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1
O'Neal, Michael A., Brian Hanson, Sebastian Carisio i Ashley Satinsky. "Detecting recent changes in the areal extent of North Cascades glaciers, USA". Quaternary Research 84, nr 2 (wrzesień 2015): 151–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2015.05.007.
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We present an exhaustive spatial analysis using the geographic, geometric, and hypsometric characteristics of 742 North Cascades glaciers to evaluate changes in their areal extents over a half-century period. Our results indicate that, contrary to our initial expectations, glacier change throughout the study region cannot be explained readily by correlations in glacier location, size, or shape. Because of the large error attributable to annual variations in glacier area due to snowpack, no statistically reliable change could be detected for 444 glaciers in our study (a slight majority). Of the North Cascades glaciers that do exhibit detectable change, a majority decreased in area, but nevertheless, some were detectably growing. These findings suggest that the integration of weather patterns over time does not neatly translate into correlations with natural variations in the geometry of glaciers. Our statistical analyses of the changes observed indicate that geometric data from a large number of glaciers, as well as a surprisingly large amount of spatial change, are required for a credible statistical detection of glacier-length and area changes over a short (multidecadal) period of time.
2
VEITCH, STEPHEN A., i MEREDITH NETTLES. "Assessment of glacial-earthquake source parameters". Journal of Glaciology 63, nr 241 (październik 2017): 867–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jog.2017.52.
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ABSTRACTGlacial earthquakes are slow earthquakes of magnitude M~5 associated with major calving events at near-grounded marine-terminating glaciers. These globally detectable earthquakes provide information on the grounding state of outlet glaciers and the timing of large calving events. Seismic source modeling of glacial earthquakes provides information on the size and orientation of forces associated with calving events. We compare force orientations estimated using a centroid-single-force technique with the calving-front orientations of the source glaciers at or near the time of earthquake occurrence. We consider earthquakes recorded at four glaciers in Greenland – Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier, Helheim Glacier, Kong Oscar Glacier, and Jakobshavn Isbræ – between 1999 and 2010. We find that the estimated earthquake force orientations accurately represent the orientation of the calving front at the time of the earthquake, and that seismogenic calving events are produced by a preferred section of the calving front, which may change with time. We also find that estimated earthquake locations vary in a manner consistent with changes in calving-front position, though with large scatter. We conclude that changes in glacial-earthquake source parameters reflect true changes in the geometry of the source glaciers, providing a means for identifying changes in glacier geometry and dynamics that complements traditional remote-sensing techniques.
3
Paul, F. "The influence of changes in glacier extent and surface elevation on modeled mass balance". Cryosphere 4, nr 4 (10.12.2010): 569–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-4-569-2010.
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Abstract. Glaciers are widely recognized as unique demonstration objects for climate change impacts, mostly due to the strong change of glacier length in response to small climatic changes. However, glacier mass balance as the direct response to the annual atmospheric conditions can be better interpreted in meteorological terms. When the climatic signal is deduced from long-term mass balance data, changes in glacier geometry (i.e. surface extent and elevation) must be considered as such adjustments form an essential part of the glacier reaction to new climatic conditions. In this study, a set of modelling experiments is performed to assess the influence of changes in glacier geometry on mass balance for constant climatic conditions. The calculations are based on a simplified distributed energy/mass balance model in combination with information on glacier extent and surface elevation for the years 1850 and 1973/1985 for about 60 glaciers in the Swiss Alps. The results reveal that over this period about 50–70% of the glacier reaction to climate change (here a one degree increase in temperature) is "hidden" in the geometric adjustment, while only 30–50% can be measured as the long-term mean mass balance. For larger glaciers, the effect of the areal change is partly reduced by a lowered surface elevation, which results in a slightly more negative balance despite a potential increase of topographic shading. In view of several additional reinforcement feedbacks that are observed in periods of strong glacier decline, it seems that the climatic interpretation of long-term mass balance data is rather complex.
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Paul, F. "The influence of changes in glacier extent and surface elevation on modeled mass balance". Cryosphere Discussions 4, nr 2 (16.06.2010): 737–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tcd-4-737-2010.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Abstract. Glaciers are widely recognized as unique demonstration objects for climate change impacts, mostly due to the strong change of glacier length in response to small climatic changes. However, glacier mass balance as the direct response to the annual atmospheric conditions can be better interpreted in meteorological terms. When the climatic signal is deduced from long-term mass balance data, changes in glacier geometry (i.e. surface extent and elevation) must be considered as such adjustments form an essential part of the glacier reaction to new climatic conditions. In this study, a set of modeling experiments is performed to assess the influence of changes in glacier geometry on mass balance for constant climatic conditions. The calculations are based on a simplified distributed energy/mass balance model in combination with information on glacier extent and surface elevation for the years 1850 and 1973/1985 for a larger sample of glaciers in the Swiss Alps. The results reveal that about 50–70% of the glacier reaction to climate change (here a one degree increase in temperature) is "hidden" in the geometric adjustment, while only 30–50% can be measured as the long-term mean mass balance. Thereby, changes in glacier extent alone have an even stronger effect, but they are partly compensated for by a lowered surface elevation which gives on average a slightly more negative balance despite an increase of topographic shading. In view of several additional reinforcement feedbacks that are observed in periods of strong glacier decline, it seems that the climatic interpretation of mass balance data is also rather complex.
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Brugger, Keith A. "Non-Synchronous Response Of Rabots Glaciar and Storglaciaren To Recent Climatic Change". Annals of Glaciology 14 (1990): 331–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/s0260305500008910.
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Rabots glaciär and Storglaciären are small valley glaciers located in the Kebnekaise massif of northern Sweden. Rabots glaciär flows west from the summit of Kebnekaise (2114 m) and Storglaciären flows east; thus regional climate affecting the glaciers is the same. The glaciers are of comparable size and geometry, although differences exist in the variation of ice thickness and the subglacial bedrock topography within the respective basins. The thickness of Rabots glaciär appears to be relatively uniform over much of its length and its bed smooth. The bed over which Storglaciären flows is characterized by a “riegel and basin” topography and ice thicknesses vary accordingly.Advance and retreat of the glaciers during the last 100 years has been documented by historical records and photographs, measurements of ice retreats, and detailed glacial and geological studies. Both advanced to their maximum 20th century extents around 1916. In their subsequent retreat, Rabots glaciär has lagged behind Storglaciären by 10 years.Mass-balance studies for the years 1981–87 suggest that while the “local” climate for each glacier is slightly different (in terms of the magnitude of acumulation and ablation), variations in local climate are synchronous. Non-synchronous response of the glaciers is therefore attributed to differences in glacier dynamics, which are quite apparent when velocity profiles are compared. Ice velocities on Rabots glaciär vary little from an average of −7.5 m/yr, resulting in a longitudinal strain rate, r, of about 6 × 10−3yr −1. In contrast, values for r on Storglaciären are as high as 2.5 × 10−2 yr−1 owing to greater ice velocities and variation in ice velocity. Since the response time of a glacier is proportional to 1/r, the lower strain rates found on Rabots glaciär probably account for its more sluggish retreat.A simple, non-diffusive, kinematic wave model is used to analyze the response of the glaciers to a step-like perturbation in mass balance. This model predicts that the response time of Storglaciären is on the order of 30 years and that a new steady-state profile would be attained in about 50 years. The predicted response time of Rabots glaciär is about 75 years, its new steady-state profile being reached after more than 100 years.More accurate analyses of each glacier's response to climatic change use a time-dependent numerical model which includes the effects of diffusion. The climatic forcing in these modelling efforts is represented by the changes in mass balance resulting from changes in the equilibrium line altitude (ELA). ELAs can be correlated to regional meteorological variables which in turn are used to create a “synthetic” record of ELA variations where necessary. Therefore climatic oscillations since the turn of the century can be simulated by the appropriate changes in ELA. Using synchronous variations of ELAs and their 1916 profiles as datum states, the modeled behavior of Rabots glaciär and Storglaciären shows that: (a) the rates of ice retreat for each glacier are in reasonable agreement with those observed; and (b) Rabots glaciär took slightly longer than Storglaciären to react to the slight warming that occurred shortly after their 1916 advance.
