierung oder auch die Kontraktionsbewegung des Zellkörpers durch kontraktile Spannungen innerhalb des Zytoskelets der Zelle, zu verstehen. Weiterhin ist die kollektive Bewegung von vielen Zellen von großem Interesse, da sich hier viele nichtlineare Phänomene zeigen. Um das Diffuse-Interface-Modell für eine Zelle auf die Beschreibung mehrerer Zellen zu übertragen, werden mehrere Phasenfelder eingeführt, die die Zellen jeweils kennzeichnen. Schließlich werden die Zellen durch ein lokales Abstoßungspotential gekoppelt. Das Modell wird angewendet, um White blood cell margination, das die Annäherung von Leukozyten an die Blutgefäßwand bezeichnet, zu verstehen. Dieser Prozess wird dabei bestimmt durch den komplexen Zusammenhang zwischen Kollisionen, den jeweiligen mechanischen Eigenschaften der Zellen, sowie deren Auftriebskraft innerhalb der Adern. Die Simulationen zeigen, dass diese Annäherung sich in bestimmten Gebieten des kardiovaskulären Systems stark vermindert, in denen die Blutströmung das Stokes-Regime verlässt. Schließlich wird das Active-Polar-Gel-Modell mit dem Modell für die kollektive Bewegung vom Zellen kombiniert. Dies macht es möglich, die kollektive Bewegung der Zellen und den Einfluss von Hydrodynamik auf diese Bewegung zu untersuchen. Es zeigt sich dabei, dass der Zustand der kollektiven gerichteten Bewegung sich spontan aus der Neuausrichtung der jeweiligen Zellen durch inelastische Kollisionen ergibt. Obwohl die Hydrodynamik einen großen Einfluss auf solche Systeme hat, deuten die Simulationen nicht daraufhin, dass Hydrodynamik die kollektive Bewegung vollständig unterdrückt. Weiterhin wird in dieser Arbeit gezeigt, wie die stark gekoppelten Systeme numerisch gelöst werden können mit Hilfe der Finiten-Elemente-Methode und wie die Effizienz der Methode gesteigert werden kann durch die Anwendung von Operator-Splitting-Techniken und Problemparallelisierung mittels OPENMP

Le contact entre le jet d'eau et l'acier inoxydable fondu observe dans l'installation experimentale seizies provoque une pressurisation et une liberation de l'energie mecanique. On propose dans ce memoire une analyse et une interpretation de cette interaction a l'aide d'un modele thermodynamique et d'un modele parametrique. Les objectifs de ce travail sont: l'evaluation du terme source de l'interaction, a savoir l'energie reellement transmise dans l'interaction et celle transformee en travail mecanique et l'amelioration des connaissances sur l'interaction thermique metal fondu et notamment dans le cas d'une injection de l'eau sur le metal fondu. Les resultats importants sont: le travail mesure experimentalement est representatif du travail maximum liberable dans seizies, la masse d'acier participant a ete determine et certains mecanismes physiques ont ete valides

Les colonnes à bulles sont des contacteurs gaz-liquide très répandus en milieu industriel, notamment dans des applications de procédés chimiques, biologiques et minéralogiques. Dans la gamme de colonne à bulles disponible, l'airlift sous dépression est une innovation française présentant des caractéristiques très intéressantes pour le pompage hydraulique, le transfert de masse et la séparation des matières en suspension. Ce travail de thèse s'inscrit dans le cadre du développement de cet airlift amélioré, très utilisé dans le milieu industriel. L'objectif de la thèse est la caractérisation hydrodynamique de la colonne airlift sous dépression et l'analyse de ses capacités à assurer la fonction de séparation solide-liquide pour des particules en suspension. Le travail est exclusivement expérimental et le dispositif expérimental est constitué d'une colonne à bulles verticale transparente en plexiglass soumise à une dépression en tête et connectée à un bassin de recirculation hydraulique. L'analyse hydrodynamique a été réalisée à l'aide de capteur de pression différentielle pour l'étude globale et à l'aide d'une double sonde optique pour une caractérisation locale. Les résultats obtenus ont permis d'étudier le régime d'écoulement pour les principaux paramètres : le taux de vide, la vitesse d'ascension et le diamètre des bulles. La Vélocimétrie par Images des Particules a été appliquée pour visualiser et analyser les structures d'écoulement dans le bassin de recirculation. Les capacités extractives de la colonne ont été étudiées en eau douce avec ajout de produits tensioactifs. La caséine soluble et le Methyl Iso Butyl Carbinol (MIBC) sont les deux tensioactifs qui ont donné les meilleurs résultats en termes de séparation solide-liquide des matières en suspension. Ce travail a contribué à la compréhension de l'hydrodynamique des airlift sous dépression et a permis de mettre en évidence les potentialités de cette colonne dans le processus de séparation solide-liquide. Le travail ouvre aussi la voie à la modélisation numérique de l'hydrodynamique de la colonne en s'appuyant sur les résultats expérimentaux
Bubble columns are gas-liquid contactors widely used in industry, especially in chemical, biological and mineralogical process applications. In the range of bubble columns available, the vacuum airlift is a French innovation with very interesting characteristics for hydraulic pumping, mass transfer and suspended matter separation. This thesis work is part of the development of this improved airlift, which is widely used in the industrial environment. The objective of the thesis is the hydrodynamic characterization of the airlift column under vacuum and analysis of its capacities to ensure the solid-liquid separation function. This work is exclusively experimental and the experimental setup is a vertical bubble column in plexiglass under vacuum and connected to a recirculation basin. The hydrodynamic analysis was carried out using a differential pressure sensor for the global study and using a double optical probe for local characterization. Results obtained made it possible to study flow regime. The main parameters obtained are the void fraction, superficial velocity and bubbles diameter. Particle Image Velocimetry is applied to visualize and analyze the flow structures in the recirculation basin. The extracting capacities of the column were studied in tap water with the addition of surfactants. Soluble casein and Methyl Iso Butyl Carbinol (MIBC) are the two surfactants that have given the best results in terms of solid-liquid separation of suspended matter. This work contributed to the understanding hydrodynamics for vacuum airlift column and helped to highlight the potential of this column in the solid-liquid separation process. This work also opens the way to numerical modelling of airlift column hydrodynamics from experimental results

