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Seward, Brett, Alex Gorodisher i Lorenzo Rubino. "FMVSS 141 for Commercial Vehicles: Applicability and Limitations". INTER-NOISE and NOISE-CON Congress and Conference Proceedings 266, nr 2 (25.05.2023): 665–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.3397/nc_2023_01_1036.
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Newly manufactured light-duty hybrid and electric passenger vehicles must comply with FMVSS 141 minimum sound requirements to reduce the risk of crashes with visually impaired and inattentive pedestrians. Commercial vehicles operate in a variety of noise-critical environments, from densely packed industrial yards to congested urban areas, making safe electric vehicle operation around pedestrians and bystanders vital. Though the market share of medium and heavy-duty hybrid and electric vehicles is projected to increase annually, there are currently no North American regulations specifically for minimum sound emissions of hybrid and electric vehicles heavier than 10,000 lb. GVWR. The primary intent of this paper is to investigate the efficacy and limitations of the current FMVSS 141 requirements when applied to heavy-duty electric trucks. Serving as a complementary test case, a Class 8 Freightliner eCascadia electric truck with onboard Acoustic Vehicle Alerting System (AVAS) was evaluated at Daimler Truck North America's High Desert Proving Grounds in accordance with the FMVSS 141 procedure for light-duty passenger vehicles. Analysis of the measured data found the FMVSS 141 forward gear criteria to be reasonably effective when applied to the test vehicle, but the standard's reverse gear criteria were deficient to other common industry-accepted backing alert methods. These results are used as a starting point for a discussion on various aspects of FMVSS 141, with an emphasis on how adding commercial vehicles to the scope of the standard could necessitate further changes to the defined acceptance criteria.
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Ross, Matt. "Heavy Hitter". Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technology International 2018, nr 1 (lipiec 2018): 52–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.12968/s1467-5560(22)60323-3.
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It’s an exciting time at Nikola Motor Company as the startup prepares to begin prototype testing of its hydrogen-electric truck at the end of 2018. But for Jesse Schneider, recently appointed vice president of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies, the new vehicle and its powertrain are just one aspect of the company’s ambitious plans for the future of emission-free heavy-duty commercial vehicles
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Kampker, Achim, Heiner Heimes, Benjamin Dorn, Florian Brans, José Guillermo Dorantes Gómez i Chetan Sharma. "Technical and Economic Analysis to Select Suitable Design Parameters of an E-Machine for Electric Commercial Vehicles". Vehicles 5, nr 1 (10.01.2023): 75–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vehicles5010005.
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In the European Union (EU), road transport contributes a major proportion of the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, of which a significant amount is caused by heavy-duty commercial vehicles (CV). The increasing number of emission regulations and penalties by the EU have forced commercial vehicle manufacturers to investigate powertrain technologies other than conventional internal combustion engines (ICE). Since vehicle economics plays an important role in purchase decisions and the powertrain of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) contributes to about 8–20% of the total vehicle cost and the electric machine (EM) alone contributes to 33–43% of the drivetrain cost, it is necessary to analyze suitable EM topologies for the powertrain. In this paper, the authors aim to analyze the technical and cost aspects of an EM for electric commercial vehicles (ECV). Based on prior research and literature on this subject, an appropriate methodology for selecting suitable geometrical parameters of an e-machine for the use case of a heavy-duty vehicle is developed using MATLAB and Simulink tools. Then, for the economic analysis of the e-machine, reference ones are used, and their design parameters and cost structures are utilized to develop a cost function. Different use cases are evaluated according to the vehicle’s application. The results for a use case are compared by varying the design parameters to find the most cost-effective EM. Later, an analysis is performed on other decisive factors for EM selection. This highlights the importance of collaborative consideration of technological as well as the economic aspects of EMs for different use cases in ECVs. The method developed in this work contributes to understand the economic aspect of EMs as well as considering their performance factors. State-of-the-art methods and research are used to develop a novel methodology that helps with the selection of the initial geometry of the electric motor during the design process, which can serve to aid future designers and converters of electric heavy-duty vehicles.
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Xu, Xiangyang, Jiajia Liang, Qingjun Hao, Peng Dong, Shuhan Wang, Wei Guo, Yanfang Liu, Zhonghua Lu, Jiantao Geng i Bin Yan. "A Novel Electric Dual Motor Transmission for Heavy Commercial Vehicles". Automotive Innovation 4, nr 1 (11.01.2021): 34–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42154-020-00129-7.
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AbstractAs a vital vehicle part, the powertrain system is undergoing a fast transition towards electrification. The new integrated electric drive system has been widely used, especially for passenger cars. In this work, a novel electric dual motor transmission is proposed for heavy commercial vehicles. The transmission scheme is firstly introduced, which can achieve 9 different operating modes including 5 single motor modes and 4 dual motor modes. Then, the mode shift map with minimum energy consumption is designed based on the motor efficiency map and the proposed energy management strategy. The driving power is appropriately distributed between the two motors in dual motor modes under the condition of minimum power consumption. In addition, a coordinated control strategy is developed for mode shift control without power interruption. The results show that the electric dual motor transmission has advantages in power consumption and power shift ability compared with the conventional single motor automated manual transmission.
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Yildirim, Metin, i Serpil Kurt. "Effect of Different Types of Electric Drive Units on the Energy Consumption of Heavy Commercial Electric Vehicles". World Electric Vehicle Journal 13, nr 5 (18.05.2022): 92. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/wevj13050092.
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The increasing demand for electric vehicles (EVs) in the transportation industry, especially for efficient battery–electric trucks, has led to an increase in studies on the efficiency or energy consumption of commercial vehicles. In this paper, average energy consumption was investigated in terms of the effect of different transmission types in vehicle models considering three routes, and the effect of the number of gears on energy consumption for each transmission type was analyzed. Target performance specifications and packaging were also evaluated. The optimal design could be identified in terms of transmission type, the number of gears, vehicle performance, and packaging. Vehicle models with two types of electric drive units (EDUs) were developed in a MATLAB/Simulink environment. Driving cycles were obtained from collected road load data of municipal, intercity, and regional areas operated by heavy-duty trucks using nCode software. The battery model was developed based on the electric circuit network (ECN) modeling technique. The main research purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of multispeed and multimodal EDUs and the number of gears on the energy consumption of heavy commercial electric vehicles from actual road conditions in Turkey. The three-speed EDU was the optimal design, providing 7.83, 7.26, and 7.21% less energy consumption on the three routes, compared with three-mode electric drive units. Consequently, the energy consumption difference was 7.5% for combined real road conditions.
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Danzer, Christoph, Alexander Poppitz, Tommy Pirkl i Rico Resch. "Electric Drive Concept with Standard Components for Heavy Commercial Vehicles". ATZheavy duty worldwide 14, nr 4 (listopad 2021): 10–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s41321-021-0452-0.
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Park, Ji In, Kawngki Jeon i Kyongsu Yi. "An investigation on the energy-saving effect of a hybrid electric-power steering system for commercial vehicles". Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering 233, nr 6 (5.06.2018): 1623–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0954407018777579.
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This article describes an investigation on the energy consumption of an alternative hybrid electric power steering system. The conventional hydraulic power steering system that is widely used in commercial vehicles can provide high steering-feel and reliability performances. However, since the combustion engine drives the pump, the hydraulic power steering system is energetically inefficient. To cope with this disadvantage of the hydraulic power steering system and to provide a technical base for the steering-related advanced driver assistance system, the Hybrid electric power steering system offers a solution for heavy commercial vehicles. The “Hybrid” of the title means that, for heavy commercial vehicles, the electric power steering system and electro-hydraulic power steering system are integrated in a ball-nut steering system. In this paper, to verify the energy-saving effect of the Hybrid electric power steering system, a dynamic model of the Hybrid electric power steering system was developed to estimate the energy consumption in the steering system. Furthermore, the fuel-efficiency test for the Hybrid electric power steering system were conducted while replacing the two steering systems (the conventional hydraulic power steering and Hybrid electric power steering system) in one vehicle on the chassis dynamometer for the proposed driving cycle. The driving cycle including the steering-angle profile has been developed to clearly investigate the effect on the energy-saving potential by the types of the steering system (hydraulic power steering and Hybrid electric power steering). The simulation results of the energy-consumption estimation showed that the hybrid electric power steering system can reduce the steering-system energy consumption by more than 50% under the proposed driving cycle. Also, the vehicle testing of the chassis dynamometer revealed that the Hybrid electric power steering system can improve the fuel efficiency of the vehicle by 1% for the specified driving cycle.
