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1

McGuire, Bill, i Mark Maslin, red. Climate Forcing of Geological Hazards. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118482698.

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2

J, Charlson Robert, i Heintzenberg J, red. Aerosol forcing of climate: Report of the Dahlem Workshop on Aerosol Forcing of Climate, Berlin 1994, April 24-29. Chichester: J. Wiley, 1995.

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3

Booth, B. Exploring the linearity of the climate response to external forcing. Chilton: Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, 2002.

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4

Agarwal, Vijay K. A statistical-dynamic climate model with explicit radiative and cloud forcing. Bangalore: Indian Space Research Organisation, 1992.

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5

U, Haq Bilal, red. Sequence stratigraphy and depositional response to eustatic, tectonic, and climate forcing. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1995.

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6

Theodore, Houghton John, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group I. i Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Response Strategies Work Group., red. Climate change, 1994: Radiative forcing of climate change and an evaluation of the IPCC IS92 emission scenarios. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

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7

Hare, Jeffrey. Cloud, radiation, and surface forcing in the equatorial eastern Pacific. Boulder, Colo: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, Earth System Research Laboratory, Physical Sciences Division, 2005.

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8

National Research Council (U.S.). Panel on Aerosol Radiative Forcing and Climate Change., red. A plan for a research program on aerosol radiative forcing and climate change. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press, 1996.

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9

Oikawa, Eiji. An evaluation of the direct aerosol radiative forcing from satellite remote sensing and climate modeling. Tokyo, Japan: Center for Climate System Research, University of Tokyo, 2015.

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10

Monni, Suvi. Estimation of country contributions to the climate change: Viewpoints of radiative forcing and uncertainty of emissions. [Espoo, Finland]: VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, 2005.

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11

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, red. Solar cycle and anthropogenic forcing of surface-air temperature at Armagh Observatory, Northern Ireland. Huntsville], Ala: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Marshall Space Flight Center, 2010.

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12

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Scientific Assessment Working Group. Radiative forcing of climate change: The 1994 report of the Scientific Assessment Working Group of IPCC : summary for policymakers. [S.l.]: IPCC, 1994.

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13

D, Jones Philip, Bradley Raymond S. 1948-, Jouzel Jean 1947-, North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Scientific Affairs Division. i NATO Advanced Research Workshop "Climatic Variations and Forcing Mechanisms of the Last 2000 Years" (1994 : Il Ciocco, Italy), red. Climatic variations and forcing mechanisms of the last 2000 years. Berlin: Springer, 1996.

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14

Enting, I. G. Attribution of greenhouse gas emissions, concentrations and radiative forcing. [Mordialloc, Vic.]: CSIRO, 1998.

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15

Jones, Philip D., Raymond S. Bradley i Jean Jouzel, red. Climatic Variations and Forcing Mechanisms of the Last 2000 Years. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-61113-1.

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16

Haq, Bilal U., red. Sequence Stratigraphy and Depositional Response to Eustatic, Tectonic and Climatic Forcing. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-8583-5.

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17

Symposium on "The Role of Tibetan Plateau in Forcing Global Climatic Changes" (1996 Dharmsala, India). The role of Tibetan Plateau in forcing global climatic changes: Selected papers presented at the Symposium on "The Role of Tibetan Plateau in Forcing Global Climatic Changes" held at Norbulingka Institute, Dharmsala (H.P.), India on 26-31, October, 1996. Redaktorzy Tandon O. P. 1931- i Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology. Dehra Dun, India: Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, 1998.

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18

Hansen, James E. Long-term monitoring of global climate forcings and feedbacks: Proceedings of a workshop sponsored by the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies and held at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies, New York, New York, February 3-4, 1992. Greenbelt, Md: Goddard Space Flight Center, 1993.

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19

1941-, Hansen James E., Rossow W, Fung I i Goddard Space Flight Center, red. Long-term monitoring of global climate forcings and feedbacks: Proceedings of a workshop sponsored by the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies and held at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies, New York, New York, February 3-4, 1992. Greenbelt, Md: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Space Flight Center, 1993.

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20

1941-, Hansen James E., Rossow W, Fung I i Goddard Space Flight Center, red. Long-term monitoring of global climate forcings and feedbacks: Proceedings of a workshop sponsored by the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies and held at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies, New York, New York, February 3-4, 1992. Greenbelt, Md: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Space Flight Center, 1993.

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21

1941-, Hansen James E., Rossow William Brigance 1947-, Fung I i Goddard Space Flight Center, red. Long-term monitoring of global climate forcings and feedbacks: Proceedings of a workshop sponsored by the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies and held at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies, New York, New York, February 3-4, 1992. Greenbelt, Md: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Space Flight Center, 1993.

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22

Maslin, Mark A., i Bill McGuire. Climate Forcing of Geological Hazards. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, John, 2012.

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23

Radiative Forcing of Climate Change. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.17226/11175.

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24

Maslin, Mark A., i Bill McGuire. Climate Forcing of Geological Hazards. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, John, 2012.

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25

Maslin, Mark A., i Bill McGuire. Climate Forcing of Geological Hazards. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, John, 2012.

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26

Maslin, Mark A., i Bill McGuire. Climate Forcing of Geological Hazards. Wiley & Sons, Limited, John, 2012.

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27

Climate Forcing of Geologic and Geomorphological Hazards. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 2013.

