Artykuły w czasopismach: „Germanic languages – dialects”

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Naiditch, Larissa. "Palatal consonants in the Mennonite dialect Plautdietch in the light of the development typology of the Ingvaeonic consonantism". Scandinavian Philology 20, nr 2 (2022): 245–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/11701/spbu21.2022.202.

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The paper deals with the system of palatal consonants: /t’/, /d’/, /n’/ in Low German, Prussian dialects of the Mennonites. This dialect was used in the “language islands” of the Ukraine and of several other regions of the Russian state and is today common in the Mennonite communities all around the world: Canada, USA, South America, Germany, Siberia and the Altai region. The research is based on the recent records of these dialects as well as on the data from the dialectal archive of Viktor Schirmunski (Žirmunskij) in St Petersburg. The rendering of the palatal consonants in the questionnaires in this archive by the dialect speakers in 1920s is examined. The palatalization of consonants in Plautdietch is considered from the background of the palatalizations and assibilations in the Ingvaeonic branch of West Germanic languages. It is emphasized that the palatalization is one of the characteristic phenomena of the Ingvaeonic languages, which can manifest itself in different periods of their history. Thus the development of the palatal consonants can be considered in the framework of genetically related languages’ typology. It is known that the palatalization of [k] and [g] occurred in Old English before and after front vowels. In Frisian, palatalization was followed by assibilation. In Dutch, palatalization is observed in the diminutive suffix. Palatalization in a number of Low German dialects occurred as well and was followed by zetacism. Thus the palatalizaion reflects internal trends in the development of the dialects of some West Germanic languages, namely those of the Ingvaeonic group. It is probably an intermediate stage preceding assibilation and affrication of consonants. In some cases it remains in the modern language in its initial state, as is the case in the Mennonite dialect of the Plautdietch.

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Tetty, Marscolia. "Theory of origin of languages". Macrolinguistics and Microlinguistics 1, nr 1 (12.01.2020): 13–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.21744/mami.v1n1.2.

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This paper aimed at exploring the theory of the origin of languages. The history of the English language begins with the birth of the English language on the island of Britain about 1,500 years ago. English is a West Germanic language derived from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to the island of Britain by Germanic immigrants from parts of the northwest of what is now the Netherlands and Germany. Initially, Old English was a group of dialects reflecting the origins of the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England. One of these dialects, West Saxon eventually came to dominate. Then the original Old English was influenced by two waves of invasion. The first wave of invasion was the invasion of speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the German language family. They conquered and inhabited parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries. Then this second wave of invasion was the Normans in the 11th century who spoke a dialect of French. These two invasions resulted in English being "mixed up" to some degree (although it was never a literal mixed language).

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Schäfer, Lea. "Auxiliary Selection in Yiddish Dialects". Journal of Germanic Linguistics 34, nr 4 (14.11.2022): 341–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1470542722000010.

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The variation of the two past tense auxiliaries (HAVE and BE) is a well-studied phenomenon in European languages, especially in the West Germanic varieties. So far, however, the situation in Eastern Yiddish has not been examined. This paper focuses on auxiliary selection in these Yiddish dialects based on data from the Language and Culture Archive of Ashkenazic Jewry, which were collected in the 1960s. Like most of the current works on this topic, the following analysis uses and discusses Sorace’s (1993, 2000) Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy, which allows to examine the Yiddish structures in light of historical and diatopic evidence from other Germanic varieties, particularly German and Dutch. The main focus is on intransitive verbs that show a high degree of variation—state verbs, controlled and uncontrolled motional process verbs, and change-of-state verbs. However, the Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy also has weaknesses, as is demonstrated in the following.*

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Telezhko, G. M. "Research on the Structure of Indo-European Dialect Continuum by Comparing Swadesh Lists of the Closest Descendant Languages". Discourse 8, nr 2 (26.04.2022): 124–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.32603/2412-8562-2022-8-2-124-157.

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Introduction. This article is an attempt to extract information about the interactions of dialects of the Indo-European dialect continuum with each other using a comparative analysis of the basic vocabularies of some Indo-European (IE) descendant languages.The search for external borrowings and influence of a common substrate would help to clarify the ethno-linguistic surrounding of the area where the IE proto-dialects developed.In turn, these data are actual being pro and contra arguments of the well-known hypotheses about the IE ancestral home.Methodology and sources. The number of mutually understandable basic lexemes taken in relation to the number of lexemes in the compared lists was chosen as a measure of the interaction of IE dialects, indicators of their commonality.207-word Swadesh lists of 12 languages in their possibly more ancient states were analysed.For geographical binding of the IE language areal we have selected cross-borrowings from/to neighboring / substrate non-IE languages, the ancient settlement areas of native speakers of which are considered well-known.Results and discussion. The results of the comparison of the basic vocabularies of 12 IE languages have been interpreted in the form of a graph demonstrating the relative location of areas of the corresponding IE dialects. Lexemes meaning 'predator (bear, lion, etc.)', 'cattle (bull, ox)' determined the ethno-linguistic surrounding of the IE areal.Conclusion. The relevant linguistic data permitted to identify in the IE dialect continuum the core of proto-dialects: Baltic, Slavic, Aryan and Italic – and partially superimposed dialect subcontinua:– Balto-Greco-Aryo-Tocharo-Anatolian subcontinuum in the northern part of the IE areal;– Tocharo-Celto-Germanic subcontinuum in the eastern part;– Germano-Celto-Italo-Greco-Armeno-Baltic subcontinuum in the southern part;– Balto-Slavo-Italo-Aryan subcontinuum in the western part.The representation of the Proto-IE areal as a dialect continuum solves a number of difficulties inherent in the most common model of a single IE proto-language.

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Нorofyanyuk, Inna, i Vladyslav Boryshchuk. "Запозичення як спосіб номінації їжі та напоїв у центральноподільських говірках / Borrowing as a way of nominating food and drinks in the Central Podillya dialect". Acta Academiae Beregsasiensis, Philologica II, nr 1 (21.07.2023): 102–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.58423/2786-6726/2023-1-102-113.

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The article presents a description and systematization of lexical borrowings in the Central Podillia dialect in 10 settlements of Vinnytsia and Khmelnytskyi regions. The object of study is the Central Podillia dialect, because this area has a high heuristic potential for studing the mechanisms of interlanguage contact: Podillia is located on the border of different states, on the borders of the lands of different peoples, the borders of the Kyiv, Volyn and Halytsky principalities, the Tatar uluses, of the Principality of Lithuania, Poland, Moldova and Turkey, Russia and Austria came together here at different times. The subject of the analysis is the names of food and drinks. In the analyzed dialect materials, it was recorded 98 lexemes (17.8% of all nomens) for food and drinks, the etymons of which go back to Indo-European, Turkic, Caucasian, Finno-Hungarian, Sino-Tibetan languages. The largest number of borrowings in the thematic group of food and drink names of the Central Podillia dialect is attested from the languages of the Indo-European language family. The most frequently borrowed lexemes were recorded from the Romance group (41 nomens), in particular from the following languages: French (18 nomens), Latin (11 nomens), Italian (8 nomens), Romanian (3 nomens), Spanish (1 nomen). The least represented Greek language group, from which 6 nomens were borrowed. Many borrowings (24 nomens) are attested from Slavic languages, in particular from Russian (12 nomens), Polish (11 nomens) and Czech (1 nomen) languages. The Germanic group of languages, in particular German (12 nomens) and English (2 nomens), is also represented by various names for food and drinks in the dialects of Central Podillia. The following language families were less popular for borrowing the names of food and drinks in the dialects of Podillia: Turkic (6 nomens), Finno-Hungarian (3 nomens), Caucasian (3 nomens) and Sino-Tibetan (1 nomen). The established genetic affiliation of the identified lexical borrowings to a specific linguistic source is determined by historical, socio-economic, political and cultural factors of the development of Podillia. In the future, the analysis of isolex borrowings in the Podillia dialect may become a perspective for the study of foreign loanwords in the dialects of Podillia.

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Bacskai-Atkari, Julia. "English relative clauses in a cross-Germanic perspective". Nordlyd 44, nr 1 (12.10.2020): 93–115. http://dx.doi.org/10.7557/12.5213.