Simulation numérique de l'écoulement laminaire bidimensionnel créé par un fil chaud placé sous une surface libre. Le code de calcul inclut les convections naturelle et de Marangoni, les transferts de chaleur à l’interface ainsi que la viscosité interfaciale. Analyse linéaire de stabilité dans le cas d'une couche liquide horizontale d'extension infinie, limitée par une paroi rigide et une surface libre. Modélisation

Cette thèse s'intéresse à la simulation numérique de l'explosion vapeur. Ce phénomène correspond à une vaporisation instantanée d'un volume d'eau liquide entraînant un choc de pression. Nous nous y intéressons dans le cadre de la sûreté nucléaire. En effet, lors d'un accident entraînant la fusion du cœur du réacteur, du métal fondu pourrait interagir avec de l'eau liquide et entraîner un tel choc. On voudrait alors connaître l'ampleur de ce phénomène et les risques d'endommagements de la centrale qu'il implique. Pour y parvenir, nous utilisons pour modèle les équations d'Euler dans un cadre Lagrangien. Cette description a l'avantage de suivre les fluides au cours du temps et donc de parfaitement conserver les interfaces entre l'eau liquide et sa vapeur. Pour résoudre numériquement les équations obtenues, nous développons un nouveau schéma de type Godunov utilisant des flux nodaux. Le solveur nodal développé durant cette thèse ne dépend que de la répartition angulaire des variables physiques autour du nœud. De plus, nous nous intéressons aux changements de phase liquide-vapeur. Nous proposons une méthode pour les prendre en compte et mettons en avant les avantages qu'il y a à l'implémentation de ce phénomène dans un algorithme Lagrangien
This thesis studies numerical simulation of steam explosion. This phenomenon correspond to a fast vaporization of a liquid leading to a pressure shock. It is of interest in the nuclear safety field. During a core-meltdown crisis, molten fuel rods interacting with water could lead to steam explosion. Consequently we want to evaluate the risks created by this phenomenon.In order to do it, we use Euler equations written in a Lagrangian form. This description has the advantage of following the fluid motion and consequently preserves interfaces between the liquid and its vapor. To solve these equations, we develop a new Godunov type scheme using nodal fluxes. The nodal solver developed here only depends on the angular repartition of the physical variables around the node.Moreover, we study liquid-vapor phase changes. We describe a method to take it into account and highlight the advantages of using this method into a Lagrangian framework