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Liang, Jiajia, Xiangyang Xu, Peng Dong, Tao Feng, Wei Guo i Shuhan Wang. "Energy Management Strategy of a Novel Electric Dual-Motor Transmission for Heavy Commercial Vehicles Based on APSO Algorithm". Sustainability 14, nr 3 (20.01.2022): 1163. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su14031163.
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With the development of electric vehicles, dual-motor transmission has become a potential alternative for automated manual transmission (AMT) due to the solution of power interruption and the improvement of energy efficiency. In this paper, a novel electric dual-motor transmission (eDMTP) for heavy commercial vehicles is proposed. Then, a 4-layer energy management strategy is developed to optimize dynamics performance and energy efficiency. Subsequently, a real vehicle operation is performed to validate the control strategy and the performance of eDMTP. The results demonstrate that the operating points of the two motors are both in and around the high-efficiency area under normal mode. This research lays the foundation for the development of a pure electric vehicle transmission system.
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Martinez-Boggio, Santiago, Javier Monsalve-Serrano, Antonio García i Pedro Curto-Risso. "High Degree of Electrification in Heavy-Duty Vehicles". Energies 16, nr 8 (20.04.2023): 3565. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en16083565.
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Because of the rising demand for CO2 emission limits and the high cost of fuel, the electrification of heavy-duty vehicles has become a hot topic. Manufacturers have tried a variety of designs to entice customers, but the outcomes vary depending on the application and availability of recharging. Without affecting vehicle range, plug-in hybrids provide a potential for the automobile industry to reach its CO2 reduction objectives. However, the actual CO2 emission reductions will largely rely on the energy source, user behavior, and vehicle design. This research compares a series plug-in hybrid medium-duty truck against two baselines: nonhybrid and pure electric commercial trucks. As well as evaluating and contrasting the different tools to quantify CO2 emissions, this manuscript offers fresh information on how to simulate various powertrain components used in electrified vehicles. According to the findings, plug-in hybrids with batteries larger than 50 kWh can reduce emissions by 30%, while still meeting the 2030 well-to-wheel CO2 regulations. The recommended battery size for plug-in hybrid is 100 kWh, and for electric vehicles it is 320 kWh. The range of a plug-in hybrid is 18% longer than that of nonhybrid, 6% longer than that of a full hybrid, and 76% longer than that of a pure electric powertrain with a fully charged battery.
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Ghandriz, Toheed, Bengt Jacobson, Manjurul Islam, Jonas Hellgren i Leo Laine. "Transportation-Mission-Based Optimization of Heterogeneous Heavy-Vehicle Fleet Including Electrified Propulsion". Energies 14, nr 11 (31.05.2021): 3221. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14113221.
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Commercial-vehicle manufacturers design vehicles to operate over a wide range of transportation tasks and driving cycles. However, certain possibilities of reducing emissions, manufacturing and operational costs from end vehicles are neglected if the target range of transportation tasks is narrow and known in advance, especially in case of electrified propulsion. Apart from real-time energy optimization, vehicle hardware can be meticulously tailored to best fit a known transportation task. As proposed in this study, a heterogeneous fleet of heavy-vehicles can be designed in a more cost- and energy-efficient manner, if the coupling between vehicle hardware, transportation mission, and infrastructure is considered during initial conceptual-design stages. To this end, a rather large optimization problem was defined and solved to minimize the total cost of fleet ownership in an integrated manner for a real-world case study. In the said case-study, design variables of optimization problem included mission, recharging infrastructure, loading–unloading scheme, number of vehicles of each type, number of trips, vehicle-loading capacity, selection between conventional, fully electric, and hybrid powertrains, size of internal-combustion engines and electric motors, number of axles being powered, and type and size of battery packs. This study demonstrated that by means of integrated fleet customization, battery-electric heavy-vehicles could strongly compete against their conventional combustion-powered counterparts. The primary focus has been put on optimizing vehicle propulsion, transport mission, infrastructure and fleet size rather than routing.
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Erdoğan, Birand, Murat Mustafa Savrun, Tahsin Köroğlu, Mehmet Uğraş Cuma i Mehmet Tümay. "An improved and fast balancing algorithm for electric heavy commercial vehicles". Journal of Energy Storage 38 (czerwiec 2021): 102522. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.102522.
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Meltsin, E. S., A. A. Markina i A. V. Ilin. "Increasing of the fuel cost-effectiveness of commercial vehicles using a diesel electric powertrain". Вестник гражданских инженеров 17, nr 1 (2020): 182–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.23968/1999-5571-2020-17-1-182-190.
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The issue of increasing the fuel cost effectiveness of passenger commercial vehicles is one of the most important, since the annual increase in the fuel cost leads to an increase in the fixed costs of not only transport companies, but also of small- and medium-sized businesses. Using a hybrid power train (HPT) can reduce fuel consumption in the urban cycle, which is important for commercial vehicles used to deliver goods and passengers within the city limits, especially when megacities are involved, where traffic is heavy and average speeds are not high. The cost of cars with a hybrid power train, such as Toyota Prius, Lexus RX 450h, Ford Fusion Hybrid and others, remains quite high and does not allow to pay back the car only due to fuel economy. On the other hand, the configuration of these vehicles does not allow them to be used as a commercial vehicle for transporting small loads and passengers, Therefore, it is proposed to consider the option of converting a car with a gasoline engine and calculate the possible fuel economy.
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Forsyth, Alexander, Francisco Juarez-Leon i Berker Bilgin. "Sizing of a Traction Switched Reluctance Motor for an Electric Refuse-Collecting Vehicle Application". Machines 11, nr 2 (11.02.2023): 274. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/machines11020274.
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Refuse-collecting vehicles are significant polluters due to their expected drive cycles involving frequent stops and long idle periods. Electric refuse-collecting vehicles, still in their infancy, promise to address this through the replacement of internal combustion engines with batteries and electric traction motors. Today, typical motors for these vehicles involve heavy use of rare earth permanent magnets, which are subject to high price volatility, environmentally damaging mining practices, and occupational health hazards associated with refinement. The switched reluctance motor, which makes use of no permanent magnets, is a suitable substitute. This type of motor technology offers several advantages such as simple and robust construction, the ability to operate at high speeds and high temperature conditions, fault tolerance capability, and lower production costs in comparison with other technologies. This paper focuses on the design process of a switched reluctance motor for a battery electric refuse-collecting vehicle. The designed motor has a 36/24 outer rotor configuration, and its electrical and mechanical characteristics are based on the commercial traction motor TM4 SUMO HD HV3500-9P. The performance of the motor is evaluated using simulation tools such as JMAG and MATLAB/Simulink.
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Liu, Feiqi, Fuquan Zhao, Zongwei Liu i Han Hao. "China’s Electric Vehicle Deployment: Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emission Impacts". Energies 11, nr 12 (30.11.2018): 3353. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en11123353.
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The explosion of the vehicle market in China has caused a series of problems, like energy security, climate change, air pollution, etc. The deployment of electric vehicles (EVs) is considered an effective solution to address these problems. Thus, both the state and local governments in China have launched some policies and incentives to accelerate the development of EVs and the EV industry. Do EVs can effectively solve these problems in short term, viewed from the fleet point? Based on China’s most up-to-date deployment plan for EVs, this paper analyzes the energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by China’s road transport sector in three different scenarios. The results indicate that, based on current planning, the energy consumption and GHG emissions of the whole fleet will peak in 2025 and 2027, at the level of around 403 mtoe (million tons of oil equivalent) and 1763 mt CO2 eq. (million tons of CO2 equivalent), respectively. The introduction of EVs will significantly reduce the reliance on fossil fuel in the long term, with increasing ownership, while, in the short term, the fuel economy regulation will still play a more important role. Policy makers should continually pay attention to this. Meanwhile, commercial vehicles, especially heavy-duty trucks will account for a bigger and bigger proportion in the energy consumption and GHG emissions of the whole fleet. Thus, to some extent the focus should shift from passenger vehicles to commercial vehicles. More measures could be implemented.