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The article talk examines the distribution of relativising strategies in English in a cross-Germanic perspective, arguing that English is quite unique among Germanic languages both regarding the number of available options and their distribution. The differences from other Germanic languages (both West Germanic and Scandinavian) are primarily due to the historical changes affecting the case and gender system in English more generally. The loss of case and gender on the original singular neuter relative pronoun facilitated its reanalysis as a complementiser. The effect of the case system can also be observed in properties that are not evidently related to case. Specifically, choice between the pronoun strategy and the complementiser strategy is known to show differences according to the Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy. While English shows a subject vs. oblique distinction in this respect, matching its nominative/oblique case system, German dialects show a subject/direct object vs. oblique distinction, matching the nominative/accusative/oblique case setting in the language. The particular setting in English is thus not dependent on e.g. a single parameter but on various factors that are otherwise present in other Germanic languages as well, and it is ultimately the complex interplay of these factors that results in the particular setup.

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Hill, Eugen. "Suppletion Replication in Grammaticalization and Its Triggering Factors". Language Dynamics and Change 5, nr 1 (2015): 52–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22105832-00501003.

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The paper tries to account for several instances of emerging suppletion by establishing a cross-linguistic tendency of suppletion replication in grammaticalization. It can be shown that words which acquire new grammatical functions and therefore enter a different class of lexemes tend to copy suppletion patterns already present in other members of this class. This development can be triggered by factors of different nature, either internal to the language in question or rooted in contact between different languages or dialects of the same language. The suppletion replication tendency is demonstrated on several cases of grammaticalization of demonstrative or relative pronouns into 3rd person pronouns. This typologically common development is known to have led to the creation of new suppletion in several languages of Europe. In the present paper, three particularly telling cases from Slavonic, dialects of Lithuanian and early West Germanic dialects spoken on the continent are discussed in detail.

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Denton, Jeannette Marshall. "Reconstructing the articulation of Early Germanic *r". Diachronica 20, nr 1 (14.08.2003): 11–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/dia.20.1.04den.

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The seemingly contradictory influences of r on neighboring sounds in the early Germanic languages have fueled controversy over r’s articulation in Proto-Germanic and later dialects. In this paper, we examine a number of these early Germanic sound changes and compare their effects to those observed in recent phonetic studies of the coarticulation of different types of r on adjacent vowels. We conclude that an apical trill and a central approximant r are phonetically the most likely conditioners of the earliest Germanic sound changes, while later changes can be accounted for by rhotics which were phonetically related to these earlier articulations.

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Stiles, Patrick. "The Comparative Method, Internal Reconstruction, Areal Norms and the West Germanic Third Person Pronoun". Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik 77, nr 1-2 (9.06.2017): 410–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18756719-12340083.

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The paradigms of the third person anaphoric pronoun in West Germanic show a split between Ingvæonic and non-Ingvæonic languages. The Ingvæonic dialects have numerous forms with initialh-, in contrast to non-Ingvæonic, where—corresponding toh-—vocalic ors-onsets are found. This divergence makes it difficult to envisage what the Proto-West Germanic set of forms looked like. The aim is to explore whether it is possible to reconstruct a common West Germanic paradigm from which both types developed. The answer turns out to be ‘yes’, thanks to the crucial evidence of Frisian. The article also rejects the view that Germanic attests the alleged Indo-European pronominal stem *syo-/*tyo-.

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Birkenes, Magnus Breder, Jürg Fleischer i Stephanie Leser-Cronau. "A diachronic and areal typology of agreement in Germanic". STUF - Language Typology and Universals 73, nr 2 (27.08.2020): 219–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/stuf-2020-2002.

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AbstractIn a comparison of a passage from the New Testament (Luke 2:1–2:20), we explore diachronic developments and areal distributions of agreement in Germanic quantitatively by taking into account 33 different Bible versions, spanning from Wulfila’s Gothic version to all modern standard languages and selected dialects. This allows us to establish a thorough typological profile of agreement and its differing developments in Germanic. Our method involves a quantification of all agreement relations, allowing for precise comparisons.

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Кузьменко, Ю. К. "The Scandinavian Prosodemes". Kalbotyra 36, nr 3 (1.12.1985): 47–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/knygotyra.1985.22174.

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The function and phonetic properties of the Scandinavian prosodemes depend on the syllable structure of a language. In those Scandinavian dialects where the moracounting is preserved the tonal distinctions appear to be moric peak accents. In the most Scandinavian dialects and, in standard Swedish and Norwegian (in its both variants) the syllable type being V̄Č ∼ V̆C̄ with interdependence between vowel and consonant length. The tonal and dynamic distinctions here have become syllable accents. The syllable structure of Danish resembles that of the West Germanic languages. The stød in Danish is neither a moric nor a syllable accent but a device which enables one to distinguish four types of contact. The Danish “accent” stud is no more a suprasegmental unit but a device of segmental prosodics. In some Danish dialects the apocope took place, which changed their type into morphosyllabic. Prosodic characteristics function here as tones like those in morphosyllabic languages of the Chinese type.Thus the function of prosodic features is determined by the syllable structure of the language.

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Chekin, Peter. "Jean de Joinville and the Old French rhotic consonant". Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 134, nr 4 (7.11.2018): 985–1007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zrp-2018-0067.

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Abstract Based on textual evidence from Jean de Joinville’s Vie de saint Louis, this article argues that the Old French rhotic consonant /r/ had a dorsal pronunciation for at least some groups of medieval Francophones. This argument counters the prevailing view that medieval French /r/ was uniformly apical, and that the now-standard dorsal pronunciation only emerged in the early modern period. The article then develops the hypothesis that dorsal /r/ came into Old French as a result of Germanic influence, and not as a spontaneous development. For this purpose, it first surveys the current state of the debate about the origins of dorsal /r/ in the Germanic languages and evaluates the merits of its principal arguments in the light of Joinville’s testimony. The article then advances a sociolinguistic argument in favor of the Germanic-origins hypothesis. Using the available evidence for the interactions between Germanic- and Romance-speakers at the dawn of the written French language, it proposes that Carolingian-era nobles who were native speakers of Franconian dialects brought this pronunciation of /r/ into Old French, and that this sound subsequently persisted in some Old French aristocratic speech as part of a prestige accent.

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Wieling, Martijn, Jack Grieve, Gosse Bouma, Josef Fruehwald, John Coleman i Mark Liberman. "Variation and Change in the Use of Hesitation Markers in Germanic Languages". Language Dynamics and Change 6, nr 2 (2016): 199–234. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22105832-00602001.

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In this study, we investigate crosslinguistic patterns in the alternation between UM, a hesitation marker consisting of a neutral vowel followed by a final labial nasal, and UH, a hesitation marker consisting of a neutral vowel in an open syllable. Based on a quantitative analysis of a range of spoken and written corpora, we identify clear and consistent patterns of change in the use of these forms in various Germanic languages (English, Dutch, German, Norwegian, Danish, Faroese) and dialects (American English, British English), with the use of UM increasing over time relative to the use of UH. We also find that this pattern of change is generally led by women and more educated speakers. Finally, we propose a series of possible explanations for this surprising change in hesitation marker usage that is currently taking place across Germanic languages.

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Forner, Werner. "“O l’è stæto sciù d’assettòu”." Linguistik Online 125, nr 1 (6.03.2024): 65–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.13092/lo.125.10785.

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Syntagmatic verbs are widespread in Germanic languages. However, they are also present in different varieties of Italian, including Ligurian dialects. Starting from a Genoese corpus extracted from a popular 19th century novel, the author shows their independent status by means of a semantic and syntactic analysis. An appropriate description is currently missing in grammars and dictionaries. Therefore, the author outlines a possible lexicographical treatment.

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Galitsyna, Elena G. "Common Yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.) in the Folk Taxonomy of the Germanic and Finno-Permic Languages". Izvestia of the Ural federal university. Series 2. Humanities and Arts 23, nr 2 (2021): 246–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.15826/izv2.2021.23.2.038.

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This article deals with folk names (phytonyms) that denote common yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.) in two Germanic (English, German) and three Finno-Permic languages (Finnish including Ingrian Finnish dialects, Karelian and Komi). The author analyses the motivations of these folk names and identifies some of the nominative characteristics which the names of this plant can be based upon. Some names belonging to the Germanic languages are also viewed in the diachronic perspective. The research employs the descriptive, contrastive, and comparative methods. The material mainly draws from the following sources: Dictionary of English Plant Names (J. Britten, R. Holland), Die Deutschen Volksnamen der Pflanzen (G. Pritzel, C. Jessen), Wörterbuch der Deutschen Pflanzennamen (H. Marzell), Suomalaiset kasvinnimet (P. Suhonen), Finnish Folk Plant Vocabulary (Formation and Functioning) (Yu. E. Koppaleva), and Komi-Russian Botanical Dictionary (A. N. Rakin). It is established that the names of yarrow are motivated by the following characteristics: form; usage in folk medicine; habitat; effect produced by the plant; usage by animals as food; folk beliefs and customs; colour; features of structure. The author concludes that the images of yarrow in the five languages considered mostly correspond with each other. This can be explained by the common view on the plant among the speakers of these languages. The names belonging to both language groups contain the following characteristics: form; usage in folk medicine; effect produced by the plant; folk beliefs and customs; colour. The Finno-Permic languages alone note the habitat and features of structure and only the Germanic languages note usage by animals as food. In addition, the article contains observations as to how frequently these nominative characteristics occur in the names of yarrow in the five languages studied. The author also describes some difficulties that can arise during the analysis and classification of this material.