Ce travail porte sur l'étude théorique des interfaces entre deux fluides visqueux, soumis à un écoulement de Couette plan. Dans cette situation hors d'équilibre, les fluctuations thermiques de l'interface sont modifiées en raison du couplage par le cisaillement entre les effets visqueux et les effets de tension. Comme c'est le cas pour d'autres systèmes de matière molle (par exemple, les phases lamellaires), le cisaillement peut alors amplifier ou amortir les déformations interfaciales. On s'intéresse tout d'abord à la dynamique des fluctuations interfaciales. On montre que ces dernières vérifient une équation stochastique non-linéaire, dont la solution est contrôlée par un paramètre sans dimension qui contient toute l'information sur le système. La résolution à faible taux de cisaillement révèle que le déplacement quadratique moyen des fluctuations thermiques diminue avec l'écoulement, conformément aux observations expérimentales et numériques. Ensuite, on étudie l'influence des effets inertiels sur la stabilité de l'écoulement, dans le régime des fortes viscosités et des faibles tensions. Ce régime des grands nombres capillaires n'a été que très peu étudié, mais trouve sa pertinence par exemple dans les mélanges biphasiques de colloïdes et de polymères. Des critères de stabilité simples sont mis en évidence. Finalement, on réalise une étude numérique des propriétés des fluctuations interfaciales à grand cisaillement. Bien que les effets visqueux soient dominants, il en ressort une phénoménologie similaire à certains modèles de turbulence.

Microfluidic devices are utilized in a wide range of applications, including micro-electromechanical devices, drug delivery, biological diagnostics and micro-fuel cell systems. Of particular interest here are liquid-liquid microfluidic systems; which are used in drug discovery, food and oil industry amongst others. Increased understanding of the fundamentals of flows in such devices and an improved capacity to design them can come from modelling. In the case of liquid-liquid flows in microfluidic systems, it is necessary to explicitly model the behaviour of the individual liquid phases. Such explicit numerical simulation (ENS) as it is termed requires advanced numerical methods that are able to evaluate flow involving multiple deforming fluid domains within often complex boundaries. Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH), a Lagrangian meshless method, is particularly suitable for such problems. This use of a CFD allows determination of parameters that are difficult to determine experimentally because of the challenges faced in microfabrication. The study reported in this thesis addresses these concerns through development of a new SPH-based model to correctly capture the immiscible liquid-liquid interfaces in general and for a microfluidic hydrodynamic focusing system in particular. The model includes surface tension to enforce immiscibility between different liquids based on a new immiscibility model, enforces strict incompressibility, and allows for arbitrary fluid constitutive models. This work presents a detailed study on the effects of various flow parameters including flowrate ratio, viscosity ratio and capillary number of each liquid phase, and geometry characteristics such as channel size, width ratio, and the angle between the inlet main and side channels on the flow dynamics and topological changes of the multiphase microfluidic system. According to our findings, both flowrate quantity and flowrate ratio affect the droplet length in the dripping regime and a large viscosity ratio imposes an increase in the flowrate of the continuous phase with the same capillary number of the dispersed phase to attain dripping regime in the outlet channel. Also, increasing the side channel width causes longer droplets, and the right-angled design makes the most efficient focusing behaviour. This study will provide great insights in designing microfluidic devices involving immiscible liquid-liquid flows.
Thesis (Ph.D.) (Research by Publication) -- University of Adelaide, School of Chemical Engineering, 2016.

The hydrodynamic phenomena occurring inside the enclosed downcomer section of a plunging jet bubble column are described in the study. The gas entrainment rate for a plunging liquid jet was found to consist of two components, namely the gas trapped within the effective jet diameter at the point of impact, and the gas contained within the film between the jet and induction trumpet surface at the point of rupture. Entrainment within the effective jet diameter has been examined by McCarthy (1972). In this study, a model was supported by the experimental results, provided the film attained a region of constant thickness. When the induction trumpet was ruptured prior to a constant film thickness being reached, the measured rate of filmwise entrainment was higher than the prediction. Filmwise entrainment was found to be initiated once a critical velocity along the surface of the induction trumpet was reached. The critical velocity was a function only of the liquid physical properties and was independent of the jet conditions and downcomer diameter. The velocity of the free surface of the induction trumpet was obtained from the velocity profile for the recirculating eddy generated by the confined plunging liquid jet. The jet angle used to describe the expansion of the submerged jet inside the downcomer was predicted from the radial diffusion of jet momentum into the recirculation eddy. The model was able to predict the jet angle when it was assumed that the radial diffusion of jet momentum was a function of the Euler number based on the jet velocity and absolute pressure in the headspace at the top of the downcomer. The model was also developed to predict the maximum stable bubble diameter generated within the submerged jet volume, where the energy dissipation attributed to bubble breakup was given by the energy mixing loss derived for the throat section of a liquid-jet-gas-pump. Good agreement was found between the measured and predicted maximum bubble diameter values. The average experimental Sauter mean/maximum diameter ratio was found to be 0.61, which was similar to that for other bubble generation devices. It was found that for turbulent liquid conditions in the uniform two-phase flow region, a transition from bubble to churn-turbulent flow occurred at a gas void fraction of approximately 0.2 when the gas drift-flux was zero. Under laminar liquid flow, this transition took place at a gas void fraction above 0.3. For the bubbly flow regime the Distribution parameter Co used by Zuber and Findlay (1965) to describe the velocity and gas void fraction profile, was found to be a function of the liquid Reynolds number. For laminar liquid flow, values of Co greater than unity were obtained. As the liquid Reynolds number was increased it was found that Co decreased, until a constant value of unity was obtained for fully turbulent flow. For the churn-turbulent regime it was found that the gas void fraction measurements for all of the experimental runs could be collapsed onto a single curve when a modified gas void fraction was plotted against the gas-to-liquid volumetric flow ratio. The modified gas void fraction included a correction factor to account for the difference in the bubble slip velocity between the experimental runs. The experimental results also indicated that the value of the constant in the gas void fraction correction factor was different for laminar and turbulent flow. Prior to bubble coalescence, it was found that the experimental drift-flux curves could be predicted from the measured bubble diameter, using the separated flow model development by Ishii and Zuber (1979). After the onset of coalescence the drift flux measurements departed from the original drift-flux curves at a rate which increased linearly with increasing gas void fraction. It was found that the slope of the line fitted to the coalesced region of the drift-flux curves increased with increasing liquid Reynolds number and reached a constant value under fully turbulent flow conditions. The model developed, together with the implications of the experimental results, are discussed with regard to optimising the design of an industrial plunging jet bubble column.
PhD Doctorate