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Brugger, Keith A. "Non-Synchronous Response Of Rabots Glaciar and Storglaciaren To Recent Climatic Change". Annals of Glaciology 14 (1990): 331–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260305500008910.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Rabots glaciär and Storglaciären are small valley glaciers located in the Kebnekaise massif of northern Sweden. Rabots glaciär flows west from the summit of Kebnekaise (2114 m) and Storglaciären flows east; thus regional climate affecting the glaciers is the same. The glaciers are of comparable size and geometry, although differences exist in the variation of ice thickness and the subglacial bedrock topography within the respective basins. The thickness of Rabots glaciär appears to be relatively uniform over much of its length and its bed smooth. The bed over which Storglaciären flows is characterized by a “riegel and basin” topography and ice thicknesses vary accordingly. Advance and retreat of the glaciers during the last 100 years has been documented by historical records and photographs, measurements of ice retreats, and detailed glacial and geological studies. Both advanced to their maximum 20th century extents around 1916. In their subsequent retreat, Rabots glaciär has lagged behind Storglaciären by 10 years. Mass-balance studies for the years 1981–87 suggest that while the “local” climate for each glacier is slightly different (in terms of the magnitude of acumulation and ablation), variations in local climate are synchronous. Non-synchronous response of the glaciers is therefore attributed to differences in glacier dynamics, which are quite apparent when velocity profiles are compared. Ice velocities on Rabots glaciär vary little from an average of −7.5 m/yr, resulting in a longitudinal strain rate, r, of about 6 × 10−3yr −1. In contrast, values for r on Storglaciären are as high as 2.5 × 10−2 yr−1 owing to greater ice velocities and variation in ice velocity. Since the response time of a glacier is proportional to 1/r, the lower strain rates found on Rabots glaciär probably account for its more sluggish retreat. A simple, non-diffusive, kinematic wave model is used to analyze the response of the glaciers to a step-like perturbation in mass balance. This model predicts that the response time of Storglaciären is on the order of 30 years and that a new steady-state profile would be attained in about 50 years. The predicted response time of Rabots glaciär is about 75 years, its new steady-state profile being reached after more than 100 years. More accurate analyses of each glacier's response to climatic change use a time-dependent numerical model which includes the effects of diffusion. The climatic forcing in these modelling efforts is represented by the changes in mass balance resulting from changes in the equilibrium line altitude (ELA). ELAs can be correlated to regional meteorological variables which in turn are used to create a “synthetic” record of ELA variations where necessary. Therefore climatic oscillations since the turn of the century can be simulated by the appropriate changes in ELA. Using synchronous variations of ELAs and their 1916 profiles as datum states, the modeled behavior of Rabots glaciär and Storglaciären shows that: (a) the rates of ice retreat for each glacier are in reasonable agreement with those observed; and (b) Rabots glaciär took slightly longer than Storglaciären to react to the slight warming that occurred shortly after their 1916 advance.
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Sutherland, D. A., R. H. Jackson, C. Kienholz, J. M. Amundson, W. P. Dryer, D. Duncan, E. F. Eidam, R. J. Motyka i J. D. Nash. "Direct observations of submarine melt and subsurface geometry at a tidewater glacier". Science 365, nr 6451 (25.07.2019): 369–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aax3528.
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Ice loss from the world’s glaciers and ice sheets contributes to sea level rise, influences ocean circulation, and affects ecosystem productivity. Ongoing changes in glaciers and ice sheets are driven by submarine melting and iceberg calving from tidewater glacier margins. However, predictions of glacier change largely rest on unconstrained theory for submarine melting. Here, we use repeat multibeam sonar surveys to image a subsurface tidewater glacier face and document a time-variable, three-dimensional geometry linked to melting and calving patterns. Submarine melt rates are high across the entire ice face over both seasons surveyed and increase from spring to summer. The observed melt rates are up to two orders of magnitude greater than predicted by theory, challenging current simulations of ice loss from tidewater glaciers.
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Roe, Gerard H., i Michael A. O’Neal. "The response of glaciers to intrinsic climate variability: observations and models of late-Holocene variations in the Pacific Northwest". Journal of Glaciology 55, nr 193 (2009): 839–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/002214309790152438.
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AbstractDiscriminating between glacier variations due to natural climate variability and those due to true climate change is crucial for the interpretation and attribution of past glacier changes, and for the expectations of future changes. We explore this issue for the well-documented glaciers of Mount Baker in the Cascades Mountains of Washington State, USA, using glacier histories, glacier modeling, weather data and numerical weather model output. We find that natural variability alone is capable of producing kilometer-scale excursions in glacier length on multi-decadal and centennial timescales. Such changes are similar in magnitude to those attributed to a global Little Ice Age. The null hypothesis, that no climate change is required to explain the glacier fluctuations in this setting, cannot be rejected. These results for Mount Baker glaciers are also consistent with an earlier study analyzing individual glaciers in Scandinavia and the Alps. The principle that long-timescale fluctuations of glacier length can be driven by short-timescale fluctuations in climate reflects a robust and fundamental property of stochastically forced physical systems with memory. It is very likely that this principle also applies to other Alpine glaciers and that it therefore complicates interpretations of the relationship between glacier and climate history. However, the amplitude and timescale of the length fluctuations depends on the details of the particular glacier geometry and climatic setting, and this remains largely unevaluated for most glaciers.
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Winsvold, S. H., L. M. Andreassen i C. Kienholz. "Glacier area and length changes in Norway from repeat inventories". Cryosphere 8, nr 5 (20.10.2014): 1885–903. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-1885-2014.
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Abstract. In this study, we assess glacier area and length changes in mainland Norway from repeat Landsat TM/ETM+-derived inventories and digitized topographic maps. The multi-temporal glacier inventory consists of glacier outlines from three time ranges: 1947 to 1985 (GIn50), 1988 to 1997 (GI1990), and 1999 to 2006 (GI2000). For the northernmost regions, we include an additional inventory (GI1900) based on historic maps surveyed between 1895 and 1907. Area and length changes are assessed per glacier unit, 36 subregions, and for three main parts of Norway: southern, central, and northern. The results show a decrease in the glacierized area from 2994 km2 in GIn50 to 2668 km2 in GI2000 (total 2722 glacier units), corresponding to an area reduction of −326 km2, or −11% of the initial GIn50 area. The average length change for the full epoch (within GIn50 and GI2000) is −240 m. Overall, the comparison reveals both area and length reductions as general patterns, even though some glaciers have advanced. The three northernmost subregions show the highest retreat rates, whereas the central part of Norway shows the lowest change rates. Glacier area and length changes indicate that glaciers in maritime areas in southern Norway have retreated more than glaciers in the interior, and glaciers in the north have retreated more than southern glaciers. These observed spatial trends in glacier change are related to a combination of several factors such as glacier geometry, elevation, and continentality, especially in southern Norway.
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Winsvold, S. H., L. M. Andreassen i C. Kienholz. "Glacier area and length changes in Norway from repeat inventories". Cryosphere Discussions 8, nr 3 (10.06.2014): 3069–115. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tcd-8-3069-2014.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Abstract. In this study, we assess glacier area and length changes in mainland Norway from repeat Landsat TM/ETM+ derived inventories and digitized topographic maps. The multi-temporal glacier inventory consists of glacier outlines from within three time ranges: 1947 to 1985 (GIn50), 1988 to 1997 (GI1990), and 1999 to 2006 (GI2000). For the northernmost regions, we include an additional inventory (GI1900), based on historic maps surveyed between 1895 to 1907. Area and length changes are assessed per glacier unit, for 36 subregions, and for three main parts of Norway: southern, central and northern Norway. The results show a decrease of the glacierized area from 2994 km2 in GIn50, to 2668 km2 in GI2000 (totally 2722 glacier units), corresponding to an area reduction of −326 km2, or −11% of the initial GIn50 area. This is equivalent to an average change rate of −11 km2 a−1 over the past 30 years. The average length change for the full epoch (within GIn50 and GI2000) is −240 m, corresponding to an average length change rate of −8 m a−1. Overall, the comparison reveals both area and length reduction as a general pattern, even though some glaciers have advanced. The three northernmost glacier regions show the strongest retreat rates, whereas the central part of Norway shows the lowest change rates. Glacier area and length changes indicate that glaciers in maritime areas in southern Norway have retreated more than glaciers in the interior, and glaciers in the north have retreated more than southern glaciers. These observed spatial trends in glacier change are related to a combination of several geographical factors like glacier geometry and elevation, and other climatic aspects, such as continentality and the North Atlantic Oscillation.
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Huss, M. "Extrapolating glacier mass balance to the mountain range scale: the European Alps 1900–2100". Cryosphere Discussions 6, nr 2 (15.03.2012): 1117–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tcd-6-1117-2012.
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Abstract. This study addresses the extrapolation of single glacier mass balance measurements to the mountain range scale and aims at deriving time series of area-averaged mass balance and ice volume change for all glaciers in the European Alps for the period 1900–2100. Long-term mass balance series for 50 Swiss glaciers based on a combination of field data and modelling, and WGMS data for glaciers in Austria, France and Italy are used. A complete glacier inventory is available for the year 2003. Mass balance extrapolation is performed based on (1) arithmetic averaging, (2) glacier hypsometry, and (3) multiple regression. Given a sufficient number of data series, multiple regression with variables describing glacier geometry performs best in reproducing observed spatial mass balance variability. Future mass changes are calculated by driving a combined model for mass balance and glacier geometry with GCM ensembles based on four emission scenarios. Mean glacier mass balance in the European Alps is −0.32 ± 0.04 m w.e. a−1 in 1900–2011, and −1 m w.e. a−1 over the last decade. Total ice volume change since 1900 is −100 ± 13 km3; annual values vary between −5.9 km3 (1947) and +3.9 km3 (1977). Mean mass balances are expected to be around −1.3 m w.e. a−1 by 2050. Model results indicate a glacier area reduction to 4–18% relative to 2003 for the end of the 21st century.
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Huss, M. "Extrapolating glacier mass balance to the mountain-range scale: the European Alps 1900–2100". Cryosphere 6, nr 4 (6.07.2012): 713–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-6-713-2012.