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O’Rourke, Patrick, i Karl Pajusalu. "Livonian features in Estonian dialects". Eesti ja soome-ugri keeleteaduse ajakiri. Journal of Estonian and Finno-Ugric Linguistics 7, nr 1 (14.09.2016): 67–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.12697/jeful.2016.7.1.03.

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This article presents linguistic innovations which are typical of both Courland and Salaca Livonian and are also known in the neighbouring Estonian dialect areas. These innovative features are phonological, morphological, and morphosyntactic. The features are present mainly in western and southwestern Estonia, but also more specifically in areas close to the current western border between Estonia and Latvia. This article discusses the nature and chronology of these linguistic features, taking into account their distribution. Broadly spread common features can be mostly explained as inherent innovations of western Finnic when they are not shown to be caused by contacts with Germanic or Baltic languages. Features which are spread in the immediate vicinity of the former Livonian language area can be classified as a Livonian substrate in sub-dialects of western and insular Estonian.Kokkuvõte. Patrick O’Rourke, Karl Pajusalu: Liivi jooned eesti murretes. Artikkel käsitleb keeleuuendusi, mis on iseloomulikud nii Kuramaa kui ka Salatsi liivi keelele ja on piiratult tuntud ka eesti murretes. Vaadeldakse fonoloogilisi, morfoloogilisi ja morfosüntaktilisi jooni. Need keelendid esinevad peamiselt Lääne- ja Edela-Eestis, eriti aga Eesti ja Läti praeguse läänepoolse piiri lähedal. Artiklis käsitletakse keelejoonte olemust ja kronoloogiat, võttes arvesse nende levikut. Laiemalt levinud liivipäraseid jooni saab enamasti pidada läänepoolse läänemeresoome omapärasteks arenguteks juhul, kui need muutused ei ole põhjustatud kontaktidest germaani ja balti keeltega. Varasema liivi keeleala vahetus läheduses tuntud jooned on aga tõlgendatavad liivi keele substraadiks lääne-eesti ja saarte murrakutes.Märksõnad: liivi keel, eesti keel, keeleajalugu, keelekontaktid, substraatKubbõvõttõks. Patrick O’Rourke, Karl Pajusalu: Līvõ tīedõd ēsti kīel mūrdis. Kēra vaņțlõb kīel ūdstõkši, mis at eņtšizt nei Kurmǭ äbku Salāts līvõ kīelõn ja at tundtõd sūorantõd vīțõ ka ēsti kīel mūrdis. Vaņțõltõd sōbõd fonolōgilizt, morfolōgilizt ja morfosintaktilizt nǟdõkst. Ne tulbõd jeddõ pǟažālistiz Vežgõr- ja Lǟnd-Ēstimǭl, amā jemīņ Ēstimǭ ja Lețmǭ paldīņiz lǟndpūoliz rubīž ležgõl. Laigāmõld laiglõnd līvõpierrizt nǟdõkst võibõd sūrimiz jag vȱlda vežgõrpūoliz vāldamiersūomõ eņtšvīțizt kazāndõkst siz ku nänt pūojõks äb ūotõ kontaktõd germān agā balt kīeldkõks. Līvõ kīel jedlõmiz teritorij kūoḑis ležglits tundtõd nǟdõkst at tulktõb līvõ kīel substrātõks ēsti kīel vežgõr ja kǭlad mūrdis.

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Simon, Zsolt. "Zur Herkunft von leuga". Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 59, nr 1-4 (25.09.2020): 425–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/068.2019.59.1-4.37.

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SummaryAccording to the communis opinio, Lat. leuga was a Gaulish loanword, survived in the Romance languages and was borrowed into Old English. However, this scenario faces three unsolved problems: the non–Celtic diphthong –eu–, the Proto–Romance form *legua and the fact that the Old English word cannot continue the Latin form on phonological grounds. This paper argues that all these problems can regularly be solved by the reconstructed West Germanic and Gothic cognates of the Old English word borrowed into Gaulish and early Romance dialects, respectively.

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Lundquist, Björn, Ida Larsson, Maud Westendorp, Eirik Tengesdal i Anders Nøklestad. "Nordic Word Order Database: Motivations, methods, material and infrastructure". Nordic Atlas of Language Structures Journal 4, nr 1 (19.12.2019): 1–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.5617/nals.7529.

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In this article, we present the Nordic Word Order Database (NWD), with a focus on the rationale behind it, the methods used in data elicitation, data analysis and the empirical scope of the database. NWD is an online database with a user-friendly search interface, hosted by The Text Laboratory at the University of Oslo, launched in April 2019 (https://tekstlab.uio.no/nwd). It contains elicited production data from speakers of all of the North Germanic languages, including several different dialects. So far, 7 fieldtrips have been conducted, and data from altogether around 250 participants (age 16–60) have been collected (approx. 55 000 sentences in total). The data elicitation is carried out through a carefully controlled production experiment that targets core syntactic phenomena that are known to show variation within and/or between the North Germanic languages, e.g., subject placement, object placement, particle placement and verb placement. In this article, we present the motivations and research questions behind the database, as well as a description of the experiment, the data collection procedure, and the structure of the database

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Smith, Laura Catharine. "Old Frisian". Diachronica 29, nr 1 (16.03.2012): 98–115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/dia.29.1.04smi.

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For a century, Old Frisian has largely remained in the shadows of its Germanic sister languages. While dictionaries, concordances, and grammars have been readily and widely available for learning and researching other Germanic languages such as Middle High German, Middle Low German and Middle English, whose timelines roughly correspond to that of Old Frisian, or their earlier counterparts, e.g., Old High German, Old Saxon and Old English, few materials have been available to scholars of Old Frisian. Moreover, as Siebunga (Boutkan & Siebunga 2005: vii) notes, “not even all Old Frisian manuscripts are available as text editions”1 making the production of comprehensive core research materials more difficult. Consequently, what materials there have been, e.g., von Richthofen (1840), Heuser (1903), Holthausen (1925), and Sjölin (1969), have typically not taken into consideration the full range of extant Old Frisian texts, or have focused on specific major dialects, e.g. Boutkan (1996), Buma (1954, 1961). This has left a gap in the materials available providing an opportunity for Old Frisian scholars to make substantial contributions to the field by filling these gaps.

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Shibles, Warren. "The comparative Phonetics of Dutch and its Dialects". ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 111-112 (1.01.1996): 119–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/itl.111-112.06shi.

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Abstract The literature on Dutch phonetics reveals a controversy about certain vowels and consonants. Dictionaries typically do not give phonetics, or if they do, it is not standard IPA, but Dutch-IPA, a personal, or local symbolism. In addition, transcriptions differ. The effect is that the researcher must use questionable symbols and descriptions, and that the language teacher and learner are not provided with a reliable or accessible resource for pronunciation. These difficulties are met here by the attempt to give more careful descriptions of articulations, and consonants. Terms for articulation are standardized, and an extended IPA vowel chart is given to provide a better descriptive analysis than is presently available. A system is presented for the consistent and precise location of vowels. This extended IPA system is used as the basis of phonetic description, analysis and comparison. Emphasis is on the specific case or paradigm method of the philosophy of science so that numerous examples must of necessity be given. This contrasts with the usual article on phonology which provides the fewest number of examples required to support a general or universal hypothesis. This is one of the important differences between phonetics and phonology. These examples provide data for phonology, further research, comparative and contrastive phonetics, as well as to aid the language teacher or learner. In addition, a phonetic comparison is given between Dutch and the Germanic languages.

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qizi, Yoqubova Mahliyo Jabborali. "INFLUENCE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE". International Journal Of Literature And Languages 4, nr 2 (1.02.2024): 16–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.37547/ijll/volume04issue02-04.