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Muzammel, Muhammad, Mohd Zuki Yusoff, Mohamad Naufal Mohamad Saad, Faryal Sheikh i Muhammad Ahsan Awais. "Blind-Spot Collision Detection System for Commercial Vehicles Using Multi Deep CNN Architecture". Sensors 22, nr 16 (15.08.2022): 6088. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22166088.
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Buses and heavy vehicles have more blind spots compared to cars and other road vehicles due to their large sizes. Therefore, accidents caused by these heavy vehicles are more fatal and result in severe injuries to other road users. These possible blind-spot collisions can be identified early using vision-based object detection approaches. Yet, the existing state-of-the-art vision-based object detection models rely heavily on a single feature descriptor for making decisions. In this research, the design of two convolutional neural networks (CNNs) based on high-level feature descriptors and their integration with faster R-CNN is proposed to detect blind-spot collisions for heavy vehicles. Moreover, a fusion approach is proposed to integrate two pre-trained networks (i.e., Resnet 50 and Resnet 101) for extracting high level features for blind-spot vehicle detection. The fusion of features significantly improves the performance of faster R-CNN and outperformed the existing state-of-the-art methods. Both approaches are validated on a self-recorded blind-spot vehicle detection dataset for buses and an online LISA dataset for vehicle detection. For both proposed approaches, a false detection rate (FDR) of 3.05% and 3.49% are obtained for the self recorded dataset, making these approaches suitable for real time applications.
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Fenton, Dawn, i Aravind Kailas. "Redefining Goods Movement: Building an Ecosystem for the Introduction of Heavy-Duty Battery-Electric Vehicles". World Electric Vehicle Journal 12, nr 3 (7.09.2021): 147. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030147.
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This article reviews the Volvo Low-Impact Heavy Green Transport Solution (LIGHTS) project, a multifaceted public–private partnership in Southern California, and provides some early insights and a model for successful fleet adoption of Class 8 battery-electric trucks. This paradigm shift in commercial trucking is emerging, forcing greater interdependence among many stakeholders—fleets, %, truck manufacturers, and policymakers—not currently engaged in the traditional heavy-duty commercial truck market. The many perspectives from this article such as lead times and costs associated with the deployment of charging infrastructure, developing the workforce to support largescale deployments, and the need for market development incentives from the government can be used to inform the programs and policies of California and other states seeking to follow their lead.
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Bethaz, Paolo, Sara Cavaglion, Sofia Cricelli, Elena Liore, Emanuele Manfredi, Stefano Salio, Andrea Regalia, Fabrizio Conicella, Salvatore Greco i Tania Cerquitelli. "Empowering Commercial Vehicles through Data-Driven Methodologies". Electronics 10, nr 19 (29.09.2021): 2381. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics10192381.
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In the era of “connected vehicles,” i.e., vehicles that generate long data streams during their usage through the telematics on-board device, data-driven methodologies assume a crucial role in creating valuable insights to support the decision-making process effectively. Predictive analytics allows anticipation of vehicle issues and optimized maintenance, reducing the resulting costs. In this paper, we focus on analyzing data collected from heavy trucks during their use, a relevant task for companies due to the high commercial value of the monitored vehicle. The proposed methodology, named TETRAPAC, offers a generalizable approach to estimate vehicle health conditions based on monitored features enriched by innovative key performance indicators. We discussed performance of TETRAPAC in two real-life settings related to trucks. The obtained results in both tasks are promising and able to support the company’s decision-making process in the planning of maintenance interventions.
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Sun, Longhao. "Nanotechnology in the Field of Electric Vehicles". Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology 43 (14.04.2023): 327–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/hset.v43i.7436.
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In this era of advocating environmental protection and low-carbon economy, electric vehicles (EVs) are now being promoted all over the world, and the world's leading traditional car brands are focusing their strategic approach on developing EVs. However, EVs do have many drawbacks such as paradox of battery performance and range. Batteries equipped in EVs nowadays usually have a low capacity, and heavy and large battery pack is not only expensive to manufacture but also reduces the range. Enhancing the performance of the battery pack and reducing the weight of the EVs has become a crucial problem. This article reveals that the application of nanotechnology has accelerated the development of EVs by improving the battery performance, enhancing the mechanical strength and reducing the weight of the car bodies. Specifically, nanomaterials such as nano LiFePO4, nano Li2MnSiO4 and carbon nanotubes can be applied to the electrodes to have a larger capacity, higher specific power, and longer cycle life, thus increasing performance and driving range. Besides, to achieve further reduction in body weight and increase body strength, lightweight nanocomposites such as carbon fibre reinforced composite can also be applied to structural application of an EV. The use of this nanocomposite significantly reduces the overall weight of the vehicle, increases the rigidity of the bodywork and improves the performance and safety of the vehicle. In the future, seeking for electric vehicles with longer driving ranges, more efficient batteries with better performance and higher long-term safety will be of academic and commercial significance.
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Golmohamadi, Hessam. "Demand-Side Flexibility in Power Systems: A Survey of Residential, Industrial, Commercial, and Agricultural Sectors". Sustainability 14, nr 13 (29.06.2022): 7916. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su14137916.
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In recent years, environmental concerns about climate change and global warming have encouraged countries to increase investment in renewable energies. As the penetration of renewable power goes up, the intermittency of the power system increases. To counterbalance the power fluctuations, demand-side flexibility is a workable solution. This paper reviews the flexibility potentials of demand sectors, including residential, industrial, commercial, and agricultural, to facilitate the integration of renewables into power systems. In the residential sector, home energy management systems and heat pumps exhibit great flexibility potential. The former can unlock the flexibility of household devices, e.g., wet appliances and lighting systems. The latter integrates the joint heat–power flexibility of heating systems into power grids. In the industrial sector, heavy industries, e.g., cement manufacturing plants, metal smelting, and oil refinery plants, are surveyed. It is discussed how energy-intensive plants can provide flexibility for energy systems. In the commercial sector, supermarket refrigerators, hotels/restaurants, and commercial parking lots of electric vehicles are pointed out. Large-scale parking lots of electric vehicles can be considered as great electrical storage not only to provide flexibility for the upstream network but also to supply the local commercial sector, e.g., shopping stores. In the agricultural sector, irrigation pumps, on-farm solar sites, and variable-frequency-drive water pumps are shown as flexible demands. The flexibility potentials of livestock farms are also surveyed.
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Noto, Florian, i Hamid Mostofi. "Acceptance Analysis of Electric Heavy Trucks and Battery Swapping Stations in the German Market". Systems 11, nr 9 (24.08.2023): 441. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/systems11090441.
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Heavy-duty vehicles are a major contributor to CO2 emissions in the transportation sector, and it is necessary to develop clean and green technologies to replace diesel trucks. Electric trucks have not reached a breakthrough in the German market. In addition to technology development, customer acceptance of new technologies is a critical factor in the success of sustainable transportation policies. This study aims to fill this knowledge gap by investigating the perceptions regarding electric trucks and providing insights into the acceptance of these technologies. Data and arguments on the expected risks and benefits of heavy-duty electric trucks, with a special focus on the battery swapping solution, were collected through a survey and expert interviews in the German commercial transport sector. The authors collected a sample of 146 qualitative responses and 61 individual statements on the expected risks and benefits of electric trucks and battery swapping. While the responses to the classified questions are overwhelmingly positive, the individual statements show that there are still many open questions.
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Gao, Zhiming, Zhenhong Lin, Stacy Cagle Davis i Alicia K. Birky. "Quantitative Evaluation of MD/HD Vehicle Electrification using Statistical Data". Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2672, nr 24 (7.09.2018): 109–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361198118792329.
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This paper presents a wide-ranging analysis of Class 3-8 commercial vehicle electrification by means of developing a framework tool which uses a quantitative method of estimating electric vehicle energy consumption and appropriate charging considerations. The Fleet DNA composite statistics on real-world driving behavior is used to evaluate feasible or market-ready battery electric vehicle (BEV) technologies in medium- and heavy-duty (MD/HD) applications. In the paper, ten representative Class 3-8 commercial vehicle electrifications have been evaluated as a function of various service coverages, including applications in port drayage tractors, refuse trucks, delivery trucks, buses, and bucket trucks. The results indicate significant energy savings and fuel cost savings across all MD/HD vehicle electrifications. The majority of MD BEVs, with the exception of Class 3 bucket trucks, achieve better than a 5-year payback with 50–75% service coverage. For HD BEVs, with the exception of the Class 8 port drayage tractors, the 90% service coverage results in a 10-year or longer payback time, while the 50% service coverage yields a 7–8 year payback. Class 8 port drayage tractors should achieve payback in no more than a 3.5 years with 50–75% service coverage. Thus, the analysis indicates a highly feasible potential for Class 3-6 MD vehicles to be electrified, and feasible opportunities for electrification in Class 7-8 HD short-distance applications.