The hydrodynamic phenomena occurring inside the enclosed downcomer section of a plunging jet bubble column are described in the study. The gas entrainment rate for a plunging liquid jet was found to consist of two components, namely the gas trapped within the effective jet diameter at the point of impact, and the gas contained within the film between the jet and induction trumpet surface at the point of rupture. Entrainment within the effective jet diameter has been examined by McCarthy (1972). In this study, a model was supported by the experimental results, provided the film attained a region of constant thickness. When the induction trumpet was ruptured prior to a constant film thickness being reached, the measured rate of filmwise entrainment was higher than the prediction. Filmwise entrainment was found to be initiated once a critical velocity along the surface of the induction trumpet was reached. The critical velocity was a function only of the liquid physical properties and was independent of the jet conditions and downcomer diameter. The velocity of the free surface of the induction trumpet was obtained from the velocity profile for the recirculating eddy generated by the confined plunging liquid jet. The jet angle used to describe the expansion of the submerged jet inside the downcomer was predicted from the radial diffusion of jet momentum into the recirculation eddy. The model was able to predict the jet angle when it was assumed that the radial diffusion of jet momentum was a function of the Euler number based on the jet velocity and absolute pressure in the headspace at the top of the downcomer. The model was also developed to predict the maximum stable bubble diameter generated within the submerged jet volume, where the energy dissipation attributed to bubble breakup was given by the energy mixing loss derived for the throat section of a liquid-jet-gas-pump. Good agreement was found between the measured and predicted maximum bubble diameter values. The average experimental Sauter mean/maximum diameter ratio was found to be 0.61, which was similar to that for other bubble generation devices. It was found that for turbulent liquid conditions in the uniform two-phase flow region, a transition from bubble to churn-turbulent flow occurred at a gas void fraction of approximately 0.2 when the gas drift-flux was zero. Under laminar liquid flow, this transition took place at a gas void fraction above 0.3. For the bubbly flow regime the Distribution parameter Co used by Zuber and Findlay (1965) to describe the velocity and gas void fraction profile, was found to be a function of the liquid Reynolds number. For laminar liquid flow, values of Co greater than unity were obtained. As the liquid Reynolds number was increased it was found that Co decreased, until a constant value of unity was obtained for fully turbulent flow. For the churn-turbulent regime it was found that the gas void fraction measurements for all of the experimental runs could be collapsed onto a single curve when a modified gas void fraction was plotted against the gas-to-liquid volumetric flow ratio. The modified gas void fraction included a correction factor to account for the difference in the bubble slip velocity between the experimental runs. The experimental results also indicated that the value of the constant in the gas void fraction correction factor was different for laminar and turbulent flow. Prior to bubble coalescence, it was found that the experimental drift-flux curves could be predicted from the measured bubble diameter, using the separated flow model development by Ishii and Zuber (1979). After the onset of coalescence the drift flux measurements departed from the original drift-flux curves at a rate which increased linearly with increasing gas void fraction. It was found that the slope of the line fitted to the coalesced region of the drift-flux curves increased with increasing liquid Reynolds number and reached a constant value under fully turbulent flow conditions. The model developed, together with the implications of the experimental results, are discussed with regard to optimising the design of an industrial plunging jet bubble column.
PhD Doctorate