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English is a West Germanic language that originated from Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain in the mid 5th to 7th centuries AD by Anglo-Saxon migrants from what is now northwest Germany, west Denmark and the Netherlands. The language has undergone major changes and developments in its pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and orthography throughout its over 1500 year history. This article provides an overview of the key influences and developments that have shaped the English language into its present global form. It examines the linguistic influences of Celtic, Norse, French, Latin, Greek and other languages on English. It also explores the impact of historical events, the growth of literacy, the invention of the printing press, dictionary compilation and standardized spelling on the development of English. The analysis shows that English has an unparalleled capacity to absorb, adapt and incorporate words and features from other languages. Through the early spread of English around the British Isles, and later via 19th and 20th century colonization and globalization, English has become the most widely spoken language worldwide with over 1.35 billion speakers.

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NECHYTAILO, Iryna. "Onomatopes as motivators of proto-lingual exclusives". Problems of slavonic studies 70 (2021): 120–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.30970/sls.2021.70.3740.

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Background. The article is devoted to the semantic and word-formation evolution of Proto-Slavic dialectal verbal onomatopes. Being a linguistic universal, onomatopoeia are realized in words that have a national specifics due to idioethnic characteristics, cul-ture and traditions of the speakers of Slavic languages and dialects. The analysis of on-omatopes was carried out taking into account the attention paid of modern Slavic studies to changes in the semantic structure of the word, their causes and local characteristics. The relevance of the topic is due to the need to study the vocabulary of the Proto-Slavic age, to classify its semantic transformations in synchronic and diachronic aspects. Purpose. To establish regularities of semantic and derivational evolution of Proto-Slavic dialectisms on the material of onomatopoeic fragment of vocabulary; analyze se-mantic history of Proto-Slavic onomatopoeic word stems and specifics of acoustic sig-nals reflection in proto-lingual dialects. The object of research is Proto-Slavic local-isms, motivated by verbs of onomatopoeic origin with proto-stems *l’uх- / *l’uš-, *gъd-, *loр- / *lар-, *lob- / *lаb-, *lup-, *ba-, *kle(p)-, *tor-, *cvik-, *bux-, *rju- / *re-. The paper mainly focuses on the linguistic zones of Slavia, which have retained the lexemes unchanged from the common proto-language to the present day. One of the ways to reconstruct the dialectal structure of the Proto-Slavic language is to recreate the Proto-Slavic dialectisms – reflexes of proto-language concentrated in the peripheral zones of Slavia, which have retained their phonetic, morphological and semantic fea-tures unchanged. Results. The regularities of formation of Proto-Slavic dialectal ono-matopoeic vocabulary in semantic, derivational and linguo-geographical aspects are re-vealed in the work; systematization and comparison of Proto-Slavic deverbatives are improved; the semantic, derivational and localization approaches to modeling of ono-matopes are combined in a fundamentally new way; new information on the participa-tion of dialect vocabulary in the conceptualization of the sound reality is obtained. Most of the proto-lingual onomatopes have gone through the deriva-tional path from the onomatopoeic elements of the proto-language to the verb stages and, with the help of suffixes, to the names of subjects, objects, definitions and pro-cesses. Bulgarian onomatopoeic reflections of the Proto-Slavic language are concentrated mainly in the western region, Croatian – in the southern, Macedonian – in the peripheral areas of the northern and eastern regions of the country. The zones of dis-tribution of local onomatopes of the eastern Slavia are most often recorded in the north-ern east of european part of Russia and the north of Belarus. Separate semantic components of the South Slavic dialectal derivation show a specific relationship with the dialects of other Slavic areas. Outside of their area, the Proto-Slavic reflexes correlate with the Lithuanian, Latvian and Germanic equiva-lents. The obtained data can form a basis for the reconstruction of the Proto-Slavic lan-guage. Key-words: Proto-Slavic dialectism, deverbative vocabulary, semantic transformations, models of semantic derivation, isoglosses, onomatope. Dal', V. I., 1981. An explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language, 1–4. 8-e izd. Moskva: Russkij yazyk. (In Russian) Zhelehovskij, Ye. ta Nedyilskij, S, 1886. Malorusko-nyimeckij slovar, 1–2. Lviv. (In Ukrainian) Melnychuk, O. S., Kolomiiets, V. T., Lukinova, T. B., Pivtorak, H. P. ta in., 1982–2012. Etymological dictionary of the Ukrainian language, 1–5. Kyiv: Naukova Dumka. (In Ukrainian) Fasmer, M., 1987. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language, 3. Moskva: Progress. (In Russian) Trubachev, O. N., Varbot, Zh. Zh., Zhuravlev, A. F., Kurkina, L. V. ta іn., 1974–2014. Etymological dictionary of Slavic languages: Pre-Slavic lexical fund, 1–39. Moskva: Nauka, IRYA RAN. (In Russian) Erhart, А. and Havlová, Е., eds., 2006. Etymological dictionary of the Old Slavic lan-guage, 13. Praha: nakl. Československé akad. vĕd. (In Slovak) Skok, P., 1973. Etymological dictionary of the Croatian or Serbian language, 3. Za-greb: JAZU. (In Croatian)

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Erbaugh, Mary S. "Ping Chen, Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. ix, 229. Hb $59.95, pb $21.95." Language in Society 30, nr 1 (styczeń 2001): 121–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0047404501281056.

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China's program of language modernization has been as successful as that of any other nation, yet until Chen's book, we have not had a readable and comprehensive discussion of its reforms. Literacy has risen from about 10% in 1949 to around 80% today. Spoken Chinese dialects, from Cantonese through Hakka to Mandarin, vary as much as do the Germanic languages English, German, and Swedish; so it is a major achievement that 90% of Chinese people can now understand Standard Mandarin, up from 40% in the 1950s (p. 8). The current reforms have roots deep in the 19th century, but Chen discusses how early visions of reform became successful only in the past few decades. An unusual virtue of this compact volume is that it discusses language reforms throughout Greater China – not only in the People's Republic, including Hong Kong, but in Taiwan and Singapore as well.

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Beyer, Rahel, i Albrecht Plewnia. "German or Not German: That Is the Question! On the Status of the Autochthonous Dialects in East Lorraine (France)". Languages 6, nr 1 (15.03.2021): 48. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/languages6010048.

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The European language world is characterized by an ideology of monolingualism and national languages. This language-related world view interacts with social debates and definitions about linguistic autonomy, diversity, and variation. For the description of border minorities and their sociolinguistic situation, however, this view reaches its limits. In this article, the conceptual difficulties with a language area that crosses national borders are examined. It deals with the minority in East Lorraine (France) in particular. On the language-historical level, this minority is closely related to the language of its (big) neighbor Germany. At the same time, it looks back on a conflictive history with this country, has never filled a (subordinated) political–administrative unit, and has experienced very little public support. We want to address the questions of how speakers themselves reflect on their linguistic situation and what concepts and argumentative figures they bring up in relation to what (Germanic) variety. To this end, we look at statements from guideline-based interviews. In the paper, we present first observations gained through qualitative content analysis.

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Guermanova, Natalia. "G. HICKES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF GERMANIC STUDIES IN GREAT BRITAIN AT THE END OF THE 17th AND THE BEGINNING OF THE 18th CENTURIES". Lomonosov Journal of Philology, nr 4, 2023 (23.08.2023): 72–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.55959/msu0130-0075-9-2023-47-04-6.

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The article analyses the contribution of G. Hickes (1642–1715), the author of an Anglo-Saxon grammar and Linguarum vett. septentrionalium thesaurus grammatico-criticus et archæologicus, into the intellectual life of his time. Gathering around him the group of ‘Oxford saxonists’, he promoted the study of the AngloSaxon language and culture, the publication of texts in ancient Germanic languages and their translation into Late Modern English. In the context of the history of comparative linguistics, his works, in which Anglo-Saxon was considered alongside other Germanic languages, testify, in spite of their deficiencies, to the emergence in that early period of such important concepts as a parent language and a family tree. His achievements include the first description of Anglo-Saxon dialects and poetry. Taking into consideration Hickes’ attainments, one might find it strange that many of his contemporaries viewed his research and that of other Oxford saxonists in a critical light. The first reason lay in the intellectual climate of his time. In an age when most British intellectuals saw their historical roots in the culture of Ancient Greece and Rome, the scholars suggested a principally different interpretation of the roots of the British nation. In fact, they contributed to the emergence of a new AngloSaxon identity. Secondly, their contemporaries found strange and pedantic their scholarly methods of textological analysis, which, actually, were quite close to modern ones, and the dry style of their works, the abundance of terms and complicated syntactic structures. The third explanation is the practical bias of most prescriptive grammars of the 18th century, which looked for criteria of correctness not in historical records, but in contemporary usage.

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Caria, Marco, i Delia Airoldi. "Le parlate tedesche della Valcanale". Linguistik Online 130, nr 6 (30.05.2024): 171–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.13092/lo.129.11154.