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Fridstrøm, Lasse. "The Norwegian Vehicle Electrification Policy and Its Implicit Price of Carbon". Sustainability 13, nr 3 (28.01.2021): 1346. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13031346.
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The rapid market uptake of battery and hybrid electric cars in Norway is unparalleled. We examine the fiscal policy instruments behind this development. In essence, the Norwegian policy consists in taxing internal combustion engine vehicles rather than subsidizing electric ones. There are 14 different fiscal incentives in place bearing on vehicles, fuel, or road use. All of them are in some way CO2-differentiated. In the tradition of positive economics, we derive the price of carbon implicit in each policy instrument and in the total package of taxes and subsidies. The price of carbon characterizing the trade-off between conventional and battery electric cars in Norway as of 2019 exceeds €1370 per ton of CO2. For light and heavy-duty commercial vehicles the corresponding prices have been conservatively estimated at €640 and €200 per ton of CO2, respectively. In addition, the penalty incurred by automakers for not meeting their 2020/2021 target under EU Regulation 2019/631 corresponds to a carbon price of the order of €340 per ton of CO2. As compared to the price of emission allowances in the European cap-and-trade system, the price of carbon paid by automakers and Norwegian motorists is one or two orders of magnitude higher.
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Bagwe, Rishikesh Mahesh, Andy Byerly, Euzeli Cipriano dos Santos i Ben-Miled. "Adaptive Rule-Based Energy Management Strategy for a Parallel HEV". Energies 12, nr 23 (24.11.2019): 4472. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en12234472.
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This paper proposes an Adaptive Rule-Based Energy Management Strategy (ARBS EMS) for a parallel hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). The aim of the strategy is to facilitate the aftermarket hybridization of medium- and heavy-duty vehicles. ARBS can be deployed online to optimize fuel consumption without any detailed knowledge of the engine efficiency map of the vehicle or the entire duty cycle. The proposed strategy improves upon the established Preliminary Rule-Based Strategy (PRBS), which has been adopted in commercial vehicles, by dynamically adjusting the regions of operations of the engine and the motor. It prevents the engine from operating in highly inefficient regions while reducing the total equivalent fuel consumption of the vehicle. Using an HEV model developed in Simulink®, both the proposed ARBS and the established PRBS strategies are compared over an extended duty cycle consisting of both urban and highway segments. The results show that ARBS can achieve high MPGe with different thresholds for the boundary between the motor region and the engine region. In contrast, PRBS can achieve high MPGe only if this boundary is carefully established from the engine efficiency map. This difference between the two strategies makes the ARBS particularly suitable for aftermarket hybridization where full knowledge of the engine efficiency map may not be available.
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Kim, Man Ho, Sang Hyeop Lee, Suk Lee i Kyung Chang Lee. "Implementation of a Small Size Electric Automatic Lubrication System for Heavy Commercial Vehicle". Journal of the Korean Society for Precision Engineering 30, nr 10 (1.10.2013): 1041–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.7736/kspe.2013.30.10.1041.
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Huertas, José I., Antonio E. Mogro i Juan P. Jiménez. "Configuration of Electric Vehicles for Specific Applications from a Holistic Perspective". World Electric Vehicle Journal 13, nr 2 (28.01.2022): 29. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/wevj13020029.
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Electrification of heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) used for passengers and goods transportation is a key strategy to reduce the high levels of air pollution in large urban centers. However, the high investment cost of the commercially available electrified HDVs has limited their adoption. We hypothesized that there are applications where the operation with tailored electrified HDVs results in a lower total cost of ownership and lower well-to-wheel emissions of air pollutants, with higher acceleration capacity and energy efficiency than the fossil-fueled counterparts. The road transportation services running on fixed routes with short span distances (<50 km), such as the last mile cargo distribution and the passenger shuttle services, is a clear example with a high possibility of cost reduction through tailored electric HDVs. In this work, we present a methodology to define the most appropriate configuration of the powertrain of an electric vehicle for any given application. As a case study, this work aimed to define an electric powertrain configuration tailored for a university shuttle service application. A multi-objective weighted-sum optimization was performed to define the best geometrical gearbox ratios, energy management strategy, size of the motor, and batteries required. Based on three different driving profiles and five battery technologies, the results showed that, based on a 50 km autonomy, the obtained powertrain configuration satisfies the current vehicle operation with a reduced cost in every driving profile and battery technology compared. Furthermore, by using lithium-based batteries, the vehicle’s acceleration capacity is improved by 33% while reducing energy consumption by 37%, CO2 emissions by 31%, and the total cost of ownership by 29% when compared to the current diesel-fueled buses.
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Shin, Hyun Kyu, i Sung Kyu Ha. "A Review on the Cost Analysis of Hydrogen Gas Storage Tanks for Fuel Cell Vehicles". Energies 16, nr 13 (7.07.2023): 5233. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en16135233.
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The most practical way of storing hydrogen gas for fuel cell vehicles is to use a composite overwrapped pressure vessel. Depending on the driving distance range and power requirement of the vehicles, there can be various operational pressure and volume capacity of the tanks, ranging from passenger vehicles to heavy-duty trucks. The current commercial hydrogen storage method for vehicles involves storing compressed hydrogen gas in high-pressure tanks at pressures of 700 bar for passenger vehicles and 350 bar to 700 bar for heavy-duty trucks. In particular, hydrogen is stored in rapidly refillable onboard tanks, meeting the driving range needs of heavy-duty applications, such as regional and line-haul trucking. One of the most important factors for fuel cell vehicles to be successful is their cost-effectiveness. So, in this review, the cost analysis including the process analysis, raw materials, and manufacturing processes is reviewed. It aims to contribute to the optimization of both the cost and performance of compressed hydrogen storage tanks for various applications.
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Atkins, Penny, Gareth Milton, Andrew Atkins i Robert Morgan. "A Local Ecosystem Assessment of the Potential for Net Negative Heavy-Duty Truck Greenhouse Gas Emissions through Biomethane Upcycling". Energies 14, nr 4 (3.02.2021): 806. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14040806.
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Decarbonising heavy-duty trucks is challenging due to high journey power and energy requirements. With a growing fleet of commercial vehicles in the UK, biomethane can provide significant reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions compared to fossil diesel. Methane is a potent GHG with a global warming potential (GWP) of 23–36, therefore reducing levels in the atmosphere can have a significant impact on climate change. There are a range of anthropogenic sources of methane that could be collected and processed to provide sustainable energy (upcycled), e.g., agricultural waste and the waste water system. This paper explores the impact of using upcycled methane in transport in South East England, evaluating local sources of anthropogenic methane and the environmental and economic impact of its use for a heavy-duty truck compared to fossil and battery electric alternatives. Analysis concludes that the use of upcycled methane in transport can provide significant reductions in lifecycle GHG emissions compared to diesel, fossil natural gas or battery electric trucks, and give net negative GHG emissions where avoided environmental methane emissions are considered. Furthermore, upcycling solutions can offer a lower cost route to GHG reduction compared to electrification.
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Jin, Joon-Hyung, Seunghun Shin i Jihoon Jung. "Solid-Phase Hydrogen Storage Based on NH3BH3-SiO2 Nanocomposite for Thermolysis". Journal of Nanomaterials 2019 (2.09.2019): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/6126031.
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Current H2-proton exchange membrane fuel cell systems available for commercial applications employ heavy and high-risk physical hydrogen storage containers. However, these compressed or liquefied H2-containing cylinders are only suitable for ground-based electric vehicles, because although highly purified H2 can be stored in a cylinder, it is not compatible with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), which require a lighter and more stable energy source. Here, we introduce a chemical hydrogen storage composite, composed of ammonia borane (AB) as a hydrogen source and various heterogeneous catalysts, to elevate the thermal dehydrogenation rate. Nanoscale SiO2 catalysts with a cotton structure dramatically increase the hydrogen evolution rate on demand, while simultaneously lowering the startup temperature for AB thermolysis. Results show that the dehydrogenation reaction of AB with a cotton-structured SiO2 nanocatalyst composite occurs below 90°C, the reaction time is less than a minute, and the hydrogen generation yield is over 12 wt%, with an activation energy of 63.9 kJ·mol-1.