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Abstract. This study addresses the extrapolation of in-situ glacier mass balance measurements to the mountain-range scale and aims at deriving time series of area-averaged mass balance and ice volume change for all glaciers in the European Alps for the period 1900–2100. Long-term mass balance series for 50 Swiss glaciers based on a combination of field data and modelling, and WGMS data for glaciers in Austria, France and Italy are used. A complete glacier inventory is available for the year 2003. Mass balance extrapolation is performed based on (1) arithmetic averaging, (2) glacier hypsometry, and (3) multiple regression. Given a sufficient number of data series, multiple regression with variables describing glacier geometry performs best in reproducing observed spatial mass balance variability. Future mass changes are calculated by driving a combined model for mass balance and glacier geometry with GCM ensembles based on four emission scenarios. Mean glacier mass balance in the European Alps is −0.31 ± 0.04 m w.e. a−1 in 1900–2011, and −1 m w.e. a−1 over the last decade. Total ice volume change since 1900 is −96 ± 13 km3; annual values vary between −5.9 km3 (1947) and +3.9 km3 (1977). Mean mass balances are expected to be around −1.3 m w.e. a−1 by 2050. Model results indicate a glacier area reduction of 4–18% relative to 2003 for the end of the 21st century.
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Zheng, Whyjay. "Glacier geometry and flow speed determine how Arctic marine-terminating glaciers respond to lubricated beds". Cryosphere 16, nr 4 (21.04.2022): 1431–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1431-2022.
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Abstract. Basal conditions directly control the glacier sliding rate and the dynamic discharge of ice. Recent glacier destabilization events indicate that some marine-terminating glaciers quickly respond to lubricated beds with increased flow speed, but the underlying physics, especially how this vulnerability relates to glacier geometry and flow characteristics, remains unclear. This paper presents a 1D physical framework for glacier dynamic vulnerability assuming sudden basal lubrication as an initial perturbation. In this new model, two quantities determine the scale and the areal extent of the subsequent thinning and acceleration after the bed is lubricated: Péclet number (Pe) and the product of glacier speed and thickness gradient (dubbed J0 in this study). To validate the model, this paper calculates Pe and J0 using multi-sourced data from 1996 to 1998 for outlet glaciers in the Greenland ice sheet and Austfonna ice cap, Svalbard, and compares the results with the glacier speed change during 1996/1998–2018. Glaciers with lower Pe and J0 are more likely to accelerate during this 20-year span than those with higher Pe and J0, which matches the model prediction. A combined factor of ice thickness, surface slope, and initial flow speed physically determines how much and how fast glaciers respond to lubricated beds in terms of speed, elevation, and terminus change.
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Rippin, David M., Jonathan L. Carrivick i Christopher Williams. "Evidence towards a thermal lag in the response of Kårsaglaciären, northern Sweden, to climate change". Journal of Glaciology 57, nr 205 (2011): 895–903. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/002214311798043672.
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AbstractRecent topographical and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) surveys of Kårsaglaciären, which is a small (<1 km2) and thin (<56 m) mountain glacier in Arctic Sweden, show that there are small areas of temperate ice in the lowermost part of the glacier. This is curious because we would expect such a small and thin glacier to have a fully cold ablation zone. Specifically, with our analyses of present glacier geometry and thickness and of the prevailing climate, we are unable to explain the presence of temperate ice within the snout of Kårsaglaciären using prevailing models of glacier thermal structure. This leads us to suggest that the presence of temperate ice within Kårsaglaciären is a remnant of a previous polythermal state that existed when the glacier was larger and thicker. Kårsaglaciären is thus out of synch with current geometry and climate and is exhibiting a ‘thermal lag’. We propose that, with time, Kårsaglaciären’s ablation zone and perhaps the entire glacier may well become fully cold as the temperate zone shrinks further. We anticipate that such a thermal lag is likely to be present within other Arctic glaciers. A thermal lag and an evolution to a fully cold thermal state have significant implications for the dynamic behaviour of small Arctic glaciers and for meltwater production from them.
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Roe, Gerard H. "What do glaciers tell us about climate variability and climate change?" Journal of Glaciology 57, nr 203 (2011): 567–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/002214311796905640.
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AbstractGlaciers respond to long-term climate changes and also to the year-to-year fluctuations inherent in a constant climate. Differentiating between these factors is critical for the correct interpretation of past glacier fluctuations and for the correct attribution of current changes. Previous work has established that century-scale, kilometre-scale fluctuations can occur in a constant climate. This study asks two further questions of practical significance: how likely is an excursion of a given magnitude in a given amount of time, and how large a trend in length is statistically significant? A linear model permits analytical answers wherein the dependencies on glacier geometry and climate setting can be clearly understood. The expressions are validated with a flowline glacier model. The likelihood of glacier excursions is well characterized by extreme-value statistics, although probabilities are acutely sensitive to some poorly known glacier properties. Conventional statistical tests can be used for establishing the significance of an observed glacier trend. However, it is important to determine the independent information in the observations which can be effectively estimated from the glacier geometry. Finally, the retreat of glaciers around Mount Baker, Washington State, USA, is consistent with, but not independent proof of, the regional climate warming that is established from the instrumental record.
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Theakstone, Wilfred H. "Twentieth-Century Glacier Change at Svartisen, Norway: The Influence of Climate, Glacier Geometry and Glacier Dynamics". Annals of Glaciology 14 (1990): 283–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/s0260305500008764.
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In the 1870s and 1880s, after a long period of cold conditions, most of the glaciers of Svartisen ended near their maximum Neoglacial limit. Subsequent changes, although principally a response to the climatic controls of mass balance, have been influenced by glacier geometry, including area/altitude relations and aspect, and by glacier dynamics. Calving has played a principal role in the decrease of size of two of the larger glaciers, Austerdalsisen and Flatisen, both of which became unstable once the grounded distal sections of their tongues lost contact with their beds. Mass balance variations reflect climatic controls of the length of the accumulation and ablation seasons, as well as changes of summer temperature. The mass balance record of Engabreen, a maritime outlet of the Vestre Svartisen ice cap, monitored since 1970 by the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Administration, is not representative of the area as a whole: the more continental glaciers of Østre Svartisen are likely to experience negative net balances when that of Engabreen is slightly or moderately positive. However, the pattern of year-to-year changes of net balance is similar, not only for the Svartisen area as a whole, but also for a larger area.
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Theakstone, Wilfred H. "Twentieth-Century Glacier Change at Svartisen, Norway: The Influence of Climate, Glacier Geometry and Glacier Dynamics". Annals of Glaciology 14 (1990): 283–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260305500008764.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
In the 1870s and 1880s, after a long period of cold conditions, most of the glaciers of Svartisen ended near their maximum Neoglacial limit. Subsequent changes, although principally a response to the climatic controls of mass balance, have been influenced by glacier geometry, including area/altitude relations and aspect, and by glacier dynamics. Calving has played a principal role in the decrease of size of two of the larger glaciers, Austerdalsisen and Flatisen, both of which became unstable once the grounded distal sections of their tongues lost contact with their beds. Mass balance variations reflect climatic controls of the length of the accumulation and ablation seasons, as well as changes of summer temperature. The mass balance record of Engabreen, a maritime outlet of the Vestre Svartisen ice cap, monitored since 1970 by the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Administration, is not representative of the area as a whole: the more continental glaciers of Østre Svartisen are likely to experience negative net balances when that of Engabreen is slightly or moderately positive. However, the pattern of year-to-year changes of net balance is similar, not only for the Svartisen area as a whole, but also for a larger area.
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Adhikari, S., i S. J. Marshall. "Influence of high-order mechanics on simulation of glacier response to climate change: insights from Haig Glacier, Canadian Rocky Mountains". Cryosphere 7, nr 5 (25.09.2013): 1527–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1527-2013.
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Abstract. Evolution of glaciers in response to climate change has mostly been simulated using simplified dynamical models. Because these models do not account for the influence of high-order physics, corresponding results may exhibit some biases. For Haig Glacier in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, we test this hypothesis by comparing simulation results obtained from 3-D numerical models that deal with different assumptions concerning physics, ranging from simple shear deformation to comprehensive Stokes flow. In glacier retreat scenarios, we find a minimal role of high-order mechanics in glacier evolution, as geometric effects at our site (the presence of an overdeepened bed) result in limited horizontal movement of ice (flow speed on the order of a few meters per year). Consequently, high-order and reduced models all predict that Haig Glacier ceases to exist by ca. 2080 under ongoing climate warming. The influence of high-order mechanics is evident, however, in glacier advance scenarios, where ice speeds are greater and ice dynamical effects become more important. Although similar studies on other glaciers are essential to generalize such findings, we advise that high-order mechanics are important and therefore should be considered while modeling the evolution of active glaciers. Reduced model predictions may be adequate for other glaciologic and topographic settings, particularly where flow speeds are low and where mass balance changes dominate over ice dynamics in determining glacier geometry.
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Kavan, Jan, Guy D. Tallentire, Mihail Demidionov, Justyna Dudek i Mateusz C. Strzelecki. "Fifty Years of Tidewater Glacier Surface Elevation and Retreat Dynamics along the South-East Coast of Spitsbergen (Svalbard Archipelago)". Remote Sensing 14, nr 2 (13.01.2022): 354. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14020354.