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The aim of this article is to give a description of the sociolinguistic situation and of the Carinthian dialects of Valcanale, in the province of Udine. This small valley belonged to Austria until 1919 and was consequently annected to Italy as compensation for the First World War, which resulted in the modification of the languages traditionally spoken in the territory, especially due to Italianization. Nowadays, Valcanale represents the survival of the indigenous Slovenian community, the Germanic component dating back to the period of Bamberg and Austrian domination on the Friulians, who settled there before the valley’s passage to Italy. Later, the valley was finally given to the Italians in 1919, whose relocation to the area was encouraged by the Fascist regime.

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Berces, Katalin Balogne, i Balint Huszthy. "Laryngeal Relativism predicts Italian". Yearbook of the Poznan Linguistic Meeting 4, nr 1 (1.12.2018): 153–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/yplm-2018-0007.

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Abstract Two-way laryngeal systems are classified by Laryngeal Realism into [voice] languages (or “L-systems”, e.g., Slavic, Romance) and [spread glottis] ([sg]; or aspiration) languages (or “H-systems”, e.g., the typical Germanic pattern). More recently, Cyran (2014) has proposed Laryngeal Relativism (LR), claiming that phonetic interpretation is arbitrary, and as a result, two phonetically identical systems, even two dialects of a language, may turn out to diverge phonologically. His example is Polish: while Warsaw Polish represents the typical [voice]/L-system, he analyses phonetically identical Cracow Polish as an H-system (counter to Laryngeal Realism’s uniform classification of Slavic languages). However, in the “classical” version of [sg] languages (e.g., English), no laryngeal activity in the form of any kind of spreading is attested, which suggests the absence of any source element and, instead, a dominant role of obstruency (|h|). We, therefore, arrive at a three-way typology: h-systems, H-systems and L-systems. At the same time, arbitrary phonetic interpretation in LR predicts the existence of, e.g., h-systems with virtually no aspiration in the fortis series. We claim that this is indeed the characterisation of Italian. Using data from potential feature spreading situations, elicited in loanword and foreign accent settings, we show that Italian is an h-system, exhibiting no true laryngeal activity.

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Арский, А. А. "The history of the development of the German language and its dialects: the influence of regional features on learning". Management of Education 13, nr 10-2(69) (30.10.2023): 268–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.25726/w0409-9025-0699-w.

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Изучение языков и их исторического развития является ключевым фактором в понимании социокультурных динамик. Немецкий язык, с его многообразными диалектами и историческими корнями, представляет собой идеальный случай для анализа. Этот язык служит в качестве микрокосмоса для изучения взаимоотношений между языком, идентичностью и региональными особенностями. Археологические и этнографические данные, а также языковые заимствования у древних финнов и лапландцев, указывают на формирование племен, являющихся прародителями германцев, около 3000 г. до н. э. на побережье Северного и Балтийского морей. Интеграция индоевропейских племен с коренным населением данной территории привела к созданию германского языка как основного языкового феномена. Первые документальные упоминания о германских племенах можно найти в работах греческих и римских авторов, таких как Гай Юлий Цезарь и Корнелий Тацит. Они предоставляют детализированную картину социокультурной структуры, хозяйственных особенностей и быта германцев. История развития немецкого языка и его диалектов, с учетом региональных особенностей, представляет не только лингвистический, но и педагогический интерес. Изучение этих аспектов необходимо для более полного и глубокого понимания языковой структуры и эффективного обучения. The study of languages and their historical development is a key factor in understanding sociocultural dynamics. The German language, with its diverse dialects and historical roots, is an ideal case for analysis. This language serves as a microcosm for studying the relationship between language, identity, and regional characteristics. Archaeological and ethnographic data, as well as linguistic borrowings from ancient Finns and Laplanders, indicate the formation of tribes that are the progenitors of the Germans, around 3000 BC on the coast of the North and Baltic Seas. The integration of Indo-European tribes with the indigenous population of this territory led to the creation of the Germanic language as the main linguistic phenomenon. The first documentary mention of Germanic tribes can be found in the works of Greek and Roman authors such as Gaius Julius Caesar and Cornelius Tacitus. They provide a detailed picture of the socio-cultural structure, economic characteristics and everyday life of the Germans. The history of the development of the German language and its dialects, taking into account regional peculiarities, is of not only linguistic, but also pedagogical interest. The study of these aspects is necessary for a more complete and in-depth understanding of the language structure and effective learning.

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Chohan, Muhammad Nadeem, i Maria Isabel Maldonado García. "Phonemic Comparison of English and Punjabi". International Journal of English Linguistics 9, nr 4 (12.07.2019): 347. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v9n4p347.

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English and Punjabi are languages which do not belong to the same families of languages. English is one of the West Germanic languages whereas; Punjabi is a part of the Indo-Aryan family. Punjabi is spoken by various nations on the globe, especially Pakistan and its province Punjab as well as in Indian Panjab. Both English and Punjabi manifest themselves through various dialects on the basis of diversified geographical areas. English is used as the first language by 379,007,140 speakers and further 753,359,540 speakers use it as a second language in more than 104 nations. So, the total speakers of English around the globe are 1,132,366,680 (Ethnologue, 2019). The importance of Punjabi cannot be denied being the 10th most widely used language on the globe (Ghai & Singh, 2013). According to Ethnologue (2019), the total number of Punjabi speakers is 125,326,840. In Pakistan, it is the language of the majority of the people residing in the most populous province of Pakistan, Punjab. It is among twenty-two languages that have obtained official status. Unfortunately, no considerable work has been done on its phonology. This study is an attempt to describe the phonemic differences between English and Punjabi by using the theoretical framework of the Levenshtein algorithm. The index of differences and similarities is determined through the inventories of both languages. The inventories are used as data in this research paper. The Levenshtein algorithm (Levenshtein, 1965) is used to analyse the inventories to calculate the ratio of differences and similarities. The outcome of the current research shows that both English and Punjabi have a phonemic similarity level of 56.25% whereas the index of difference is 43.75%.

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Pauthier Moghaddassi, Fanny. "Clashes or Frictions ? Approaches to Linguistic Contact in Medieval Britain". Recherches anglaises et nord-américaines 49, nr 1 (2016): 15–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/ranam.2016.1523.

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This paper investigates the implications of word-choices in academic accounts of contacts between different languages and dialects in British medieval history. The history of English can be studied as the result of series of military clashes and invasions (from early Germanic migrations, through Viking raids to the Norman Conquest), but it can also be read as the outcome of long periods of linguistic frictions, in other words of more or less peaceful coexistence between different linguistic groups, mutually influencing each other. Current research, in opposition to nineteenth-century nationalistic approaches, insists on this idea of linguistic frictions, rejecting analyses of British history based on the notion of clashes between radically distinct ethnic and linguistic groups. But to some extent, this perspective paradoxically fuels new versions of the national myth.

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Wełna, Jerzy. "The Rise of Standard I (< Me Ich): A Contribution to the Study of Functional Change in English". Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 49, nr 3 (1.12.2014): 29–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/stap-2015-0006.

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Abstract In its post-Norman Conquest development the Old English first person personal pronoun ic underwent transformations which, following the loss of the consonant, finally yielded the contemporary capitalised form I, contrasting with other Germanic languages, which retain a velar sound in the corresponding pronoun. The rather complex change of ich to I involves a loss of the final velar/palatal consonant, lengthening of the original short vowel, and capitalisation of the pronoun. It is argued here that the use of the capital letter was a consequence of vowel lengthening subsequent to the loss of the consonant. This seems to be confirmed by the observation that forms retaining a consonant are extremely rarely capitalised. The data adduced in the present paper will help verify as precisely as possible the distribution of the forms of that pronoun in Middle English dialects in order to determine to what extent the changes were functionally interdependent. The evidence comes from the Innsbruck Corpus of Middle English Prose.

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Strobel, Thomas. "Combining formal and functional approaches to variation in (morpho)syntax: Introduction to the special issue". Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft 43, nr 1 (1.06.2024): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zfs-2024-2002.

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Abstract This special issue examines the question of how both formal(ist) and functional(ist) accounts or elements of theorizing can contribute to the explanation of (morpho)syntactic variation. Are formal and functional approaches really irreconcilable with each other, as often seems to be taken for granted by their respective advocates? It will be argued instead that they are rather complementary and that both can make a valuable contribution to explaining linguistic variation, in synchronic as well as diachronic respects. The integration of ways of looking at a certain phenomenon or problem from the respective other camp is proven to provide a significant added value and should not be excluded. The volume focuses on several Germanic languages and dialects, more specifically on German, Dutch, and Swedish varieties. It unites different formal and functional perspectives and, not least, it considers also semantic and phonological factors. The models covered include different versions of generative grammar, information-based morphology, construction grammar/construction morphology, natural morphology, and sociolinguistics.