In many technical applications such as cooling systems used in chemical industry and fuel injection systems of modern gas turbines, thin liquid films driven by gravity or turbulent gas stream can be found. Since the thermo-hydrodynamic process in such liquid-gas flow configuration is rather complex, the transport mechanisms are not well understood. However, numerical simulations or theoretical models rely on these mechanisms. Experimental investigations are necessary in order to delineate this complex thermo-hydrodynamic phenomenon and to provide validation data to the theoreticians. The main objective of this work is to study the hydrodynamics and convective heat transfer in gravity and gas-driven thin liquid films on uniformly heated walls. To achieve this, an experimental set-up has been designed and measurements were performed in a flow channel. The liquid film was annularly applied on a vertically mounted heated tube. In the arranged two-phase flow domain, both fluids were thermally and hydrodynamically developing. The Reynolds numbers of liquid and gas flows were varied between 80 - 800 and 10000 - 100000, respectively. The wall heat flux was kept constant at 15 W/cm2. The gas velocity profile in the flow channel was measured with hot-wire anemometry to determine the shear stresses on the dry wall surface. The effect of surface topography of the wall was investigated. The hydrodynamics and heat transfer of gas-driven liquid films was studied on micro-structures heated tubes. The dynamics of the liquid film flow was recorded by high-speed shadowgraphy technique. Using the high-speed images, the wave amplitudes and wave frequencies were determined. A high-speed infrared camera was used to qualitatively visualize the film rupture on micro-structured surfaces. The wall temperature distribution in streamwise direction was measured using thermocouples embedded inside the heated wall. Correlations for Nusselt number at unstructured surfaces have been proposed. This study reveals that the action of shear stress at a thin liquid layer flowing along an unstructured wall has a remarkable influence on the stability of the liquid-gas interface. Disturbances at the liquid film surface appear as the shear stress reaches a critical value. Measurements at various axial locations show that the fluctuations grow in the flow direction. The rate of growth is determined by the gas and liquid mass flow rates. With the increase in liquid Reynolds number, the liquid free-surface deformation is suppressed and the temporal film thickness fluctuations in the flow direction either decrease slightly or remain constant. A significant enhancement in heat transfer happens when the shear stress at the liquid-gas interface increases. However, there exists a threshold level of shear stress, only beyond which this is true. This exists as identified by comparing the experimentally determined heat transfer coefficients with the solutions of the classical Graetz-Nusselt model. Furthermore, the Nusselt numbers are compared with the Nusselt numbers of laminar, hydrodynamically and thermally developed falling films, falling films which develop thermally and those which are in the transition regime from laminar to turbulent flow, and with a turbulence model used from the literature. The comparison shows, that above gas Reynolds numbers larger than 70000, the heat transfer coefficient is following the trend predicted by the turbulence model. Micro-structures have significant influence on the waviness of gas-driven liquid films. With increasing shear stress and liquid mass flow rate, the film waviness increases. Especially micro-structures embossed with obstacles normal to the flow direction lead to large wave amplitudes and high wave frequencies at low shear stress compared to the unstructured surface and the surfaces, incorporating structures oriented parallel to the flow direction. At low liquid mass flow rates and high shear stress, the area of local film rupture increases. Furthermore, micro-structures significantly enhance the heat transfer compared to the unstructured surface. Especially micro-structures combined by longitudinal and horizontal geometries are very effective in heat transfer enhancement at low shear stress and comparably low liquid mass flow rates.