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Tidewater glaciers on the east coast of Svalbard were examined for surface elevation changes and retreat rate. An archival digital elevation model (DEM) from 1970 (generated from aerial images by the Norwegian Polar Institute) in combination with recent ArcticDEM were used to compare the surface elevation changes of eleven glaciers. This approach was complemented by a retreat rate estimation based on the analysis of Landsat and Sentinel-2 images. In total, four of the 11 tidewater glaciers became land-based due to the retreat of their termini. The remaining tidewater glaciers retreated at an average annual retreat rate of 48 m year−1, and with range between 10–150 m year−1. All the glaciers studied experienced thinning in their frontal zones with maximum surface elevation loss exceeding 100 m in the ablation areas of three glaciers. In contrast to the massive retreat and thinning of the frontal zones, a minor increase in ice thickness was recorded in some accumulation areas of the glaciers, exceeding 10 m on three glaciers. The change in glacier geometry suggests an important shift in glacier dynamics over the last 50 years, which very likely reflects the overall trend of increasing air temperatures. Such changes in glacier geometry are common at surging glaciers in their quiescent phase. Surging was detected on two glaciers studied, and was documented by the glacier front readvance and massive surface thinning in high elevated areas.
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Nuth, C., J. Kohler, H. F. Aas, O. Brandt i J. O. Hagen. "Glacier geometry and elevation changes on Svalbard (1936–90): a baseline dataset". Annals of Glaciology 46 (2007): 106–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/172756407782871440.
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AbstractThis study uses older topographic maps made from high-oblique aerial photographs for glacier elevation change studies. We compare the 1936/38 topographic map series of Svalbard (Norwegian Polar Institute) to a modern digital elevation model from 1990. Both systematic and random components of elevation error are examined by analyzing non-glacier elevation difference points. The 1936/38 photographic aerial survey is examined to identify areas with poor data coverage over glaciers. Elevation changes are analyzed for seven regions in Svalbard (~5000 km2), where significant thinning was found at glacier fronts, and elevation increases in the upper parts of the accumulation areas. All regions experience volume losses and negative geodetic balances, although regional variability exists relating to both climate and topography. Many surges are apparent within the elevation change maps. Estimated volume change for the regions is –1.59±0.07km3 a–1 (ice equivalent) for a geodetic annual balance of –0.30ma–1w.e., and the glaciated area has decreased by 16% in the 54 year time interval. The 1936–90 data are compared to modern elevation change estimates in the southern regions, to show that the rate of thinning has increased dramatically since 1990.
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Field, Hannah R., William H. Armstrong i Matthias Huss. "Gulf of Alaska ice-marginal lake area change over the Landsat record and potential physical controls". Cryosphere 15, nr 7 (15.07.2021): 3255–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3255-2021.
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Abstract. Lakes in contact with glacier margins can impact glacier evolution as well as the downstream biophysical systems, flood hazard, and water resources. Recent work suggests positive feedbacks between glacier wastage and ice-marginal lake evolution, although precise physical controls are not well understood. Here, we quantify ice-marginal lake area change in understudied northwestern North America from 1984–2018 and investigate climatic, topographic, and glaciological influences on lake area change. We delineate time series of sampled lake perimeters (n=107 lakes) and find that regional lake area has increased 58 % in aggregate, with individual proglacial lakes growing by 1.28 km2 (125 %) and ice-dammed lakes shrinking by 0.04 km2 (−15 %) on average. A statistical investigation of climate reanalysis data suggests that changes in summer temperature and winter precipitation exert minimal direct influence on lake area change. Utilizing existing datasets of observed and modeled glacial characteristics, we find that large, wide glaciers with thick lake-adjacent ice are associated with the fastest rate of lake area change, particularly where they have been undergoing rapid mass loss in recent times. We observe a dichotomy in which large, low-elevation coastal proglacial lakes have changed most in absolute terms, while small, interior lakes at high elevation have changed most in relative terms. Generally, the fastest-changing lakes have not experienced the most dramatic temperature or precipitation change, nor are they associated with the highest rates of glacier mass loss. Our work suggests that, while climatic and glaciological factors must play some role in determining lake area change, the influence of a lake's specific geometry and topographic setting overrides these external controls.
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Geist, Thomas, Hallgeir Elvehøy, Miriam Jackson i Johann Stötter. "Investigations on intra-annual elevation changes using multi-temporal airborne laser scanning data: case study Engabreen, Norway". Annals of Glaciology 42 (2005): 195–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/172756405781812592.
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AbstractKey issues of glacier monitoring are changes in glacier geometry and glacier mass. As accurate direct measurements are costly and time-consuming, the use of various remote-sensing data for glacier monitoring is explored. One technology used and described here is airborne laser scanning. The method enables the derivation of high-quality digital elevation models (DEMs) with a vertical and horizontal accuracy in the sub-metre range. Between September 2001 and August 2002, three laser scanner data acquisition flights were carried out, covering the whole area of Engabreen, Norway, and corresponding well to the measurement dates for the mass-balance year 2001/02. The data quality of the DEMs is assessed (e.g. by comparing the values with a control area which has been surveyed independently or GPS ground profiles measured during the flights). For the whole glacier, surface elevation change and consequently volume change is calculated, quantified and compared with traditional mass-balance data for the same time interval. For the winter term, emergence/submergence velocity is determined from laser scanner data and snow-depth data and is compared with velocity measurements at stakes. The investigations reveal the high potential of airborne laser scanning for measuring the extent and the topography of glaciers as well as changes in geometry (Δarea, Δvolume).
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Warren, Charles R. "Iceberg calving and the glacioclimatic record". Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment 16, nr 3 (wrzesień 1992): 253–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030913339201600301.
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Glacier fluctuations can yield climatic information. However, the relationship between climate and calving glaciers is not straightforward. Iceberg calving introduces instability to the glacier system causing glaciers to oscillate asynchronously with each other and with noncalving glaciers, and out of phase with climate change. Calving rates are controlled primarily by water depth, but, for any given depth, are an order of magnitude greater in tidewater than in freshwater. Calving dynamics are poorly understood, but differ between temperate and cold glaciers, and between grounded and floating termini. Nonclimatic behaviour of calving glaciers has been documented in a large number of locations, both in historical time and during the Late Glacial and Holocene. Interactions between calving dynamics, sedimentation and topographic geometry can partially decouple calving glaciers and marine ice sheets from climate, initiating independent advance/retreat cycles; it is therefore rarely possible to make reliable inferences about climate from their oscillations.
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Giesen, R. H., i J. Oerlemans. "Response of the ice cap Hardangerjøkulen in southern Norway to the 20th and 21st century climates". Cryosphere Discussions 3, nr 3 (13.11.2009): 947–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tcd-3-947-2009.
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Abstract. Glacier mass balance changes lead to geometry changes and vice versa. To include this interdependence in the response of glaciers to climate change, models should include an interactive scheme coupling mass balance and ice dynamics. In this study, we couple a spatially distributed mass balance model to a two-dimensional ice-flow model and apply this coupled model to the ice cap Hardangerjøkulen in southern Norway. The available glacio-meteorological records, mass balance and glacier length change measurements were utilized for model calibration and validation. Driven with meteorological data from nearby synoptic weather stations, the coupled model realistically simulated the observed mass balance and glacier length changes during the 20th century. The mean climate for the period 1961–1990, computed from local meteorological data, was used as a basis to prescribe climate projections for the 21st century at Hardangerjøkulen. For a projected temperature increase of 3°C from 1961–1990 to 2071–2100, the modelled net mass balance soon becomes negative at all altitudes and Hardangerjøkulen disappears around the year 2100. The projected changes in the other meteorological variables could at most partly compensate for the effect of the projected warming.
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Huybers, Kathleen, i Gerard H. Roe. "Spatial Patterns of Glaciers in Response to Spatial Patterns in Regional Climate". Journal of Climate 22, nr 17 (1.09.2009): 4606–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2009jcli2857.1.
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Abstract Glaciers are direct recorders of climate history and have come to be regarded as emblematic of climate change. They respond to variations in both accumulation and ablation, which can have separate atmospheric controls, leading to some ambiguity in interpreting the causes of glacier changes. Both climate change and climate variability have characteristic spatial patterns and time scales. The focus of this study is the regional-scale response of glaciers to natural patterns of climate variability. Using the Pacific Northwest of North America as the setting, the authors employ a simple linear glacier model to study how the combination of patterns of melt-season temperature and patterns of annual accumulation produce patterns of glacier length variations. Regional-scale spatial correlations in glacier length variations reflect three factors: the spatial correlations in precipitation and melt-season temperature, the geometry of a glacier and how it determines the relative importance of temperature and precipitation, and the climatic setting of the glaciers (i.e., maritime or continental). With the self-consistent framework developed here, the authors are able to evaluate the relative importance of these three factors. The results also highlight that, in order to understand the natural variability of glaciers, it is critically important to know the small-scale patterns of climate in mountainous terrain. The method can be applied to any area containing mountain glaciers and provides a baseline expectation for natural glacier variation against which the effects of climate changes can be evaluated.
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Hagen, Jon Ove, Trond Eiken, Jack Kohler i Kjetil Melvold. "Geometry changes on Svalbard glaciers: mass-balance or dynamic response?" Annals of Glaciology 42 (2005): 255–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/172756405781812763.