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M.Elangovan i Dr. K.Ramasamy. "An Analytical Study on Ratios Influencing Profitability of Selected Indian Automobile Players". International Journal of Engineering and Management Research 12, nr 3 (14.06.2022): 102–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.31033/ijemr.12.3.14.
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Every country with a well-developed transportation network has a well-developed economy. The automobile industry is a critical engine of the nation's economic development. The automobile industry has significant backward and forward links with every area of the economy, as well as a strong and progressive multiplier impact. The automotive industry and the auto component industry are both included in the vehicle industry. It includes passenger waggons, light, medium, and heavy commercial vehicles, as well as multi-utility vehicles such as jeeps, three-wheelers, military vehicles, motorcycles, tractors, and auto-components such as engine parts, batteries, drive transmission parts, electrical, suspension and chassis parts, and body and other parts. In the last several years, India's automobile sector has seen incredible growth in sales, production, innovation, and exports. India's car industry has emerged as one of the best in the world, and the auto-ancillary sector is poised to assist the vehicle sector's expansion. Vehicle manufacturers and auto-parts manufacturers account for a significant component of global motorised manufacturing. Vehicle manufacturers from across the world are keeping a close eye on the Indian auto sector in order to assess future demand and establish India as a global manufacturing base. The current research focuses on three automotive behemoths: TATA Motors, MRF, and Mahindra & Mahindra.
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Shamsi, Hamidreza, Mohammad Munshed, Manh-Kien Tran, Youngwoo Lee, Sean Walker, Jesse The, Kaamran Raahemifar i Michael Fowler. "Health Cost Estimation of Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Assessing the Pollution Reduction Potential of Zero-Emission Vehicles in Toronto, Canada". Energies 14, nr 16 (12.08.2021): 4956. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14164956.
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Fossil fuel vehicles, emitting air toxics into the atmosphere, impose a heavy burden on the economy through additional health care expenses and ecological degradation. Air pollution is responsible for millions of deaths and chronic and acute health problems every year, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The fossil-fuel-based transportation system releases tons of toxic gases into the atmosphere putting human health at risk, especially in urban areas. This analysis aims to determine the economic burden of environmental and health impacts caused by Highway 401 traffic. Due to the high volume of vehicles driving on the Toronto Highway 401 corridor, there is an annual release of 3771 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e). These emissions are mainly emitted onsite through the combustion of gasoline and diesel fuel. The integration of electric and hydrogen vehicles shows maximum reductions of 405–476 g CO2e per vehicle-kilometer. Besides these carbon dioxide emissions, there is also a large amount of hazardous air pollutants. To examine the impact of air pollution on human health, the mass and concentrations of criteria pollutants of PM2.5 and NOx emitted by passenger vehicles and commercial trucks on Highway 401 were determined using the MOVES2014b software. Then, an air dispersion model (AERMOD) was used to find the concentration of different pollutants at the receptor’s location. The increased risk of health issues was calculated using hazard ratios from literature. Finally, the health cost of air pollution from Highway 401 traffic was estimated to be CAD 416 million per year using the value of statistical life, which is significantly higher than the climate change costs of CAD 55 million per year due to air pollution.
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Uerlich, Roland, Sven Köller, Gordon Witham, Theo Koch i Lutz Eckstein. "Experimental Validation of an Automated Approach for Estimating the Efficiency and Heat Balance of Gearboxes Based on an Electrified Heavy Commercial Vehicle Axle". World Electric Vehicle Journal 13, nr 8 (2.08.2022): 142. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/wevj13080142.
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Freight transport accounts for about half of all distances travelled in Europe. Therefore, freight transport is one of the decisive factors for reducing greenhouse gases and air pollutants. For this reason, the electrification of road freight transport is being promoted as part of the project “BEV Goes eHighway—[BEE]”. The data basis for the modelling used in this project is an electric drive axle for a heavy commercial vehicle, which was developed in the “Concept-ELV2” project. Based on the results of the previous project, the methodological tools that were developed are presented in this paper. These allow a wide range of possible powertrain topologies to be considered at the concept stage of development based on an estimation of future system characteristics. For this purpose, the components are automatically designed taking into account the mutual influence of the requirements and are evaluated in the context of the holistic system. This publication focuses on the efficiency and thermal evaluation of the transmission stages of the addressed electric drive units and validates the developed models using a pototypically designed electric commercial vehicle axle.
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Yang, Rong, Di Ming Lou, Pi Qiang Tan i Zhi Yuan Hu. "Research on Modeling and Control Strategy of Parallel Hybrid Electric Back-Loading Compression Sanitation Vehicle". Applied Mechanics and Materials 420 (wrzesień 2013): 355–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.420.355.
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Establish simulation models of the conventional and parallel hybrid electric back-loading compression sanitation vehicle by AVL CRUISE and MATLAB/Simulink software. Study on control strategy of parallel hybrid electric vehicle based on the work characteristics of back-loading compression sanitation. Results show that: about 24.5% fuel consumption reduction in hybrid modeling compared to the conventional sanitation vehicle under heavy commercial vehicle standard test cycle (C-WTVC, Adapted World Transient Vehicle Cycle), and battery SOC was little changed at 50%. About 32% fuel consumption reduction in hybrid compared to the conventional vehicle under the actual road testing spectrum, and SOC increased about 21.6% relative to the initial state. It controls the engine to work in more stable operation region and reduces engine idle time, but increases engine start-stop times. It also could provide some references for specific engine development of parallel hybrid electric vehicle
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ASİ ÖZTAŞ, Esra, Berkay GENC i Serdar GÜLEN. "Comparison of turbo compounding technoligies on gasoline and diesel engines". International Journal of Automotive Engineering and Technologies 12, nr 1 (30.03.2023): 22–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.18245/ijaet.1175788.
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This paper presents a parametric study and comparison of turbocompound gasoline engine with diesel engine based on analysis done in previous papers. Turbocompounding is an important technique to recover waste heat from engine exhaust and reduce CO_2 emission, improving fuel economy. By the time detected one of the biggest problems for IC engines is pollution. Downsizing studies are popular at the industry for the moments to get emission and fuel consumption decreased. Even if the racing industry gets involved in this trend having more efficient and more green racing vehicles is quite important for saving environment. Powertrain works with supercharged internal combustion engine by co-operation of two electric motors MGU-H (Motor-Generator Unit-Heat) and MGU-K (Motor-Generator Unit-Kinetic). It is also seen in passenger, light and heavy commercial vehicles with diesel engines using turbocompounding technology to decrease the pollution. The present paper compares the outcomes which were shown in previous papers and demonstrate the better performance in terms of greenhouse effect and pollution as well as engine power generation performance.
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Cao, Dong, Bin Tang, Haobin Jiang, Chenhui Yin, Di Zhang i Yingqiu Huang. "Study on Low-Speed Steering Resistance Torque of Vehicles Considering Friction between Tire and Pavement". Applied Sciences 9, nr 5 (12.03.2019): 1015. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app9051015.
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Electric power steering (EPS) systems under existing vehicle power systems cannot provide enough power for heavy-duty commercial vehicles under pivot or low-speed steering conditions. To solve this problem, the paper proposes an EPS system that is based on the hybrid power system constituted by the vehicle power system and the supercapacitor in parallel. In order to provide a theoretical basis for the intervention and withdrawal mechanisms of a super-capacitor in the new EPS, the law of steering resistance torque at a low or extremely low vehicle speed should be explored. Firstly, the finite element model of tire/pavement was established to conduct the simulation and calculation of the low-speed steering friction force between the tire and pavement, and to obtain the fitting expression of the equivalent steering friction coefficient with the running speed of the tire. Secondly, the expression of the steering friction torque was deduced based on the calculus theory and mathematical model of the low-speed steering resistance torque, including the steering friction torque and aligning torques, established to conduct the simulation of the equivalent resistance torque applied on a steering column under low-speed condition. Subsequently, the real vehicle experiments were carried out and comparisons of the experimental results and simulation results was performed. The consistency indicated that the model of low-speed steering resistance torque had a high accuracy. Finally, the law of low-speed steering resistance torque with a vehicle speed and steering wheel angle were analyzed according to the 3D surface plot drawn from the simulation results.