博士
國立成功大學
機械工程學系碩博士班
92
This paper presents a stability analysis of thin viscoelastic and micropolar liquid films flowing down a plate or cylinder moving in a vertical direction. The nonlinear rupture problem of thin micropolar liquid films on a cylinder is also investigated. The long-wave perturbation method is employed to derive the generalized nonlinear kinematic equations for a free film interface. The current thin liquid film stability analysis provides a valuable input to investigations into the influence of the style of motion of the vertical plate or cylinder on the stability behavior of the thin film flow. The normal mode method is employed to solve the linear solutions of the film flow, and the threshold conditions and linear growth rate of the amplitudes are obtained to analyze the linear stability behavior. This study utilizes the multiple scales method and derives the corresponding Ginzburg-Landau equation to characterize the nonlinear behavior of the flow. The subcritical stability, subcritical instability, supercritical stability, and supercritical instability states are obtained from the nonlinear stability analysis. The present rupture analysis of a thin liquid film on a cylinder supports investigations into the onset of film rupture and permits an understanding of the relative influences of factors such as micropolar parameter, cylinder radius, van der Waals potential, and surface tension on the rupture process. 　　The following conclusions can be drawn from the current numerical modeling results: (1)Influence of style of motion of vertical plate or cylinder on stability behavior of thin film flow: 　　A downward direction motion of the vertical plate or cylinder tends to enhance the stability of the downward-traveling film flow on the plate or cylinder. The film flow system becomes more stable as the downward direction velocity of the plate or cylinder increases. The effects of the viscoelastic parameter, , and the micropolar parameter, , on the stability of the thin film flow are diminished as the downward direction velocity of the plate or cylinder increases. Conversely, an upward direction motion of the plate or cylinder tends to reduce the stability of the down-traveling film flow. The film flow system becomes more unstable as the upward direction velocity of the plate or cylinder increases. The effects of the viscoelastic parameter, , and the micropolar parameter, , on the stability of the thin film flow become more pronounced as the upward direction velocity of the plate or cylinder increases. (2)Influence of cylinder radius on stability behavior of thin film flow: 　　The film flow becomes more stable by increasing the radius of the cylinder as the cylinder moves either upward or downward. The effect of the cylinder radius on the stability of the thin film flow becomes less significant as the downward direction velocity of the cylinder increases. Conversely, the radius effect becomes more pronounced as the upward direction velocity of the cylinder increases. (3)Rupture analysis of thin liquid film on cylinder: 　　The occurrence of film rupture is delayed as the value of the micropolar parameter, , is increased. Furthermore, the rupture time of the film flow decreases as the van der Waals potential effect increases. Conversely, increasing the surface tension or the cylinder radius delays the onset of the rupture process.

博士
國立成功大學
機械工程學系
89
The paper investigates the stability of thin non-Newtonian liquid film flowing down on a vertical wall or cylinder using a long-wave perturbation method to solve for generalized nonlinear kinematic equations with free film interface. To begin with a normal mode approach is employed to obtain the linear stability solution for the film flow. The threshold conditions, the linear growth rate of the amplitudes and the linear wave speeds are obtained subsequently as the by-products of linear solutions. To further investigate practical flow stability conditions, the weak nonlinear dynamics of a film flow is presented by using the method of multiple scales. It is shown that the necessary condition for the existence of such a solution is governed by the Ginzburg-Landau equation. The subcritical stability, subcritical instability, supercritical stability and supercritical explosive state will be obtained from the nonlinear film flow system. Some practical examples will be shown in the present thesis in order to illustrate the effectiveness on stability of the viscoelastic coefficient, the flow index of pseudoplastic liquid, the yield stress of Bingham liquid, the micropolar parameter and the cylinder size on the conclusive results. (1)Stability analysis of a thin viscoelastic film flow When a viscoelastic liquid film flow is modeled as a non-Newtonian flow, it possesses the characteristics of the so-called cross-viscosity and elastic properties. As the gravity-driven fluid is in motion, the flow energy is partially consumed by internal viscous forces and dissipated as heat to the environment, and partially stored as strain energy and the elastic stresses cannot be relaxed at a certain frequency. The degree of stability of the viscoelastic film flow decreases as the value of k increases. (2)Stability analysis of a thin pseudoplastic film flow When a pseudoplastic liquid film flow is modeled as a non-Newtonian flow, it possesses the characteristic of shear thinning effect. Physically, the gravity-driven pseudoplastic fluid of thin film flow will decrease the effective viscosity, it can, therefore, increase the convective motion of flow. The decreasing flow index indeed plays a significant role in destabilizing the flow and is thus of great practical importance. (3)Stability analysis of a thin Bingham plastic film flow For the film flow in stable states, the larger yield stress of the Bingham fluid decreases the convective motion of flow and tends to stabilize the flow. However, the yield stress of the Bingham fluid increases the disturbance energy in unstable states. Therefore, the flow will become relatively unstable as the value of yield stress is increased. (4)Stability analysis of a thin micropolar film flow The effect of the microrotation and couple stress will be taken into account in the Non-Newtonian fluid with the suspension micro-particle. Because the vortex viscosity parameter of the microstructure in micropolar fluid will increase the effective viscosity, it can, therefore, reduce the convective motion of flow. The flow field becomes relatively stable for a larger . (5) Stability analysis of a thin film flowing down on a vertical cylinder When the film flows down the outer surface has a destabilizing effect as the cylinder with a smaller radius . This destabilizing effect occurs because the surface tension will produce large capillary pressure at a smaller radius of curvature. This will induce the capillary pressure and force the fluid trough to move upward to the crest. Thus, the amplitude of the wave is increased.