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AbstractThe geometry of glaciers is affected by both the mass balance and the dynamics. We present repeated GPS measurements of longitudinal altitude profiles on three glaciers in Svalbard and show that surface altitude changes alone cannot be used to assess the mass balance. The three measured glaciers are in different dynamic modes, and the observed changes in geometry are strongly affected by the dynamics. Nordenskiöldbreen shows no significant change in the geometry, indicating that the mass balance is in steady state with the dynamics. On Amundsenisen the surface has lowered by 1.5–2.0 ma–1 in the lower part of the accumulation area at 520–550m a.s.l., indicating that the ice flux is higher than the mass-balance input, probably due to a surge advance of the glacier further downstream affecting the higher part of the drainage area. On Kongsvegen the opposite situation was found. Here the geometry of the profile showed a clear build-up of 0.5 ma–1 in the accumulation area and a lowering of 1 ma–1 in the lower part of the ablation area. The ice velocity is very low, giving a negligible vertical velocity component and an ice flux that is far smaller than the mass-balance flux, indicating that the glacier is building up towards a surge advance. Our results show that if mapping of height changes is to be used to monitor the response of the glaciers to climate change, both surface net mass-balance data and dynamic data are needed.
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Huss, M., G. Jouvet, D. Farinotti i A. Bauder. "Future high-mountain hydrology: a new parameterization of glacier retreat". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 7, nr 1 (18.01.2010): 345–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hessd-7-345-2010.
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Abstract. Climate warming is expected to significantly affect the runoff regime of mountainous catchments. Simple methods for calculating future glacier change in hydrological models are required in order to efficiently project economic impacts of changes in the water cycle over the next decades. Models for temporal and spatial glacier evolution need to describe the climate forcing acting on the glacier and ice flow dynamics. Flow models, however, demand considerable computation power and field data input and are moreover not applicable on the regional scale. Here, we propose a simple parameterization for calculating the change in glacier surface elevation and area, which is mass conserving and suited for hydrological modelling. The Δh-parameterization is an empirical glacier-specific function derived from observations in the past that can easily be applied to large samples of glaciers. We validate the Δh-parameterization against results of a 3-D finite-element ice flow model. In case studies the evolution of two Alpine glaciers of different size over the period 2008–2100 is investigated using regional climate scenarios. The parameterization closely reproduces the distributed ice thickness change, as well as glacier area and length predicted by the ice flow model. This indicates that for the purpose of transient runoff forecasts, future glacier geometry change can be approximated using a simple parameterization instead of complex ice flow modelling. Furthermore, we analyse alpine glacier response to 21st century climate change and consequent shifts in the runoff regime of a highly glacierized catchment using the proposed methods.
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Huss, M., G. Jouvet, D. Farinotti i A. Bauder. "Future high-mountain hydrology: a new parameterization of glacier retreat". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 14, nr 5 (26.05.2010): 815–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-815-2010.
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Abstract. Global warming is expected to significantly affect the runoff regime of mountainous catchments. Simple methods for calculating future glacier change in hydrological models are required in order to reliably assess economic impacts of changes in the water cycle over the next decades. Models for temporal and spatial glacier evolution need to describe the climate forcing acting on the glacier, and ice flow dynamics. Flow models, however, demand considerable computational resources and field data input and are moreover not applicable on the regional scale. Here, we propose a simple parameterization for calculating the change in glacier surface elevation and area, which is mass conserving and suited for hydrological modelling. The Δh-parameterization is an empirical glacier-specific function derived from observations in the past that can easily be applied to large samples of glaciers. We compare the Δh-parameterization to results of a 3-D finite-element ice flow model. As case studies, the evolution of two Alpine glaciers of different size over the period 2008–2100 is investigated using regional climate scenarios. The parameterization closely reproduces the distributed ice thickness change, as well as glacier area and length predicted by the ice flow model. This indicates that for the purpose of transient runoff forecasts, future glacier geometry change can be approximated using a simple parameterization instead of complex ice flow modelling. Furthermore, we analyse alpine glacier response to 21st century climate change and consequent shifts in the runoff regime of a highly glacierized catchment using the proposed methods.
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Hodgkins, Richard, Adrian Fox i Anne-Marie Nuttall. "Geometry change between 1990 and 2003 at Finsterwalderbreen, a Svalbard surge-type glacier, from GPS profiling". Annals of Glaciology 46 (2007): 131–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/172756407782871189.
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AbstractSurface mass-balance and geometry data are key to quantifying the climate response of glaciers, and confidence in data synthesis and model interpretations and forecasts requires data from as wide a range of locations and glacier types as possible. This paper presents measurements of surface elevation change at the Svalbard surge-type glacier Finsterwalderbreen, by comparing a 1990 digital elevation model (DEM) with a surface GPS profile from 2003. The pattern of elevation change is consistent with that previously noted between 1970 and 1990, and reflects the continued quiescent-phase evolution of the glacier, with mass loss in the down-glacier/receiving area of up to –1.25mw.e. a–1, and mass gain in the up-glacier/reservoir area of up to 0.60 mw.e. a–1; the area-weighted, mean change for the whole glacier is 0.19mw.e. a–1. The spatial pattern of elevation increase and decrease is complex, and the boundary between thickening and thinning determined by combining GPS and DEM data does not appear to correspond with the equilibrium-line altitude determined from surface mass-balance measurements. There is no evidence yet of a decrease in the rate of reservoir area build-up driven by mass-balance change resulting from the warmer winter air temperatures, and decreased proportion of snowfall in total precipitation, noted at meteorological stations in Svalbard.
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Cook, A. J., D. G. Vaughan, A. J. Luckman i T. Murray. "A new Antarctic Peninsula glacier basin inventory and observed area changes since the 1940s". Antarctic Science 26, nr 6 (13.11.2014): 614–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954102014000200.
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AbstractGlaciers on the Antarctic Peninsula have recently shown changes in extent, velocity and thickness, yet there is little quantification of change in the mass balance of individual glaciers or the processes controlling changes in extent. Here a high-resolution digital elevation model and a semi-automated drainage basin delineation method have been used to define glacier systems between 63°S–70°S on the mainland and surrounding islands, resulting in an inventory of 1590 glacier basins. Of these, 860 are marine-terminating glaciers whose ice fronts can be defined at specific epochs since the 1940s. These ice front positions were digitized up to 2010 and the areas for all individual glacier basins were calculated. Glaciological characteristics, such as geometry, slope and altitudes, were attributed to each glacier, thus providing a new resource for glacier morphological analyses. Our results indicate that 90% of the 860 glaciers have reduced in area since the earliest recorded date. A north–south gradient of increasing ice loss is clear, as is distinct behaviour on the east and west coasts. The area lost varies considerably between glacier types, with correlations apparent with glacier shape, slope and frontal-type. Temporal trends indicate a uniform retreat since the 1970s, with a period of small re-advance in the late 1990s.
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Bearzot, Francesca, Roberto Garzonio, Roberto Colombo, Giovanni Battista Crosta, Biagio Di Mauro, Matteo Fioletti, Umberto Morra Di Cella i Micol Rossini. "Flow Velocity Variations and Surface Change of the Destabilised Plator Rock Glacier (Central Italian Alps) from Aerial Surveys". Remote Sensing 14, nr 3 (28.01.2022): 635. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14030635.
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Flow velocities were measured on the Plator rock glacier in the Central Italian Alps using a correlation image analysis algorithm on orthophotos acquired by drones between the years 2016 and 2020. The spatial patterns of surface creep were then compared to the Bulk Creep Factor (BCF) spatial variability to interpret the rock glacier dynamics as a function of material properties and geometry. The rock glacier showed different creep rates in the rooting zone (0.40–0.90 m/y) and in the frontal zone (>4.0 m/y). Close to the rock glacier front, the BCF assumed the highest values, reaching values typical of rock glaciers experiencing destabilisation. Conversely, in the rooting zone the small rates corresponded to lowest BCFs, about five times smaller than in the frontal zone. The Plator rock glacier revealed a substantial advancement from 1981 to 2020 and distinct geomorphological features typical of rock glaciers exhibiting destabilising processes. Given the fast-moving phase, the advancement of both the front line and the front toe of the rock glacier, and the contrasting spatial distribution in the BCFs, the Plator could be considered a destabilised rock glacier.
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Diolaiuti, Guglielmina Adele, Davide Maragno, Carlo D'Agata, Claudio Smiraglia i Daniele Bocchiola. "Glacier retreat and climate change: Documenting the last 50 years of Alpine glacier history from area and geometry changes of Dosdè Piazzi glaciers (Lombardy Alps, Italy)". Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment 35, nr 2 (31.03.2011): 161–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0309133311399494.