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FILPPULA, MARKKU. "The rise of it-clefting in English: areal-typological and contact-linguistic considerations". English Language and Linguistics 13, nr 2 (lipiec 2009): 267–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1360674309003025.

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Recent areal and typological research has brought to light several syntactic features which English shares with the Celtic languages as well as some of its neighbouring western European languages, but not with (all of) its Germanic sister languages, especially German. This study focuses on one of them, viz. the so-called it-cleft construction. What makes the it-cleft construction particularly interesting from an areal and typological point of view is the fact that, although it does not belong to the defining features of so-called Standard Average European (SAE), it has a strong presence in French, which is in the ‘nucleus’ of languages forming SAE alongside Dutch, German, and (northern dialects of) Italian. In German, however, clefting has remained a marginal option, not to mention most of the eastern European languages which hardly make use of clefting at all. This division in itself prompts the question of some kind of a historical-linguistic connection between the Celtic languages (both Insular and Continental), English, and French (or, more widely, Romance languages). Before tackling that question, one has to establish whether it-clefting is part of Old (and Middle) English grammar, and if so, to what extent it is used in these periods. In the first part of this article (sections 2 and 3), I trace the emergence of it-clefts on the basis of data from The York–Toronto–Helsinki Corpus of Old English Prose and The Penn–Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Middle English, second edition. Having established the gradually increasing use of it-clefts from OE to ME, I move on to discuss the areal distribution of clefting among European languages and its typological implications (section 4). This paves the way for a discussion of the possible role played by language contacts, and especially those with the Celtic languages, in the emergence of it-clefting in English (section 5). It is argued that contacts with the Celtic languages provide the most plausible explanation for the development of this feature of English. This conclusion is supported by the chronological precedence of the cleft construction in the Celtic languages, its prominence in modern-period ‘Celtic Englishes’, and close parallels between English and the Celtic languages with respect to several other syntactic features.

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Zachariassen, Ditte. "Pushing the limits of V2". Scandinavian Studies in Language 14, nr 1 (21.06.2023): 30–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.7146/sss.v14i1.142624.

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Studies of urban dialects in the Germanic languages show a development where the otherwise strict V2 syntax rules are supplemented with V3 syntax in specific syntactic and social contexts. Based on recordings of naturally occurring interaction in multilingual areas of Aarhus, Denmark, this paper adds to existing research with an interactional collection analysis of actions supporting V3. It describes six structural subtypes of V3 characterised by different adverbial and object material in first position and shows how the subtypes are connected to three interactional resources used in organising storytelling, claiming epistemic authority and reframing referents or discourse. V3 is often used when contrasting one type of information with another. It does not result in a different semantic meaning, rather it existing possible meanings that could also be emphasised by extra wording or multiple sentences. In the discussion, I argue that the extra syntactic options allow speakers to say more with fewer words by pushing the limits of the rather strict V2 syntax of Standard Danish.

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Liebert, E. A. "Variation of <i>k’</i> / <i>t’</i> as a Characteristic Feature of the German Mennonites Language in Siberia". NSU Vestnik. Series: Linguistics and Intercultural Communication 21, nr 2 (8.09.2023): 55–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.25205/1818-7935-2023-21-2-55-62.

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The article is based on the material of one of the Germanic languages represented in Siberia, known in the world as Plautdietsch or the Low German language (dialect) of the Mennonites. One of the striking features of the Plautdietsch consonant system is considered – the variation of the k’/t’ sound types in certain positions in the word, primarily in combination with the vowels of the front row (k’int / t’int ‘child’, k’oak’ / t’oat’ ‘church’), as well as in some consonant combinations (for example, drin’k’ә / drin’t’ә to ‘drink’, ma:lk’ / ma:lt’ ‘milk’). The use of k’ or t’, respectively, was considered by some researchers to be the markers of two dialects within the Mennonite language: k’ – Chortiza and t’ – Molotscha. From a diachronic point of view, these sounds go back to the common German k; they appeared as a result of the so-called Frisian palatalization. Archival dialectological material confirms the use of these two sounds in the Mennonite colonies of southern Russia at the beginning of the last century.In the settlements of Siberia, where there are a large number of Plautdietsch speakers, according to our observations, the forms with t’ were used according to the Molochna type (t’oat’ ‘church’, t’int ‘child’, veat’ ‘week’).A new impetus to the exploration of this alternation was given by the material collected during the last linguistic expedition to the village of Apollonovka in the Omsk region, where a large isolated community of Plautdietsch speakers is located. In the speech of the inhabitants of this village, the use of t’ (Molochna type) prevails in all these positions, however, the forms on k’ used by some carriers were also recorded (so, you can hear ma:lk’ / ma:lt’ ‘milk’, k’in’a / t’in’a ‘children’ and so on). At the same time, both forms are recognized by the informants as correct.The assumption is made that these sound types cannot be regarded as consonants marking different dialects, but rather as optional variants.A sound was also recorded that was not mentioned in the studies earlier (s’t’), which appears in preposition to sonorants, especially before -l: k’lɔid / t’lɔid / s’t’lɔid ‘dress’. The consonant under consideration can be tentatively designated as a soft medial-occlusive spirant. Most likely, its appearance represents the third stage of mitigation in the considered alternation according to the scheme k > k’ > t’ > s’t’.The observations presented in the article, based on the analysis of actual field material, can be the beginning of further study of the variability of the Mennonite language in Siberia.

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Ulianitckaia, L. A., i A. A. Shumkov. "The Main Germanic Dialects of Flanders". Discourse 6, nr 6 (15.01.2021): 137–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.32603/2412-8562-2020-6-6-137-153.

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Introduction. The article reveals a complicated language situation in the Flemish region of Belgium - a progressing extinction of Germanic dialects, which are historically spread on this territory. Each dialectal group has its unique features, and the West-Flemish and Limburgish groups might have become grounds for particular languages.Methodology and sources. The methodological base consists in a complex approach, combining the comparative-historical and contrastive methods with the method of sociolinguistic interpretation. The investigation is conducted on the language material, collected from different dialectal dictionaries of Dutch, as well as from special linguistic papers on the language situation in Flanders.Results and discussion. The article represents a multiplicity of Germanic dialects, existing on the territory of modern Flanders. A short revue is given on lexical and grammatical peculiarities of four main dialectal groups, as well as on their peculiar phonetics. A special attention is, respectively, paid to the urban dialects of Antwerp, Gent, Bruges and Hasselt. There are analyzed some interferential phenomena, caused by the contact of the investigated dialects with Romanic and Germanic environment and occurring on all language levels - from phonetic to the syntactic ones. It has been suggested, that certain specific grammar forms in Flemish dialects may be result of phonetic interference. For Marols, which originally belongs to the group of Brabant dialects, the juncture between Germanic morphosyntactic structure and Roman lexis is discussed.Conclusion. For the last 20 years the percentage of persons, speaking the Germanic dialects of Flanders, has demonstrated a catastrophic decrease. Along with that, the main features of these dialects (mostly of the Brabant ones) have gone over to an intermediate language “tussentaal”, in both lexis and grammar. This language is being formed inbetween the Germanic dialects and Dutch; the latter is represented in the Flemish region by two variants – standard (common) Dutch and Belgian Dutch. The progressing decrease in the number of persons, speaking the autochthonous dialects of Flanders, is thoughtprovoking towards the exigency to fix the disappearing language variants through a strict scientific way.

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Comunello, Diletta. "I VERBI SINTAGMATICI IN PARLANTI DI ITALIANO L1, L2 E BILINGUI: UN’INDAGINE SPERIMENTALE". Nasledje Kragujevac XIX, nr 51 (2022): 127–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.46793/naskg2251.127c.

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The article investigates the use of Particle Verbs (PV) by different types of speakers: Italian L1 speakers, Italian L2 speakers with German mother tongue (L2ers) and bilingual speakers of Italian and Trentino dialects. After outlining the state of the art in the research on PV and the theoretical framework (section 1), the main differences, among PV in Italian, its dia- lects and Germanic languages, are highlighted (section 2). The differences are, as follows: the extension of the phenomenon, the semantic meanings, and the syntax of the construction. These three categories have been taken into account while performing the quantitative and qualitative analysis. The third section describes the experimental research, introduced by a paragraph outlining the research carried out on PVs and L2ers so far. The current study used a story-telling task to elicit semi-spontaneous data to analyze (methodology 3.1). The quantita- tive analysis pointed out a statistically significant difference of the use of PVs among the three groups (section 3.2), while, through the qualitative analysis, the emphasis has been put on the use of PVs according to their semantics and syntax (section 3.3). In the discussion (section 4), the findings are connected to the theoretical framework, confirming the hypothesis that multilingual competence plays a role in the frequency of use of these constructions.