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Yang, Ying, Zhenpo Wang, Shuo Wang i Ni Lin. "An Investigation of Opportunity Charging with Hybrid Energy Storage System on Electric Bus with Two-Speed Transmission". Sustainability 14, nr 19 (21.09.2022): 11918. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su141911918.
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As one of the most popular and important forms of massive transit, the public bus contributes to a healthier environment compared to private vehicles. Through the electrification of the public bus, energy consumption, carbon emission, and air pollution can be significantly reduced. However, the limited driving range and high battery replacement cost put significant barriers to its large-scale commercialization. Thanks to the development of wireless charging technology and opportunity charging strategy, the driving range can be improved. However, the battery has to suffer additional impulse current generated by opportunity wireless charging. In this paper, a hybrid energy storage system (HESS) that combines battery and supercapacitor and related energy control strategy is proposed to smoothen the impulse current and extend the battery lifespan. A comprehensive investigation of the combined impacts of the opportunity charging and HESS is carried out in terms of driving range extension and battery lifespan improvement. The detailed HESS model and powertrain model are built. A global optimizing method, dynamic programming, is adopted as the energy management strategy under the Chinese heavy-duty commercial vehicle test cycle-bus (CHTC-B). A battery degradation model is employed to evaluate its health with 60 kW wireless charging. The results demonstrate that the proposed energy control strategy for HESS could improve battery health and extend bus driving range concurrently via opportunity charging.
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Hosen, Md Sazzad, Poonam Yadav, Joeri Van Mierlo i Maitane Berecibar. "A Post-Mortem Study Case of a Dynamically Aged Commercial NMC Cell". Energies 16, nr 3 (17.01.2023): 1046. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en16031046.
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Lithium-ion batteries are currently the pioneers of green transition in the transportation sector. The nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) technology, in particular, has the largest market share in electric vehicles (EVs), offering high specific energy, optimized power performance, and lifetime. The aging of different lithium-ion battery technologies has been a major research topic in the last decade, either to study the degradation behavior, identify the associated aging mechanisms, or to develop health prediction models. However, the lab-scale standard test protocols are mostly utilized for aging characterization, which was deemed not useful since batteries are supposed to age dynamically in real life, leading to aging heterogeneity. In this research, a commercial NMC variation (4-4-2) was aged with a pragmatic standard-drive profile to study aging behavior. The characterized measurable parameters were statistically investigated before performing an autopsy on the aged battery. Harvested samples of negative and positive electrodes were analyzed with Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and the localized volumetric percentile of active materials was reported. Loss of lithium inventory was found to be the main aging mechanism linked to 20% faded capacity due to heavy electrolyte loss. Sparsely distributed fluorine from the lithium salt was found in both electrodes as a result of electrolyte decomposition.
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NOGA, Marcin. "Development of the range extender for a 48 V electric vehicle". Combustion Engines 177, nr 2 (1.05.2019): 113–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.19206/ce-2019-220.
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The article deals with the concept, development and results of preliminary tests of a range extender for an electric light commercial vehicle Melex with a 48 V electrical system. The purpose of the project is to build a prototype of the range extender powered by an internal combustion engine that will increase the range of the vehicle with electric drive, and at the same time will be characterized by a high efficiency and low exhaust emissions. The developed range extender is a combination of a 163cc single-cylinder combustion engine with a generator joined through a ribbed belt transmission. The 3-phase generator from a heavy-duty vehicle was used. In order to match the output voltage of the generator to the system voltage of the electric vehicle, an external adjustable regulator and a rectifier bridge with an increased operating voltage were used. The range extender was attached to a body of the electric vehicle by means of a welded frame made of thin-walled steel profiles. Initial tests of the developed range extender showed its proper interaction with both the lead-acid battery of the vehicle as well as with the nickel-metal hydride battery (NiMH) adapted to 48 V voltage from a hybrid electric vehicle. A maximum output power exceeding 2 kW was obtained. Maximum value of the overall efficiency of the range extender reaches up to 18.8%, which is a high value considering the small size of the used engine and the type of generator. The directions for further development of the range extender were also revealed in this paper.
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Yoo, Chunsik, i Gyoojae Choi. "Development of HILS System for Performance Evaluation of a Heavy Commercial Vehicle Hybrid Electric Power Steering System". Transactions of the Korean Society of Automotive Engineers 25, nr 1 (1.01.2017): 103–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.7467/ksae.2017.25.1.103.
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Suarez-Bertoa, Ricardo, Tommaso Selleri, Roberto Gioria, Anastasios D. Melas, Christian Ferrarese, Jacopo Franzetti, Bertold Arlitt, Naoki Nagura, Takaaki Hanada i Barouch Giechaskiel. "Real-Time Measurements of Formaldehyde Emissions from Modern Vehicles". Energies 15, nr 20 (18.10.2022): 7680. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15207680.
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Formaldehyde (HCHO), a carcinogenic carbonyl compound and precursor of tropospheric ozone, can be found in vehicle exhaust. Even though the continuous monitoring of HCHO has been recommended, the real-world emissions from the road transport sector are not commonly available. The main reason for this knowledge gap has been the difficulty to measure HCHO in real-time and during real-world testing. This, for instance, increases the uncertainty of the O3 simulated by air quality models. The present study investigates real-time HCHO measurements comparing three Fourier Transform InfraRed spectrometers (FTIRs) and one Quantum Cascade Laser InfraRed spectrometer (QCL-IR) directly sampling from the exhaust of one gasoline passenger car, one Diesel commercial vehicle and one Diesel heavy-duty vehicle, all meeting recent European emission standards (Euro 6/VI). Non-negligible emissions of HCHO were measured from the Diesel light-duty vehicle, with emissions increasing as temperature decreased. Relatively low emissions were measured for the gasoline car and the Diesel heavy-duty vehicle. The results showed a good correlation between the different instruments under all the conditions tested (in most cases R2 > 0.9). Moreover, it was shown that HCHO can be accurately measured during on-road and real-world-like tests using instruments based on FTIR and QCL-IR technologies.
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Zhao, Xuan, Shiwei Xu, Yiming Ye, Man Yu i Guiping Wang. "Composite braking AMT shift strategy for extended-range heavy commercial electric vehicle based on LHMM/ANFIS braking intention identification". Cluster Computing 22, S4 (16.02.2018): 8513–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10586-018-1888-6.
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Zhu, Guangqi, Qi Zhang, Li Chenzhao, David A. Cullen, Xiaoping Wang i Jian Xie. "Investigations in High-Efficiency PGM-Catalyst MEA and Its Long-Period Degradation Mechanism for PEMFC in Heavy-Duty Vehicles". ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, nr 42 (9.10.2022): 1592. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02421592mtgabs.
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Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) has been widely considered as the most promising power sources for electric vehicles due to their ultimate cleanness, high efficiency and fast refueling. Recently, the increased scalability of power and energy in fuel cells has made the PEMFC an ideal power plant for heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs), i.e., electric long-haul trucks and coaches, with different drive cycles and operating conditions, which requires more durable catalyst and membrane compared with light duty vehicles (LDVs). Unfortunately, the degradation mechanism of the catalyst and membrane in membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of PEMFCs during long-period operation under the HDV condition is still not clearly understood. In this work, MEAs were made of our highly active catalysts, 30wt% Pt/KB, as the cathode and a commercial Pt/C catalyst as the anode. The MEAs were tested at different relative humilities under the HDV conditions with catalyst loading of 0.2 mgPt/cm2, back pressure of 250 kPa, under the standard protocol of accelerated stress test (AST) for 180k cycles, which is equivalent to 30,000 h. The results show that the MEA exhibit very high performance at beginning of life (BOL) with a current density of 1.6 A/cm2 at the cell voltage of 0.7 V, high mass activity of 384 mA·mgPt and large electrochemical active surface area (ECSA) of 86 m2·gPt at 50%RH. Under the same testing condition, the MEA still maintained the current density of 1.4 A/cm2, 1.2 A/cm2 and 1.0 A/cm2 and 0.9 A/cm2 at the cell voltage of 0.7 V after the AST of 30k, 60k, 90k and 120k cycles. Moreover, the performance of the MEA significantly decreased to 0.5 A/cm2 and 0.3 A/cm2 at the voltage of 0.7 V after the AST of 150k and 180k cycles. In comparison, the mass activity of the MEA first significantly dropped to 183 mA·mgPt after the AST of 30k cycles and maintains uniform decreasing from 60k cycles to 180 cycles, the similar phenomenon was observed in the degradation of ECSA. The H2 crossover and AC impendence spectra of the MEA was measured at different cell voltage during the AST process, in order to study the kinetic and mass transport loss during the degradation. Furthermore, the Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) was performed on the produced water of the MEA to monitor the degradation of Pt nanoparticles, carbon support, ionomer, and membrane. Besides, the Pt migrations, the pore structure and volume change in the carbon support before and after the AST of 180k cycles were studied using HR-TEM and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). During the whole AST testing cycles, the MEA exhibited higher performance at relatively low humidity level, which is associated with the insufficient hydrophilicity of the carbon support and is more favorable for the PEMFCs working in low-humidity condition. In summary, this work presents the degradation behavior and mechanism for highly efficient and durable PGM-catalyst MEA under HDV conditions.