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The recent rapid mass loss of mountain glaciers in response to climate warming has been reported for high and low latitudes all over the Earth. The paper analyses and discusses the recent evolution of a representative glacierized group within the Italian Alps, the Piazzi—Dosdè, where small glaciers are experiencing considerable retreat and shrinking. We analysed aerial photos to calculate area and geometry changes in the time window 1954—2003, and glaciological and geomorphological surveys were also performed. The estimated area change during 1954—2003 was —3.97 km2 (—51% of the area coverage in 1954). Area reduction increased more recently: area change during 1991—2003 (12 years) was —1.74 km2, against —0.67 km2 during 1981—1991 (10 years), and —1.57 km 2 during 1954—1981 (27 years). Moreover, analysis of the most recent orthophotos acquired during the summer of 2003 under exceptional conditions (i.e. total absence of snow cover) allowed observation and mapping of changes affecting glacier shape and morphology, including growing rock outcrops, tongue separations, formation of proglacial lakes, increasing supraglacial debris and collapse structures. Such processes cause positive feedbacks that accelerate further glacier disintegration once they appear. From a geodynamical perspective, the Dosdè Piazzi is now experiencing transition from a glacial system to a paraglacial one; areas where in the past the shaping and driving factors were glaciers are now subject to the action of melting water, slope evolution and periglacial processes.
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Pfau, Monika, Georg Veh i Wolfgang Schwanghart. "Cast shadows reveal changes in glacier surface elevation". Cryosphere 17, nr 8 (24.08.2023): 3535–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3535-2023.
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Abstract. Increased rates of glacier retreat and thinning need accurate local estimates of glacier elevation change to predict future changes in glacier runoff and their contribution to sea level rise. Glacier elevation change is typically derived from digital elevation models (DEMs) tied to surface change analysis from satellite imagery. Yet, the rugged topography in mountain regions can cast shadows onto glacier surfaces, making it difficult to detect local glacier elevation changes in remote areas. A rather untapped resource comprises precise, time-stamped metadata on the solar position and angle in satellite images. These data are useful for simulating shadows from a given DEM. Accordingly, any differences in shadow length between simulated and mapped shadows in satellite images could indicate a change in glacier elevation relative to the acquisition date of the DEM. We tested this hypothesis at five selected glaciers with long-term monitoring programmes. For each glacier, we projected cast shadows onto the glacier surface from freely available DEMs and compared simulated shadows to cast shadows mapped from ∼40 years of Landsat images. We validated the relative differences with geodetic measurements of glacier elevation change where these shadows occurred. We find that shadow-derived glacier elevation changes are consistent with independent photogrammetric and geodetic surveys in shaded areas. Accordingly, a shadow cast on Baltoro Glacier (the Karakoram, Pakistan) suggests no changes in elevation between 1987 and 2020, while shadows on Great Aletsch Glacier (Switzerland) point to negative thinning rates of about 1 m yr−1 in our sample. Our estimates of glacier elevation change are tied to occurrence of mountain shadows and may help complement field campaigns in regions that are difficult to access. This information can be vital to quantify possibly varying elevation-dependent changes in the accumulation or ablation zone of a given glacier. Shadow-based retrieval of glacier elevation changes hinges on the precision of the DEM as the geometry of ridges and peaks constrains the shadow that we cast on the glacier surface. Future generations of DEMs with higher resolution and accuracy will improve our method, enriching the toolbox for tracking historical glacier mass balances from satellite and aerial images.
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Anderson, Brian, Wendy Lawson, Ian Owens i Becky Goodsell. "Past and future mass balance of ‘Ka Roimata o Hine Hukatere’ Franz Josef Glacier, New Zealand". Journal of Glaciology 52, nr 179 (2006): 597–607. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/172756506781828449.
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AbstractDespite their relatively small total ice volume, mid-latitude valley glaciers are expected to make a significant contribution to global sea-level rise over the next century due to the sensitivity of their mass-balance systems to small changes in climate. Here we use a degree-day model to reconstruct the past century of mass-balance variation at ‘Ka Roimata o Hine Hukatere’ Franz Josef Glacier, New Zealand, and to predict how mass balance may change over the next century. Analysis of the relationship between temperature, precipitation and mass balance indicates that temperature is a stronger control than precipitation on the mass balance of Franz Josef Glacier. The glacier’s mass balance, relative to its 1986 geometry, has decreased at a mean annual rate of 0.02m a–1w.e. between 1894 and 2005. We compare this reduction to observations of terminus advance and retreat, of which Franz Josef Glacier has the best record in the Southern Hemisphere. For the years 2000–05 the relative mass balance ranged from –0.75 to +1.50m a–1w.e., with 2000/01 the only year showing a negative mass balance. In a regionally downscaled Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change mean warming scenario, the annual relative mass balance will continue to decrease at 0.02m a–1w.e. through the next century.
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Bartlett, Oliver T., Steven J. Palmer, Dustin M. Schroeder, Emma J. MacKie, Timothy T. Barrows i Alastair G. C. Graham. "Geospatial simulations of airborne ice-penetrating radar surveying reveal elevation under-measurement bias for ice-sheet bed topography". Annals of Glaciology 61, nr 81 (kwiecień 2020): 46–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/aog.2020.35.
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AbstractAirborne radio-echo sounding (RES) surveys are widely used to measure ice-sheet bed topography. Measuring bed topography as accurately and widely as possible is of critical importance to modelling ice dynamics and hence to constraining better future ice response to climate change. Measurement accuracy of RES surveys is influenced both by the geometry of bed topography and the survey design. Here we develop a novel approach for simulating RES surveys over glaciated terrain, to quantify the sensitivity of derived bed elevation to topographic geometry. Furthermore, we investigate how measurement errors influence the quantification of glacial valley geometry. We find a negative bias across RES measurements, where off-nadir return measurement error is typically −1.8 ± 11.6 m. Topographic highlands are under-measured an order of magnitude more than lowlands. Consequently, valley depth and cross-sectional area are largely under-estimated. While overall estimates of ice thickness are likely too high, we find large glacier valley cross-sectional area to be under-estimated by −2.8 ± 18.1%. Therefore, estimates of ice flux through large outlet glaciers are likely too low when this effect is not taken into account. Additionally, bed mismeasurements potentially impact our appreciation of outlet-glacier stability.
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Hill, Emily A., J. Rachel Carr, Chris R. Stokes i G. Hilmar Gudmundsson. "Dynamic changes in outlet glaciers in northern Greenland from 1948 to 2015". Cryosphere 12, nr 10 (9.10.2018): 3243–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3243-2018.
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Abstract. The Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) is losing mass in response to recent climatic and oceanic warming. Since the mid-1990s, tidewater outlet glaciers across the ice sheet have thinned, retreated, and accelerated, but recent changes in northern Greenland have been comparatively understudied. Consequently, the dynamic response (i.e. changes in surface elevation and velocity) of these outlet glaciers to changes at their termini, particularly calving from floating ice tongues, is poorly constrained. Here we use satellite imagery and historical maps to produce an unprecedented 68-year record of terminus change across 18 major outlet glaciers and combine this with previously published surface elevation and velocity datasets. Overall, recent (1995–2015) retreat rates were higher than at any time in the previous 47 years (since 1948). Despite increased retreat rates from the 1990s, there was distinct variability in dynamic glacier behaviour depending on whether the terminus was grounded or floating. Grounded glaciers accelerated and thinned in response to retreat over the last 2 decades, while most glaciers terminating in ice tongues appeared dynamically insensitive to recent ice tongue retreat and/or total collapse. We also identify glacier geometry (e.g. fjord width, basal topography, and ice tongue confinement) as an important influence on the dynamic adjustment of glaciers to changes at their termini. Recent grounded outlet glacier retreat and ice tongue loss across northern Greenland suggest that the region is undergoing rapid change and could soon contribute substantially to sea level rise via the loss of grounded ice.
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Boudreaux, Andrew, i Charles Raymond. "Geometry response of glaciers to changes in spatial pattern of mass balance". Annals of Glaciology 25 (1997): 407–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/s0260305500014361.
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The effect of the spatial pattern of mass balance on the steady-state geometry of a glacier is examined using a Vialov -Nye glacier-flow model based on non-linear internal deformation of the ice with no basal motion. Surface profiles are predicted using a range of spatial variations of mass balance that include uniform shifts that cause a change in the mean and spatial patterns with zero mean representing changes in balance gradient and curvature. The corresponding effect on geometry induced by the different mass-balance patterns are described in terms of the volume and measures of surface slope and convexity. The change in glacier volume, slope and convexity induced by uniform changes in mass balance with non-zero mean are more than one order of magnitude larger than corresponding changes caused by spatial patterns of similar amplitude, but with zero mean. These results show that the mean mass balance contains most of the mass-balance information relevant to the dynamic changes of a glacier. An important consequence is that the memory of a change in climate, which is controlled by the consequent volume change, should be insensitive to the spatial pattern other than how that affects the mean. The spatial pattern of mass balance does induce small changes in the shape of the steady-state profile, which indicates the spatial pattern could affect the short time-scale response characteristics.
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Boudreaux, Andrew, i Charles Raymond. "Geometry response of glaciers to changes in spatial pattern of mass balance". Annals of Glaciology 25 (1997): 407–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260305500014361.
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The effect of the spatial pattern of mass balance on the steady-state geometry of a glacier is examined using a Vialov -Nye glacier-flow model based on non-linear internal deformation of the ice with no basal motion. Surface profiles are predicted using a range of spatial variations of mass balance that include uniform shifts that cause a change in the mean and spatial patterns with zero mean representing changes in balance gradient and curvature. The corresponding effect on geometry induced by the different mass-balance patterns are described in terms of the volume and measures of surface slope and convexity. The change in glacier volume, slope and convexity induced by uniform changes in mass balance with non-zero mean are more than one order of magnitude larger than corresponding changes caused by spatial patterns of similar amplitude, but with zero mean. These results show that the mean mass balance contains most of the mass-balance information relevant to the dynamic changes of a glacier. An important consequence is that the memory of a change in climate, which is controlled by the consequent volume change, should be insensitive to the spatial pattern other than how that affects the mean. The spatial pattern of mass balance does induce small changes in the shape of the steady-state profile, which indicates the spatial pattern could affect the short time-scale response characteristics.