Although liquid ventilation has been researched and studied for the last six decades, it did not achieve its expected optimal performance. Within this work, a deeper understanding of the fluid dynamics during liquid ventilation shall be gathered to extend the already available clinical knowledge about this ventilation strategy. In order to reach this goal, advanced optical flow measurement techniques are applied in different models of the human conductive airways to obtain global velocity fields, identifying prominent flow structures and to determine important dissolved oxygen transport paths. As the velocity measurements revealed, the evolving flow field is strongly dominated by secondary flow effects and is highly dependent on the local airway geometry. During the visualization experiments of the dissolved oxygen concentration fields, different transportation paths occur at inspirational and expirational flow. The initial concentration distribution can be linked to the underlying flow fields but decouples after the peak velocity phases. With higher flow rates/ tidal volumes, a more homogeneously distributed oxygen concentration can be reached.:List of Figures ....................................................................................... VII List of Tables ........................................................................................XIII Nomenclature ........................................................................................ XV 1 Introduction......................................................................................... 1 1.1 Motivation ........................................................................................1 1.2 Research objectives........................................................................... 3 1.3 Outline............................................................................................ 4 2 State of the art .................................................................................... 5 2.1 Liquid Ventilation............................................................................. 5 2.2 In vitro modeling.............................................................................. 8 2.3 Flow measurements ......................................................................... 11 2.4 Gas transport..................................................................................13 3 Flow field measurements ................................................................... 16 3.1 Hydrodynamic Model.......................................................................16 3.1.1 Lung replica ..........................................................................16 3.1.2 Flow parameter .....................................................................18 3.1.3 Limitations ...........................................................................22 3.2 Particle Tracking Velocimetry (PTV) ................................................24 3.2.1 Measurement principle ...........................................................24 3.2.2 Double-frame 2D-PTV ...........................................................25 3.2.3 Time-resolved 3D-PTV ..........................................................28 3.2.4 Phase-locked ensemble PTV ................................................... 31 3.3 Experimental set-up and measurement procedure ...............................33 3.3.1 Lung flow facility...................................................................33 3.3.2 2D-PTV configuration............................................................36 3.3.3 3D-PTV configuration............................................................36 3.4 Results & Discussion........................................................................38 3.4.1 Artificial lung........................................................................38 3.4.2 Realistic lung ........................................................................52 3.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................59 4 Oxygen transport ...............................................................................61 4.1 Hydrodynamic Model....................................................................... 61 4.1.1 Lung replica .......................................................................... 61 4.1.2 Flow parameter .....................................................................62 4.1.3 Limitations ...........................................................................65 4.2 Oxygen Sensitive Dye ......................................................................66 4.3 Experimental set-up......................................................................... 71 4.4 Results & Discussion........................................................................75 4.4.1 Constant flow rate .................................................................75 4.4.2 Oscillatory flow .....................................................................83 4.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................90 5 Summary............................................................................................ 92 6 Outlook .............................................................................................. 95 Bibliography ............................................................................................ 97
Trotz intensiver Forschung in den letzten sechs Jahrzehnten, befindet sich die Flüssigkeitsbeatmung immernoch weit entfernt vom klinischen Alltag. Mit dieser Arbeit soll ein Beitrag geleistet werden, um das Wissen um die strömungsmechanischen Effekte während der Flüssigkeitsbeatmung zu vertiefen. Dazu werden verschiedene Modellexperimente durchgeführt, bei welchen moderne laseroptische Strömungsmessmethoden zum Einsatz kommen. Untersucht werden dabei unterschiedlich komplexe Geometrien der leitenden menschlichen Atemwege mit dem Ziel wesentliche Strömungsstrukturen, globale Geschwindigkeitsfelder und wichtige Transportwege des gelösten Sauerstoffs zu identifiziern. Die Geschwindigkeitsmessungen zeigen ein stark durch sekundäre Strömungseffekte dominiertes Geschwindigkeitsfeld, welches wesentlich von der lokalen Geometrie abhängig ist. Durch die qualitative und quantitative Erfassung der gelösten Sauerstoffkonzentrationsfelder können wichtige Transportwege aufgedeckt werden. Diese unterscheiden sich deutlich zwischen inspiratorischer und expiratorischer Strömungsrichtung. Die initialen Konzentrationsfelder stimmen mit den unterliegenden Geschwindigkeitsfeldern überein, unterscheiden sich ab der verzögernden Strömungsphase jedoch. Höhere Volumenströme/Tidalvolumen tragen dabei zu einer gleichmäßigeren Konzentrationsverteilung bei.:List of Figures ....................................................................................... VII List of Tables ........................................................................................XIII Nomenclature ........................................................................................ XV 1 Introduction......................................................................................... 1 1.1 Motivation ........................................................................................1 1.2 Research objectives........................................................................... 3 1.3 Outline............................................................................................ 4 2 State of the art .................................................................................... 5 2.1 Liquid Ventilation............................................................................. 5 2.2 In vitro modeling.............................................................................. 8 2.3 Flow measurements ......................................................................... 11 2.4 Gas transport..................................................................................13 3 Flow field measurements ................................................................... 16 3.1 Hydrodynamic Model.......................................................................16 3.1.1 Lung replica ..........................................................................16 3.1.2 Flow parameter .....................................................................18 3.1.3 Limitations ...........................................................................22 3.2 Particle Tracking Velocimetry (PTV) ................................................24 3.2.1 Measurement principle ...........................................................24 3.2.2 Double-frame 2D-PTV ...........................................................25 3.2.3 Time-resolved 3D-PTV ..........................................................28 3.2.4 Phase-locked ensemble PTV ................................................... 31 3.3 Experimental set-up and measurement procedure ...............................33 3.3.1 Lung flow facility...................................................................33 3.3.2 2D-PTV configuration............................................................36 3.3.3 3D-PTV configuration............................................................36 3.4 Results & Discussion........................................................................38 3.4.1 Artificial lung........................................................................38 3.4.2 Realistic lung ........................................................................52 3.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................59 4 Oxygen transport ...............................................................................61 4.1 Hydrodynamic Model....................................................................... 61 4.1.1 Lung replica .......................................................................... 61 4.1.2 Flow parameter .....................................................................62 4.1.3 Limitations ...........................................................................65 4.2 Oxygen Sensitive Dye ......................................................................66 4.3 Experimental set-up......................................................................... 71 4.4 Results & Discussion........................................................................75 4.4.1 Constant flow rate .................................................................75 4.4.2 Oscillatory flow .....................................................................83 4.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................90 5 Summary............................................................................................ 92 6 Outlook .............................................................................................. 95 Bibliography ............................................................................................ 97