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Alber, Birgit, Joachim Kokkelmans i Stefan Rabanus. "Preconsonantal s-retraction in the Alps: Germanic, Romance, Slavic". STUF - Language Typology and Universals 74, nr 1 (29.03.2021): 17–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/stuf-2021-1022.

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Abstract Middle and Upper German dialects exhibit a phonological process of s-retraction neutralizing alveolar [s] to palatoalveolar [ʃ] in preconsonantal contexts. Based on a corpus of dialect data from own fieldwork, dialect atlases and dictionaries, we examine this process in Germanic, Romance and Slavic varieties of the Eastern Alps. It is attested in most Germanic varieties and in Ladin and Rumantsch, but not in other Romance varieties or in the Slovenian dialects of the region. We propose that the emergence of s-retraction may be supported by language contact, but crucially relies on specific diachronic changes affecting the sibilant inventories of the varieties displaying it.

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Марцева, Татьяна Александровна, i Юрий Викторович Кобенко. "The History of the English Language Origin as a Clue to Understanding its Current Status". Tomsk state pedagogical university bulletin, nr 4(234) (18.07.2024): 75–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.23951/1609-624x-2024-4-75-83.

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В работе проводятся параллели между этапами исторического развития английского языка, формировавшегося в условиях многоязычия, и его статусом языка-макропосредника в современном мире. Исследование проводится при использовании двух ключевых методов: сравнительно-исторического, позволяющего проследить развитие английского языка в диахроническом разрезе и во взаимодействии с другими контактными идиомами, существовавшими в анизотропии языковой ситуации того времени, и диалектического, направленного на выделение таких контрадикторных направлений эволюции его языковой системы, как интеграция и дезинтеграция, стандартизация и индивидуализация, центризм и ацентризм. Эволюция подходов к периодизации английского языка (тевтонская группа – XVII–XVIII вв., англофризская группа – XIX в., западногерманская группа – XX в.) коренится в изменениях интралингвистического характера, обусловленных рядом экстралингвистических факторов. С одной стороны, островное расположение ареала зарождения языка, труднодоступность этих территорий и, следовательно, их изолированность, а с другой – привлекательность данных земель в связи с благоприятными условиями (мягкий климат, разнообразие ландшафта, флоры и фауны), христианизация, активные торговые отношения и, как следствие, константная полиглоссия языкового окружения (кельтские, германские, скандинавские диалекты, классическая и вульгарная латынь, разнообразные диалекты римских легионеров, французский язык) послужили фундаментом для появления у английского языка тех дистинктивных признаков, которые отличают его и по сей день: ацентризм, высокая степень подвижности лексического состава, значительный деривационный потенциал, стремление к экономии языковых средств и достаточно свободное обращение с языковыми нормами. Последнее качество связано в том числе с длительным отсутствием единого национального, политического и языкового центра в Британии, а также преимущественно маргинальным характером использования английского языка в устном общении. В работе отмечается необходимость дальнейшего исследования грамматической структуры английского языка на всем протяжении его эволюции с целью более глубокого понимания последствий влияния полиглоссной среды не только на его лексический состав, но и на статусную составляющую. The paper draws comparisons between the stages in the history of the English language developing in the multilingual environment and its status of a macromediator in the modern world. The research is based on two fundamental methods: the comparative historical method that assists in observing the development of English in the diachronic perspective and its co-existence with other languages in anisotropic linguistic situation of that time and the dialectical one directed at identifying such contradicting directions of the language system evolution as integration and disintegration, standardization and individualization, centrism and acentrism. The evolution of classifying English language origin (Teutonic group in the 17th and 18th centuries, Anglofrisian group in the 19th century and West Germanic group in the 20th century) is rooted in the changes of intralinguistic nature caused by a range of extralinguistic factors. On the one hand, island distribution of the language areal, hard accessibility of the territory, and therefore their isolation, and on the other hand, attractiveness of this land due to favorable conditions (mild climate, diverse landscape, rich flora and fauna), Christianization, active trade relationships leading to permanent polyglossia of linguistic environment (Celtic, Germanic, Scandinavian dialects, classical and vulgar Latin, various languages of Roman legionaries, French) were the reasons why the English language obtained and has maintained till the present time such peculiar distinctive properties as acentrism, high level of lexical mobility, substantial derivational potential, economy of linguistic means and rather free manipulations with language standards. The latter is also connected with long-term absence of the unified national, political and language center in Britain and mostly marginal usage of the language predominantly in the oral form. The authors also insist on the need to further look into the grammatical structure of the English language throughout its evolution in order to better understand the consequences of the polyglossian environment not only on its vocabulary but also the status constituent.

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de Vaan, Michiel. "Another Frisianism in Coastal Dutch: Traam, Treem, Triem ‘Crossbeam’". Journal of Germanic Linguistics 22, nr 4 (grudzień 2010): 315–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1470542710000085.

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The dialect geography and etymology of Dutch, Frisian, and German trVm(e) ‘crossbeam’ suggest that western Dutch triem continues West Germanic +‑ǣ-, which underwent vowel raising to /i./ as in Frisian. Thus, Dutch traam beside triem belongs to an established group of Standard Dutch words showing /a./ next to /i./ from West Germanic +‑ǣ-, such as schraal vs. schriel. It is argued that the survival of words in /i./ in the coastal dialects of Dutch fits into recent theories that Standard Dutch is the result of language contact between medieval Frisian and Franconian.*

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Hartmann, Frederik, i Chiara Riegger. "The Burgundian language and its phylogeny". NOWELE / North-Western European Language Evolution 75, nr 1 (16.03.2022): 42–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/nowele.00062.har.

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Abstract The Burgundian language is one of several smaller early Germanic languages that are scarcely attested and often under-researched. Moreover, it is commonly classified as an ‘East Germanic’ language, forming a Germanic subgroup alongside Northwest Germanic. This paper investigates Burgundian in detail in order to establish the most complete phonology and morphology that is currently possible with the current data base. Furthermore, we examine the linguistic relationships of Burgundian with other Germanic languages, with a focus on Gothic in particular. Our findings suggest that Burgundian does not form a coherent subgroup together with Gothic but that the data imply a common post-Proto-Germanic dialect continuum of which Burgundian, Gothic, and most likely Vandalic were a part.

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Trudgill, Peter. "English Dialect “Default Singulars,” Was versus Were, Verner's Law, and Germanic Dialects". Journal of English Linguistics 36, nr 4 (14.05.2008): 341–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0075424208325040.

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Hall, Tracy Alan. "The Realization of West Germanic +[sk] in Low German". Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur 143, nr 1 (1.03.2021): 1–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/bgsl-2021-0001.

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Abstract The present study investigates the multiple reflexes of historical +[sk] clusters in Low German (Westphalian/Northern Low German) dialects. Original descriptions of over thirty varieties of those dialects spoken between the end of the 19th century to the present day reveal that there are a number of realizations of [sk] (e. g. [sk], [sx], [sç], [ʃx], [ʃç], [s]), whose occurrence depends on both the position within a word (initial, medial, final) and geography (the location of the dialect within a broad region in northwest Germany). The synchronic patterns are argued to reflect a series of diachronic stages: The change from any one of those stages to the next is shown to involve either the emergence of a new sound change (rule addition) or the extension of a preexisting change to a new context (rule generalization). A secondary goal of the present contribution is to show how the treatment of Low German sheds light on the change from historical +[sk] to [ʃ] in High German. In particular, it is argued – contrary to the position taken by the overwhelming majority of Germanicists – that the High German change involved the coalescence of two sounds into one without any intermediate stages.

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Le Dû, Jean. "The Celtic Element in Gallo-Romance Dialect Areas". Studia Celto-Slavica 11 (2020): 23–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.54586/sfww3511.