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Zhao, L., L. Tian, T. Zwinger, R. Ding, J. Zong, Q. Ye i J. C. Moore. "Numerical simulations of Gurenhekou Glacier on the Tibetan Plateau using a full-Stokes ice dynamical model". Cryosphere Discussions 7, nr 1 (8.01.2013): 145–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tcd-7-145-2013.
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Abstract. We investigate the impact of climate change on a small Tibetan glacier that is representative of the tens of thousands of mountain glaciers in the region. We apply a three-dimensional, thermo-mechanically coupled full-Stokes model to Gurenhekou Glacier located in the southern Tibetan Plateau. The steep and rugged geometry requires use of such a flow model to simulate the dynamical evolution of the glacier. We parameterize the temperature and mass balance using nearby automatic weather stations and an energy balance model for another glacier in the same mountain range. Summer air temperature increased at 0.02 K a−1 over the past 50 yr, and the glacier has retreated at an average rate of 8.3 m a−1. Prognostic simulations suggest an accelerated retreating rate up to 14 m a−1 for the next 50 yr under continued steady warming, which is consistent with observed increased retreat in the last decade. However, regional climate models suggest a marked increase in warming rate over Tibet during the 21st century, and this rate causes about a 1% per year loss of glaciated area and glacier volume. These changes imply that this small glacier will probably disappear in a century. Although Tibetan glaciers are not particularly sensitive to climate warming, the rather high warming rates predicted by regional climate models combined with the small sizes of most Tibetan glaciers suggest that significant numbers of glaciers will be lost in the region during the 21st century.
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Dudek, Justyna, i Michał Pętlicki. "Unlocking archival maps of the Hornsund fjord area for monitoring glaciers of the Sørkapp Land peninsula, Svalbard". Earth System Science Data 15, nr 9 (1.09.2023): 3869–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-3869-2023.
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Abstract. Archival maps are an important source of information on the state of glaciers in polar zones and are very often basic research data for analysing changes in glacier mass, extent, and geometry. However, basing a quantitative analysis on archival maps requires that they be standardised and precisely matched against modern-day cartographic materials. This can be achieved effectively using techniques and tools from the field of geographic information systems (i.e. GIS). The objective of this research was to accurately register archival topographic maps of the area surrounding the Hornsund fjord (southern Spitsbergen) published by the Polish Academy of Sciences and to evaluate their potential for use in studying changes in the geometry of glaciers in the north-western part of the Sørkapp Land peninsula in the following periods: 1961–1990, 1990–2010, and 1961–2010. The area occupied by the investigated glaciers in the north-western Sørkapp Land decreased in the years 1961–2010 by 45.6 km2, i.e. by slightly over 16 %. The rate of glacier area change varied over time and amounted to 0.85 km2 yr−1 in the period 1961–1990 and sped up to 1.05 km2 yr−1 after 1990. This process was accompanied by glacier surface lowering by about 90–100 m for the largest land-terminating glaciers on the peninsula and by up to more than 120 m for tidewater glaciers (above the line marking their 1984 extents). The dataset is now available from the Zenodo web portal: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4573129 (Dudek and Pętlicki, 2021).
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Haga, Odin Næss, Robert McNabb, Christopher Nuth, Bas Altena, Thomas Schellenberger i Andreas Kääb. "From high friction zone to frontal collapse: dynamics of an ongoing tidewater glacier surge, Negribreen, Svalbard". Journal of Glaciology 66, nr 259 (17.06.2020): 742–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jog.2020.43.
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AbstractNegribreen, a tidewater glacier located in central eastern Svalbard, began actively surging after it experienced an initial collapse in summer 2016. The surge resulted in horizontal surface velocities of more than 25 m d−1, making it one of the fastest-flowing glaciers in the archipelago. The last surge of Negribreen likely occurred in the 1930s, but due to a long quiescent phase, investigations of this glacier have been limited. As Negribreen is part of the Negribreen Glacier System, one of the largest glacier systems in Svalbard, investigating its current surge event provides important information on surge behaviour among tidewater glaciers within the region. Here, we demonstrate the surge development and discuss triggering mechanisms using time series of digital elevation models (1969–2018), surface velocities (1995–2018), crevasse patterns and glacier extents from various data sources. We find that the active surge results from a four-stage process. Stage 1 (quiescent phase) involves a long-term, gradual geometry change due to high subglacial friction towards the terminus. These changes allow the onset of Stage 2, an accelerating frontal destabilization, which ultimately results in the collapse (Stage 3) and active surge (Stage 4).
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Wallinga, Jakob, i Roderik S. W. Van De Wal. "Sensitivity of Rhonegletscher, Switzerland, to climate change: experiments with a one-dimensional flowline model". Journal of Glaciology 44, nr 147 (1998): 383–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/s0022143000002719.
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AbstractA one-dimensional time-dependent flowline model of Rhonegletscher, Switzerland, has been used to test the glacier’s response to climatic warming. Mass-balance variations over the last 100 years are obtained from observations of the equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) and a reconstruction of the ELA based on a statistical correlation between temperature and ELA. For the period prior to AD 1882, for which no reliable climate data exist, we chose equilibrium-line altitudes that enabled us to simulate accurately the glacier length from AD 1602.The model simulates the historical glacier length almost perfectly and glacier geometry very well. It underestimates glacier-surface velocities by 1-18%. Following these reference experiments, we investigated the response of Rhonegletscher to a number of climate-change scenarios for the period AD 1990-2100. For a constant climate equal to the 1961-90 mean, the model predicts a 6% decrease in glacier volume by AD 2100. Rhonegletscher will retreat by almost 1 km over the next 100 years at this scenario. At a warming rate of 0.04 K a-1, only 4% of the glacier volume will be left by AD 2100.
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Wallinga, Jakob, i Roderik S. W. Van De Wal. "Sensitivity of Rhonegletscher, Switzerland, to climate change: experiments with a one-dimensional flowline model". Journal of Glaciology 44, nr 147 (1998): 383–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022143000002719.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
AbstractA one-dimensional time-dependent flowline model of Rhonegletscher, Switzerland, has been used to test the glacier’s response to climatic warming. Mass-balance variations over the last 100 years are obtained from observations of the equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) and a reconstruction of the ELA based on a statistical correlation between temperature and ELA. For the period prior to AD 1882, for which no reliable climate data exist, we chose equilibrium-line altitudes that enabled us to simulate accurately the glacier length from AD 1602.The model simulates the historical glacier length almost perfectly and glacier geometry very well. It underestimates glacier-surface velocities by 1-18%. Following these reference experiments, we investigated the response of Rhonegletscher to a number of climate-change scenarios for the period AD 1990-2100. For a constant climate equal to the 1961-90 mean, the model predicts a 6% decrease in glacier volume by AD 2100. Rhonegletscher will retreat by almost 1 km over the next 100 years at this scenario. At a warming rate of 0.04 K a-1, only 4% of the glacier volume will be left by AD 2100.
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Karušs, Jānis, Kristaps Lamsters, Jurijs Ješkins, Ireneusz Sobota i Pēteris Džeriņš. "UAV and GPR Data Integration in Glacier Geometry Reconstruction: A Case Study from Irenebreen, Svalbard". Remote Sensing 14, nr 3 (19.01.2022): 456. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14030456.
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Although measurements of thickness and internal structure of glaciers are substantial for the understanding of their evolution and response to climate change, detailed data about polythermal glaciers, are scarce. Here, we present the first ground-penetrating radar (GPR) measurement data of Irenebreen, and high-resolution DEM and orthomosaic, obtained from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry. A combination of GPR and UAV data allowed for the reconstruction of the glacier geometry including thermal structure. We compare different methods of GPR signal propagation speed determination and argue that a common midpoint method (CMP) should be used if possible. Our observations reveal that Irenebreen is a polythermal glacier with a basal temperate ice layer, the volume of which volume reaches only 12% of the total glacier volume. We also observe the intense GPR signal scattering in two small zones in the ablation area and suggest that intense water percolation occurs in these places creating local areas of temperate ice. This finding emphasizes the possible formation of localised temperate ice zones in polythermal glaciers due to the coincidence of several factors. Our study demonstrates that a combination of UAV photogrammetry and GPR can be successfully applied and should be used for the high-resolution reconstruction of 3D geometries of small glaciers.