Residence time distributions have become an important analytical tool in the analysis of many types of flow systems. Residence time distributions have proven to be effective for analysing trickle bed reactors, as it allows determination of parameters under operating conditions allowing no interference of these conditions. By studying the residence time distribution a great amount of information can be obtained and therefore used to determine a number of hydrodynamic parameters. Due to recent findings that prewetting has a tremendous effect on a number of hydrodynamic parameters such as holdup, wetting efficiency and pressure drop, it is therefore the aim of this study to investigate the effect of trickle flow morphology or prewetting on a trickle bed reactor. The residence time distribution is obtained whereby hydrodynamic parameters are determined and therefore the effect the flow morphology has on various hydrodynamic parameters is highlighted. A number of methods were used to determine these parameters, namely that of the best-fit method, whereby the PDE model was used, and the method of moments. Operating conditions included varying gas and liquid flow rates for porous and non-porous catalyst particles at atmospheric pressure. The different prewetting procedures used during this work included the following:

• Non-wetted
• Levec-wetted
• Super-wetted

From this investigation the following conclusions were made:

Prewetting has a great effect on the hydrodynamic parameters of trickle bed reactors

The differences in prewetting can be attributed to differing flow morphologies for the different prewetted beds i.e. the dominant flow morphology for a non-wetted bed is that of rivulets and for prewetted beds that of film flow

It was also found that at low liquid flow rates the flow morphology in prewetted beds changes from film flow to a combination of rivulet and film flow

The different flow morphologies for prewetted and non prewetted beds was confirmed by the residence time distributions and various parameters obtained there from

At low liquid flow rates the flow morphology becomes a more predominant factor in creating the tailing effect present in residence time distribution for prewetted beds

The tailing effect in residence time distributions is a result of both internal diffusion and liquid flow morphology, where the liquid flow morphology is the more dominant factor

The use of residence time distributions to determine a number of hydrodynamic parameters proved to be very useful and accurate by means of different methods, i.e. method of moments and best-fit method

Differences in the liquid holdup determined from the method of moments and the weighing method confirmed that different flow morphologies exist for different prewetted beds

An increase in the dispersion coefficient with prewetting was observed indicating that the amount of micro mixing is different for the different prewetted beds

Differences in residence times and high values for the dynamic holdup, for the porous packing, confirmed that the PDE model does not model well the porous packing response curves due to the lack of internal diffusion and internal holdup in this model

The dynamic-static mass transfer showed that film flow, as in prewetted beds, results in slower mass transfer as opposed to rivulet flow and therefore it is concluded that prewetting results in different flow morphologies.

Following this study it is recommended that a residence time distribution model be used or developed that incorporates the effects of internal diffusion and internal holdup as present in porous catalyst particles. In addition, it was found that very few correlations could accurately predict hydrodynamic parameters due to the absence of the effect of prewetting and therefore it is recommended that correlations be developed that incorporate the effect of prewetting.
Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2008.
Chemical Engineering
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