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Hogg, Thomas, Stefan Stojanovic, Andrew Tebbs, Stephen Samuel i John Durodola. "A benchmark study on the flow metering systems for the characterisation of fuel injectors for future heavy duty commercial vehicles". Measurement 153 (marzec 2020): 107414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2019.107414.
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Trahey, Lynn, Fikile R. Brushett, Nitash P. Balsara, Gerbrand Ceder, Lei Cheng, Yet-Ming Chiang, Nathan T. Hahn i in. "Energy storage emerging: A perspective from the Joint Center for Energy Storage Research". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, nr 23 (8.06.2020): 12550–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1821672117.
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Energy storage is an integral part of modern society. A contemporary example is the lithium (Li)-ion battery, which enabled the launch of the personal electronics revolution in 1991 and the first commercial electric vehicles in 2010. Most recently, Li-ion batteries have expanded into the electricity grid to firm variable renewable generation, increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of transmission and distribution. Important applications continue to emerge including decarbonization of heavy-duty vehicles, rail, maritime shipping, and aviation and the growth of renewable electricity and storage on the grid. This perspective compares energy storage needs and priorities in 2010 with those now and those emerging over the next few decades. The diversity of demands for energy storage requires a diversity of purpose-built batteries designed to meet disparate applications. Advances in the frontier of battery research to achieve transformative performance spanning energy and power density, capacity, charge/discharge times, cost, lifetime, and safety are highlighted, along with strategic research refinements made by the Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR) and the broader community to accommodate the changing storage needs and priorities. Innovative experimental tools with higher spatial and temporal resolution, in situ and operando characterization, first-principles simulation, high throughput computation, machine learning, and artificial intelligence work collectively to reveal the origins of the electrochemical phenomena that enable new means of energy storage. This knowledge allows a constructionist approach to materials, chemistries, and architectures, where each atom or molecule plays a prescribed role in realizing batteries with unique performance profiles suitable for emergent demands.
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Blynn, Kelly, i John Attanucci. "Accelerating Bus Electrification: A Mixed Methods Analysis of Barriers and Drivers to Scaling Transit Fleet Electrification". Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2673, nr 8 (1.05.2019): 577–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361198119842117.
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Although transit buses have a relatively small impact on greenhouse gas emissions, they have a larger impact on urban air quality, have commercially available electric models, and have historically commercialized clean technologies that enabled deployment in other heavy-duty vehicles. This paper investigates what factors affect transit agencies’ decisions to go beyond electric bus pilots to larger scale deployments, with the goal of identifying strategies to enable an accelerated transition to an electrified fleet. This mixed methods analysis utilized quantitative total cost of ownership analysis and qualitative interviews to study the barriers and drivers of electric bus investment for transit fleets in three case study states: California, Kentucky, and Massachusetts. A total cost of ownership analysis estimated electric buses are already more cost-effective than diesel buses in many agency contexts, but are sensitive to key parameters such as annual mileage, fossil fuel costs, and electricity tariffs and supporting policies that vary widely. Though multiple agencies in California reported planning to fully electrify their fleets, outside California where less supportive policies exist, fewer agencies reported planning to procure additional electric buses, primarily owing to high first cost and undesirable tradeoffs with maintaining transit service levels. Interview respondents also reported other substantial barriers such as oversubscribed grant programs, charging infrastructure costs, electricity costs, and additional operational complexity, suggesting a need for multiple complementary policies to overcome these barriers and ensure agencies can transition to a new technology without affecting transit service.
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Haggi, Hamed, James M. Fenton, Paul Brooker i Wei Sun. "(Invited) Renewable Hydrogen Systems Enable Deep Energy Decarbonization of Power and Transportation Sectors". ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-01, nr 39 (7.07.2022): 1785. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-01391785mtgabs.
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Climate change is one of the most preeminent challenges facing the world. Continued fossil fuel energy consumption at the current trajectory will result in a temperature rise of more than 3.5°C by the year 2050. Melting glaciers, rising sea levels, wildfires, floods, and extreme weather events such as heat waves and large storms, are likely to become more frequent or more intense. The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty to reduce carbon emissions which led to keep the global temperature rise well below 2°C [1]. This target cannot be achieved without deeply decarbonized energy production which focuses on three main factors: 1) Reducing energy consumption through improved efficiency (optimize), 2) Shifting energy demand to electricity and away from combustion of fossil fuels (electrify everything), 3) Shifting entirely to zero-carbon technologies such as solar photovoltaic (PV), wind, hydrogen, etc. to generate electricity (decarbonize). According to the United States (U.S.) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the largest contributors to anthropogenic U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in the descending order are transportation (29%), electricity (25%), industry (23%), agriculture (10%), commercial (7%), and residential (6%) [2]. In our previous research, we focused on decarbonization pathways using utility solar, hydrogen consumption and production (electrolyzer, compressor, storage tank, and stationary fuel cells) for improved utilities operation without considering transportation sector demand [3]. Here the focus is on energy decarbonization for both power and hydrogen fueled transportation sector using hydrogen systems. To this end, a vertically integrated 33-node distribution network which is managed by distribution system operator (DSO) is optimized. The DSO manages all the assets in the network including natural gas power plants (combined cycle units and combustion turbine units), solar PV, distributed energy storage systems, hydrogen systems (including storage and refueling station) with the objective of cost minimization. Besides managing the aforementioned technologies, the DSO ensures safe and reliable operation of these assets by considering the technical and physical constraints of the network including voltage regulation, power flow and line congestion management, etc. The DSO in this study also manages the transportation sector hydrogen demand of fuel cell electric vehicles, medium- and heavy-duty vehicles. Simulation results show that hydrogen demand from the transportation sector is the main driver in sizing of hydrogen system components. Additionally, for the 33-node distribution network to fully supply heavy-duty vehicles demand, natural gas power plants must be operated to supply the required electricity for the electrolyzers to supply hydrogen for these vehicles. Furthermore, different sensitivity analysis for various PV and hydrogen demand penetrations will be presented.
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Koumentakos, Agis G. "Developments in Electric and Green Marine Ships". Applied System Innovation 2, nr 4 (28.10.2019): 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/asi2040034.