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Raper, S. C. B., i R. J. Braithwaite. "Glacier volume response time and its links to climate and topography based on a conceptual model of glacier hypsometry". Cryosphere Discussions 3, nr 1 (4.03.2009): 243–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tcd-3-243-2009.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Abstract. Glacier volume response time is a measure of the time taken for a glacier to adjust its geometry to a climate change. It is currently believed that the volume response time is given approximately by the ratio of glacier thickness to ablation at the glacier terminus. We propose a new conceptual model of glacier hypsometry (area-altitude relation) and derive the volume response time where climatic and topographic parameters are separated. The former is expressed by mass balance gradients which we derive from glacier-climate modelling and the latter are quantified with data from the World Glacier Inventory. Aside from the well-known scaling relation between glacier volume and area, we establish a new scaling relation between glacier altitude range and area, and evaluate it for seven regions. The presence of this scaling parameter in our response time formula accounts for the mass balance elevation feedback and leads to longer response times than given by the simple ratio of glacier thickness to ablation. Volume response times range from decades to thousands of years for glaciers in maritime (wet-warm) and continental (dry-cold) climates, respectively. The combined effect of volume-area and altitude-area scaling relations is such that volume response time can increase with glacier area (Axel Heiberg Island and Svalbard), hardly change (Northern Scandinavia, Southern Norway and the Alps) or even get smaller (The Caucasus and New Zealand).
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Treichler, Désirée, Andreas Kääb, Nadine Salzmann i Chong-Yu Xu. "Recent glacier and lake changes in High Mountain Asia and their relation to precipitation changes". Cryosphere 13, nr 11 (13.11.2019): 2977–3005. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2977-2019.
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Abstract. We present an updated, spatially resolved estimate of 2003–2008 glacier surface elevation changes for the entire region of High Mountain Asia (HMA) from ICESat laser altimetry data. The results reveal a diverse pattern that is caused by spatially greatly varying glacier sensitivity, in particular to precipitation availability and changes. We introduce a spatially resolved zonation where ICESat samples are grouped into units of similar glacier behaviour, glacier type and topographic settings. In several regions, our new zonation reveals local differences and anomalies that have not been described previously. Glaciers in the Eastern Pamirs, Kunlun Shan and central TP were thickening by 0.1–0.7 m a−1, and the thickening anomaly has a crisp boundary in the Eastern Pamirs that continues just north of the central Karakoram. Glaciers in the south and east of the TP were thinning, with increasing rates towards southeast. We attribute the glacier thickening signal to a stepwise increase in precipitation around ∼1997–2000 on the Tibetan Plateau (TP). The precipitation change is reflected by growth of endorheic lakes in particular in the northern and eastern TP. We estimate lake volume changes through a combination of repeat lake extents from Landsat data and shoreline elevations from ICESat and the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) digital elevation model (DEM) for over 1300 lakes. The rise in water volume contained in the lakes corresponds to 4–25 mm a−1, when distributed over entire catchments, for the areas where we see glacier thickening. The precipitation increase is also visible in sparse in situ measurements and MERRA-2 climate reanalysis data but less visible in ERA-Interim reanalysis data. Taking into account evaporation loss, the difference between average annual precipitation during the 1990s and 2000s suggested by these datasets is 34–100 mm a−1, depending on region, which can fully explain both lake growth and glacier thickening (Kunlun Shan) or glacier geometry changes such as thinning tongues while upper glacier areas were thickening or stable (eastern TP). The precipitation increase reflected in these glacier changes possibly extended to the northern slopes of the Tarim Basin, where glaciers were nearly in balance in 2003–2008. Along the entire Himalaya, glaciers on the first orographic ridge, which are exposed to abundant precipitation, were thinning less than glaciers in the dryer climate of the inner ranges. Thinning rates in the Tien Shan vary spatially but are rather stronger than in other parts of HMA.
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Oerlemans, J. "A note on the water budget of temperate glaciers". Cryosphere Discussions 7, nr 3 (14.06.2013): 2679–702. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tcd-7-2679-2013.
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Abstract. In this note the total dissipative melting in temperate glaciers is studied. The analysis is based on the notion that the dissipation is determined by the loss of potential energy, due to the downward motion of mass (ice, snow, meltwater and rain). A mathematical formulation of the dissipation is developed and applied to a simple glacier geometry. In a next step, meltwater production resulting from enhanced ice motion during a glacier surge is calculated. The amount of melt energy available follows directly from the lowering of the centre of gravity of the glacier. To illustrate the concept, schematic calculations are presented for a number of glaciers with different geometric characteristics. Typical dissipative melt rates, expressed as water-layer depth averaged over the glacier, range from a few cm per year for smaller glaciers to half a meter per year for Franz-Josef Glacier, one of the most active glaciers in the world (in terms of mass turnover). The total generation of meltwater during a surge is typically half a meter. For Variegated Glacier a value of 70 cm is found, for Kongsvegen 20 cm. These values refer to water layer depth averaged over the entire glacier. The melt rate depends on the duration of the surge. It is generally an order of magnitude larger than the water production by "normal" dissipation. On the other hand, the additional basal melt rate during a surge is comparable in magnitude to the water input from meltwater and precipitation. This suggests that enhanced melting during a surge does not grossly change the total water budget of a glacier. Basal water generated by enhanced sliding is an important ingredient of many theories of glacier surges. It provides a positive feedback mechanism that actually makes the surge happen. The results found here suggest that this can only work if water generated by enhanced sliding is accumulating in a part of the glacier base where surface meltwater and rain has no or very limited access. This finding seems compatible with the fact that on many glaciers surges are initiated in the lower accumulation zone.
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Oerlemans, J. "A note on the water budget of temperate glaciers". Cryosphere 7, nr 5 (27.09.2013): 1557–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1557-2013.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Abstract. In this note, the total dissipative melting in temperate glaciers is studied. The analysis is based on the notion that the dissipation is determined by the loss of potential energy due to the downward motion of mass (ice, snow, meltwater and rain). A mathematical formulation of the dissipation is developed and applied to a simple glacier geometry. In the next step, meltwater production resulting from enhanced ice motion during a glacier surge is calculated. The amount of melt energy available follows directly from the lowering of the centre of gravity of the glacier. To illustrate the concept, schematic calculations are presented for a number of glaciers with different geometric characteristics. Typical dissipative melt rates, expressed as water-layer depth averaged over the glacier, range from a few centimetres per year for smaller glaciers to half a metre per year for Franz Josef Glacier, one of the most active glaciers in the world (in terms of mass turnover). The total generation of meltwater during a surge is typically half a metre. For Variegated Glacier a value of 70 cm is found, for Kongsvegen 20 cm. These values refer to water layer depth averaged over the entire glacier. The melt \\textit{rate} depends on the duration of the surge. It is generally an order of magnitude greater than water production by `normal' dissipation. On the other hand, the additional basal melt rate during a surge is comparable in magnitude with the water input from meltwater and precipitation. This suggests that enhanced melting during a surge does not grossly change the total water budget of a glacier. Basal water generated by enhanced sliding is an important ingredient in many theories of glacier surges. It provides a positive feedback mechanism that actually makes the surge happen. The results found here suggest that this can only work if water generated by enhanced sliding accumulates in a part of the glacier base where surface meltwater and rain have no or very limited access. This finding seems compatible with the fact that, on many glaciers, surges are initiated in the lower accumulation zone.
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Lea, James M., Douglas W. F. Mair i Brice R. Rea. "Evaluation of existing and new methods of tracking glacier terminus change". Journal of Glaciology 60, nr 220 (2014): 323–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/2014jog13j061.
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AbstractSeveral different methodologies have previously been employed in the tracking of glacier terminus change, though a systematic comparison of these has not been undertaken. The frequent application of single methods to multiple glaciers over large geographical areas such as Greenland, raises the question of whether individual methodologies are robust. In this study we evaluate three existing methodologies that have been widely used to track terminus change (the centre-line, bow and box methods) against a full range of idealized glaciological scenarios and six examples of real glaciers. We also evaluate two new methodologies that aim to reduce measurement error compared with the existing methodologies. The first is a modification to the box method that can account for termini retreating through fjords that change orientation (termed the curvilinear box method), while the second determines the average terminus position relative to the glacier centre line using an inverse distance weighting extrapolation (termed the extrapolated centre-line method). No single method tested achieved complete accuracy for all scenarios, though the extrapolated centre-line method was able to successfully account for variable fjord orientation, width and terminus geometry with the least error.
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Raper, S. C. B., i R. J. Braithwaite. "Glacier volume response time and its links to climate and topography based on a conceptual model of glacier hypsometry". Cryosphere 3, nr 2 (14.08.2009): 183–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-3-183-2009.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Abstract. Glacier volume response time is a measure of the time taken for a glacier to adjust its geometry to a climate change. It has been previously proposed that the volume response time is given approximately by the ratio of glacier thickness to ablation at the glacier terminus. We propose a new conceptual model of glacier hypsometry (area-altitude relation) and derive the volume response time where climatic and topographic parameters are separated. The former is expressed by mass balance gradients which we derive from glacier-climate modelling and the latter are quantified with data from the World Glacier Inventory. Aside from the well-known scaling relation between glacier volume and area, we establish a new scaling relation between glacier altitude range and area, and evaluate it for seven regions. The presence of this scaling parameter in our response time formula accounts for the mass balance elevation feedback and leads to longer response times than given by the simple ratio of glacier thickness to ablation at the terminus. Volume response times range from decades to thousands of years for glaciers in maritime (wet-warm) and continental (dry-cold) climates respectively. The combined effect of volume-area and altitude-area scaling relations is such that volume response time can increase with glacier area (Axel Heiberg Island and Svalbard), hardly change (Northern Scandinavia, Southern Norway and the Alps) or even get smaller (The Caucasus and New Zealand).