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The history of the French language was initially marked by Celtomania, which saw Celtic roots everywhere. When this doctrine was discredited and discarded in the XIXth century, the role of the Germanic superstrate became hypertrophied, the more so that Breton, long considered a direct descendant of the native Gaulish, was ranked in the same period as an alien language imported from Great Britain into the Armorican peninsula. Relying on modern geolinguistics, I compare ALF (Atlas Linguistique de la France) maps with Breton ones, using the data recorded in Le Roux’s Atlas Linguistique de la Basse-Bretagne and Le Dû’s Nouvel Atlas Linguistique de la Basse-Bretagne. I shall try to show that several of theses maps reveal the presence of ALF data whose origin is clearly Celtic and not Germanic. The study of the Atlas Linguarum Europae and of the Atlas Linguistique Roman has shown that borders between languages and even language families are not waterproof. It is high time to develop such comparisons to bring about a new vision of the history of languages.

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Murray, Robert W. "Early Germanic Syllable Structure Revisited". Diachronica 8, nr 2 (1.01.1991): 201–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/dia.8.2.04mur.

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SUMMARY This paper discusses four approaches to the reconstruction of the early Germanic syllabication of VCRV and VCRV sequences; A) Murray & Vennemann (1983) and Murray (1988), B) Barrack (1989), C) Dresher & Lahiri (1991), and D) Liberman (1990). Approach A develops a two-stage analysis involving Proto-Germanic VC$RV and V$CR$(R)V in accordance with Sievers' Law and subsequent reduction of V$CR$(R)V to VC$RV in the early dialects (with some dialect-specific variation). These syllabications provide the basis for a treatment of important phonological changes in early Germanic on the basis of a preference theory for syllable structure. Although VC$RV and VC$RV represent marked syllable structure in that poor syllable contacts result, motivation for this syllabication can be found in the Stressed Syllable Law and Streitberg's law of mora conservation. By contrast, the approaches outlined in B, C, and D run into major problems. It is shown in each of these cases that the problems can be directly traced to the alternative syllabications assumed and concluded that only approach A has succeeded in providing a comprehensive and coherent treatment of relevant aspects of early Germanic phonology. RÉSUMÉ Le présent article discute quatre façons de reconstruire la syllabation des séquences VCRV et VCRV en ancien germanique, à savoir A) Murray et Vennemann (1983) and Murray (1988), B) Barrack (1989), C) Dresher & Lahiri (1991), ainsi que D) Liberman (1990). L'approche A développe une analyse à deux étapes qui implique les structures proto-germaniques VC$RV et V$CR$(R)V selon la loi de Sievers, suivi de la réduction de V$CR$(R)V à VC$RV dans les anciens dialectes (avec quelques variations spécifiques à certains dialectes). Ces syllabations nous fournissent une base pour le traitement de changements phonologiques importants en ancien germanique, en termes d'une théorie de préférence pour les structures syllabiques. Bien que VC$RV soit une structure syllabique marquée (puisqu'elle produit des contacts syllabiques médiocres), la motivation de cette syllabation se retrouve dans la 'loi des syllabes accentuées' et dans la concept de la loi de conservation des 'moras' de Streitberg. Par contraste, les approches B, C, et D rencontrent de sérieux problèmes. L'article démontre que dans chaque de ces cas, les problèmes peuvent être retracés directement au type de syllabation utilisé, ce qui amène à conclure que seulement l'approche A réussit à fournir un traitement compréhensif et cohérent des aspects pertinents de la phonologie de l'ancien germanique. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG In diesem Aufsatz werden vier verschiedene Auffasungen zur möglichen Rekonstruktion der frühgermanischen Silbenstruktur in den VCRV- und VCRV-Abfolgen vorgestellt und miteinander verglichen: A) Murray & Vennemann (1983) und Murray (1988); B) Barrack (1989); C) Dresher & Lahiri (1991) und D) Liberman (1990). In A werden zwei Stufen angenom-men: Stufe 1 mit urgermanischen VC$RV und V$CR$(R)V nach dem Siever-schen Gesetz und Stufe 2 mit VC$RV nach Reduktion der dreisilbischen Struktur in den Dialekten. Dièse Syllabierungen liefern die Grundlage fur eine Analyse wichtiger phonologischer Veränderungen im Frühgermanischen im Lichte einer Präferenztheorie fur Silbenstruktur. Obwohl VC$RV und VC$RV markierte Silbenstrukturen darstellen (da sie ungünstige Silbenkontakte ent-halten), finden sie ihre Motivation in dem Silbenbetonungsgesetz und im Streit-bergschen Mora-Gesetz. Im Gegensatz hierzu weisen B, C und D groBe Erklä-rungsschwierigkeiten auf. In jedem einzelnen Fall wird der Nachweis erbracht, daB diEse Schwierigkeiten auf die alternative Rekonstruktion der urgermanischen Silbenstruktur (z.B. V$CRV) zunickzufuhren sind. Es wird gefolgert, daB nur die in A vorgeschlagene Analyse eine angemessene Grundlage für die Untersuchung der frühgermanischen Phonologie liefert.

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Kulina, I. "EVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENT OF THE GERMAN LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS". Writings in Romance-Germanic Philology, nr 2(49) (16.01.2023): 69–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.18524/2307-4604.2022.2(49).268197.

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The article is devoted to the evolutionary development of the German language and its dialects (Bavarian and Swabian — Alemannic). The relevance of the topic is determined by the fact that, despite the dominance of the Standardsprache on the territory of modern Germany, local dialects are also sufficiently widespread in it, which have recently gained more and more prestige, especially among young people. The purpose of this study is to analyze the linguistic features of southern German dialects (Bavarian and Swabian — Alemannic) and to identify their genetic links with the modern German language — Standarddeutsch / Standardsprache. Texts (artistic and newspaper) in the specified dialects and identical in Standarddeutsch, dialect maps (atlases) of the German language, ancient and modern dictionaries served as research material. The work uses descriptive and comparative-historical methods. The object of research is German southern dialects (Bavarian and Swabian — Alemannic). The subject of the study is the linguistic characteristics of southern German dialects and their connection with the modern German language. Using the example of the development of German dialects (Bavarian and Swabian-Alemannic) and their interaction with Standarddeutsch, it can be argued that the German language, based on the laws of linguistic synergy, is a complex open information system that is constantly developing, but at the same time preserves information about its former states, and the combination of past and present knowledge provides an opportunity to identify the future development prospects of the system. The results of the study make it possible to predict further changes in the modern German language at all its levels (phonetic, lexical, grammatical), taking into account various dialectological features that are introduced into the German language system. The obtained data on the evolutionary development of the German language and its dialects (Bavarian and Swabian — Alemannic) is of certain importance for the study and teaching of «History of the German Language», «Introduction to Germanic Philology», dialectology, as well as a practical course of the German language.

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Kortmann, Bernd. "The Viking Hypothesis from a Dialectologist’s Perspective". Language Dynamics and Change 6, nr 1 (2016): 27–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22105832-00601006.

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The Viking Hypothesis neglects (i) the significant degree of stability from Old to Middle (and even Modern) English grammar and (ii) parallel, but independent, developments not induced by North Germanic in the grammars of continental West Germanic dialects.

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Stevenson, Patrick. "Language, Migration, and Spaces of Representation". Journal of Germanic Linguistics 23, nr 4 (grudzień 2011): 401–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1470542711000213.

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The study of relationships between language and place has a long tradition in the context of Germanic languages, from 19th century dialect geography to late 20th century contact linguistics. However, thecontemporary processes of migration, coupled with the emergence of new communication technologies and structural changes in the economies of states and regions, have created challenges for the study of linguistic practices and their place in the lives of individuals and socialgroups. The preceding papers in this volume take these challenges as an opportunity to reflect in new ways on past migrations. This concluding paper discusses the contributions they make to the study of language, migration, and place in relation to (speakers of) Germanic language varieties in North America and suggests ways in which they open up different spaces of representation.

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van Doorn, Adriaan. "Some Phonological Developments in the Malberg Glosses". Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik 79, nr 4 (6.04.2020): 457–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18756719-12340170.

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Abstract The language of the Malberg glosses shows phonological developments that allow us to position this language variety within the West-Germanic dialect continuum. In this article the author shows that the language cannot be viewed as Old Dutch, nor as the ancestor of Old Dutch based on the attested phonological developments, notably: the assimilation of certain clusters; the partial merger of Proto-Germanic *g and *h; and the palatalisation of Proto-Germanic *g.

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Büthe-Scheider, Eva, i Daniel Kölligan. "Germanisch *kreu̯da- und Verwandtes". Indogermanische Forschungen 123, nr 1 (1.08.2018): 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/if-2018-0001.

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Zusammenfassung Non-standard-language data pose specific problems for etymological research. The paper discusses a set of words related to the Germanic root *kreu̯da- ‘to push, shove’ showing that data from German dialects provide relevant information both for the reconstruction of their internal prehistory and for the discussion of possible etymological connections outside Germanic.

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