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The maritime industry, among all other industries, is being forced to gradually reduce its emissions. Legislation is one of the tools applying this pressure, and from 1 January 2020, it focuses on the reduction of sulfur percentage in the heavy fuel oil (HFO)-powered vessels to 0.5%. In the beginning of this paper, the harmful environmental contribution of the naval sector is presented, along with the current legislation. The maritime industry is in a transitional stage, diverging from fossil fuels through alternative technologies and fuels, aiming to become over the long term a zero-emission industry. However, there are many implemented technologies, mostly of a mechanical nature, that already improve the efficiency of vessels and indirectly reduce their emissions. Such technologies include shaft generators (SGs), scrubbers, etc. The aim is for alternative fuels and technologies such as solar and wind to be implemented, too. Such technologies, when combined with the advantages of digitalization and automation, can further reduce emissions toward zero-emission vessels (ZEVs) through integrated systems. The present paper serves the purpose of a common point of gathering, addressing, and explaining the latest updates, previous achievements, and future targets of the maritime sector. The very nature of the subject—electric propulsion in the maritime sector—makes it very difficult to find sufficient and trustworthy data. There are two main reasons for this problem. The first one is that electric vehicles became commercial at a large scale (electric cars) very recently, and are still in a transitional stage. The second reason is that the maritime industry is very competitive; therefore, state-of-the-art technologies and data that give each company the lead are rarely published, and when they do, it happens very discreetly. In the quantitative part of the paper, where the photovoltaic (PV) and battery system calculations take place, there is no use of a specific model rather than a simplified approach. The purpose of the calculations is to show that with the present technologies, a purely solar-powered commercial vessel (such as RoRo, passenger, etc.) is technically impossible, and that there could be only a small contribution—of around 7%—to the electricity needs of a roll-on/roll-off (RoRo)-passenger ship. The state of the art finds a very short number of vessels that already use battery propulsion, but is expected to increase in the upcoming years. The present paper not only presents an overview of the state-of-the-art achievements in the electric propulsion of vessels, it also considers the exploitation of the continuous growth that the battery market is facing. As stated before, batteries are on the up, and this is due to the emerging need for energy storage in electricity grids that depend increasingly on renewable energy sources (RES). The paper makes a first consideration about the feasibility and possible benefits of implementing grid-like battery systems on-board vessels. In such a scenario, vessels would acquire significantly bigger energy capacity, allowing greater travel distances, a possible contribution of 44% of the vessel’s total power requirements (propulsion included), and a surplus as far as electricity requirements are concerned. There is also the more futuristic long-term scenario where Green Ports would charge vessels purely from RES dedicated to the port’s needs. The last part of the paper contains a qualitative assessment about the possible impacts that a battery-powered maritime industry could have.
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Kakinuma, Katsuyoshi, Hitoshi Taniguchi, Takayuki Asakawa, Toshihiro Miyao, Makoto Uchida, Yasuhito Aoki, Tsuyoshi Akiyama, Akihiro Masuda, Nobuyuki Sato i Akihiro Iiyama. "The Possibility of Intermediate–Temperature (120 °C)–Operated Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells using Perfluorosulfonic Acid Polymer Membranes". Journal of The Electrochemical Society 169, nr 4 (1.04.2022): 044522. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/ac624b.
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The technical possibility and possible issues of an intermediate–temperature–operated polymer electrolyte fuel cell (@120 °C) is investigated with an eye toward the launching of new fuel cell heavy–duty vehicles on the world market. Commercial perfluorosulfonic acid membrane and a commercial Pt catalyst supported on carbon are selected to clarify the possible issues in the fuel cells. The cell resistivity at high humidity is less than 0.1 Ω cm–2. The mass activity (@ 0.85 V, Pt loading amount: 0.33 mgPt cm−2) approaches 850 A gPt –1. The high gas crossover rate through the membrane leads to decreased open circuit voltage, which necessitates the use of higher Pt loadings (>0.30 mgPt cm–2) at the cathode to mitigate the effect of the mixed potential. Pt degradation during 120 °C operation at low humidity is found to be much lower than that during 80 °C operation at high humidity based on the results of load–cycle durability testing.
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Heller, Lucas Fraporti, Lélio Antônio Teixeira Brito, Marcos Antônio Jeremias Coelho, Valner Brusamarello i Washington Peres Nuñez. "Development of a Pavement-Embedded Piezoelectric Harvester in a Real Traffic Environment". Sensors 23, nr 9 (24.04.2023): 4238. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23094238.
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Road pavements are spread over large areas and convey various possibilities for energy sources such as high thermal gradients due to their materials and colors, wind corridors, large flat areas for solar harvesting, and heavy loading from traffic. The latest advances in road energy generation have been discretely implemented and have mainly focused on photovoltaic surface applications; other studies have explored the use of piezoelectric transducers with high stresses for better energy-production performance but limited life span. This study explores the stresses on pavement surfaces from traffic loading shockwaves that yield to the natural frequency vibration a piezoelectric harvester using a cantilever array. The passing vehicles triggered 16 piezoelectric sensors divided into four embedded steel profiles. The peak electrical power obtained in the experiment was 55.6 µW with a single transducer using a tip mass of 16 g. The proposed harvester demonstrated potential for applications in micro-generation of energy with limited infrastructure modification and high endurance under traffic loading over time. Its generation capacity is around 50 mWh a month with 16 piezoelectric cantilevers installed (for a commercial traffic volume of 1500 vehicles a day), enough to power a 200 m flashing LED raised marker strip to guide drivers for lane alignment during night shifts.
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Chen, Mengjie, Chenzhao Li, Bingzhang Zhang, Yachao Zeng, Stavros Karakalos, Sooyeon Hwang, Jian Xie i Gang Wu. "High-Platinum-Content Catalysts on Atomically Dispersed and Nitrogen Coordinated Single Manganese Site Carbons for Heavy-Duty Fuel Cells". Journal of The Electrochemical Society 169, nr 3 (1.03.2022): 034510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/ac58c7.
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Fuel cells for heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) have attracted considerable attention because of their unique scalability, better fuel economy, the less demand for hydrogen refilling infrastructure. However, the potential application requires more stringent fuel cell durability up to 25,000 h. Membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) made from platinum group metal (PGM) catalyst with relatively high loading 0.3 mgPt cm−2 play a crucial role in ensuring high-power and long-term durability. Integrating fine PGM nanoparticles and robust carbon support with strengthened interactions is critical for improving MEA performance and durability. Herein, a unique atomically dispersed and nitrogen coordinated single Mn site-rich carbon (M–N–C) support was developed for high content (40 wt%) platinum catalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) cathode with reduced thickness. Compared with two controls studied in this work (e.g., a porous graphitic carbon-supported Pt and a commercial TKK Pt/C catalysts), the Pt (40 wt%)/Mn–N–C catalyst exhibited much enhanced catalytic activity and stability for the ORR in both aqueous acidic electrolyte and polymer electrolyte-based MEA. We carefully elucidated the—role of the Mn–N–C support in promoting Pt catalyst concerning its high surface area, partially graphitic structure, and nitrogen dopants, providing better Pt nanoparticle dispersion, and strengthened interactions between Pt and carbon. Consequently, the MEA from the Pt (40 wt%)/Mn–N–C catalyst generated a 1.61 A cm−2 at 0.7 V based on HDV conditions (0.2 mgPt cm−2 and 250 kPa air). More importantly, the MEA is highly durable and can retain 1.31 A cm−2 at 0.7 V after 30,000 voltage cycles (∼19% loss), surpassing the commercial Pt/C catalyst (loss of ∼56%). Therefore, the Mn–N–C carbon-supported Pt catalyst holds a great promise to meet the challenging DOE target (1.07 A cm−2 at 0.7 V after 150,000 cycles) for HDVs.
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Montanaro, Teodoro, Ilaria Sergi, Andrea Motroni, Alice Buffi, Paolo Nepa, Marco Pirozzi, Luca Catarinucci, Riccardo Colella, Francesco Paolo Chietera i Luigi Patrono. "An IoT-Aware Smart System Exploiting the Electromagnetic Behavior of UHF-RFID Tags to Improve Worker Safety in Outdoor Environments". Electronics 11, nr 5 (25.02.2022): 717. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics11050717.
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Recently, different solutions leveraging Internet of Things (IoT) technologies have been adopted to avoid accidents in agricultural working environments. As an example, heavy vehicles, e.g., tractors or excavators, have been upgraded with remote controls. Nonetheless, the community continues to encourage discussions on safety issues. In this framework, a localization system installed on remote-controlled farm machines (RCFM) can help in preventing fatal accidents and reduce collision risks. This paper presents an innovative system that exploits passive UHF-RFID technology supported by commercial BLE Beacons for monitoring and preventing accidents that may occur when ground-workers in RCFM collaborate in outdoor agricultural working areas. To this aim, a modular architecture is proposed to locate workers, obstacles and machines and guarantees the security of RCFM movements by using specific notifications for ground-workers prompt interventions. Its main characteristics are presented with its main positioning features based on passive UHF-RFID technology. An experimental campaign discusses its performance and determines the best configuration of the UHF-RFID tags installed on workers and obstacles. Finally, system validation demonstrates the reliability of the main components and the usefulness of the proposed architecture for worker safety.