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28

Berger, A. Milankovitch and Climate: Understanding the Response to Astronomical Forcing. Springer London, Limited, 2013.

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29

Berger, A. L., G. Kukla, J. Imbrie, J. Hays i B. Saltzman. Milankovitch and Climate: Understanding the Response to Astronomical Forcing. Springer, 2011.

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30

Final report on anthropogenic sulfate, clouds, and climate forcing: NASA contract NAGW-3735. [Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1997.

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31

(US), National Research Council. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. National Academy Press, 2005.

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32

(US), National Research Council. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. National Academies Press, 2005.

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33

Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, Climate Research Committee, Committee on Radiative Forcing Effects on Climate, Division on Earth and Life Studies i National Research Council. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. National Academies Press, 2005.

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34

Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, Climate Research Committee, Committee on Radiative Forcing Effects on Climate, Division on Earth and Life Studies i National Research Council. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties. National Academies Press, 2005.

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35

Chance, Kelly, i Randall V. Martin. Radiation and Climate. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199662104.003.0008.

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Global climate is controlled by an energy balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation. An energy balance is first developed using a simple one-layer model of the atmosphere and then made more realistic by distributing the atmospheric optical depth smoothly in a Gray Atmosphere Model. Wavelength-specific and altitude-dependent absorption and emission for the ultraviolet through long-wave infrared are described. Knowledge is combined into an overall Earth energy budget. The sensitivity of the climate to radiative forcing is examined.
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36

Diodato, Nazzareno, i Gianni Bellocchi. Storminess and Environmental Change: Climate Forcing and Responses in the Mediterranean Region. Springer, 2016.

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37

Panel on Aerosol Radiative Forcing and Climate Change, Division on Earth and Life Studies, National Research Council i Environment and Resources Commission on Geosciences. Plan for a Research Program on Aerosol Radiative Forcing and Climate Change. National Academies Press, 1996.

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38

Diodato, Nazzareno, i Gianni Bellocchi. Storminess and Environmental Change: Climate Forcing and Responses in the Mediterranean Region. Springer London, Limited, 2014.

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39

Panel on Aerosol Radiative Forcing and Climate Change, Division on Earth and Life Studies, National Research Council i Environment and Resources Commission on Geosciences. Plan for a Research Program on Aerosol Radiative Forcing and Climate Change. National Academies Press, 1996.

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40

Panel on Aerosol Radiative Forcing and Climate Change, Division on Earth and Life Studies, National Research Council i Environment and Resources Commission on Geosciences. Plan for a Research Program on Aerosol Radiative Forcing and Climate Change. National Academies Press, 1996.

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41

Diodato, Nazzareno, i Gianni Bellocchi. Storminess and Environmental Change: Climate Forcing and Responses in the Mediterranean Region. Ingramcontent, 2014.

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42

Climate Change 1994: Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and an Evaluation of the IPCC 1992 IS92 Emission Scenarios. Cambridge University Press, 1995.

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43

(Editor), John T. Houghton, L. G. Meira Filho (Editor), James P. Bruce (Editor), Hoesung Lee (Editor), Bruce A. Callander (Editor) i E. F. Haites (Editor), red. Climate Change 1994: Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and an Evaluation of the IPCC 1992 IS92 Emission Scenarios. Cambridge University Press, 1995.

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44

A Plan for a Research Program on Aerosol Radiative Forcing and Climate Change. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.17226/5107.

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45

(Editor), A. L. Berger, J. Imbrie (Editor), J. Hays (Editor), G. Kukla (Editor) i B. Saltzman (Editor), red. Milankovitch and Climate: Understanding the Response to Astronomical Forcing (NATO Science Series C:). Springer, 2007.

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46

Cook, Kerry H. Climate Change Scenarios and African Climate Change. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.545.

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Accurate projections of climate change under increasing atmospheric greenhouse gas levels are needed to evaluate the environmental cost of anthropogenic emissions, and to guide mitigation efforts. These projections are nowhere more important than Africa, with its high dependence on rain-fed agriculture and, in many regions, limited resources for adaptation. Climate models provide our best method for climate prediction but there are uncertainties in projections, especially on regional space scale. In Africa, limitations of observational networks add to this uncertainty since a crucial step in improving model projections is comparisons with observations. Exceeding uncertainties associated with climate model simulation are uncertainties due to projections of future emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. Humanity’s choices in emissions pathways will have profound effects on climate, especially after the mid-century.The African Sahel is a transition zone characterized by strong meridional precipitation and temperature gradients. Over West Africa, the Sahel marks the northernmost extent of the West African monsoon system. The region’s climate is known to be sensitive to sea surface temperatures, both regional and global, as well as to land surface conditions. Increasing atmospheric greenhouse gases are already causing amplified warming over the Sahara Desert and, consequently, increased rainfall in parts of the Sahel. Climate model projections indicate that much of this increased rainfall will be delivered in the form of more intense storm systems.The complicated and highly regional precipitation regimes of East Africa present a challenge for climate modeling. Within roughly 5º of latitude of the equator, rainfall is delivered in two seasons—the long rains in the spring, and the short rains in the fall. Regional climate model projections suggest that the long rains will weaken under greenhouse gas forcing, and the short rains season will extend farther into the winter months. Observations indicate that the long rains are already weakening.Changes in seasonal rainfall over parts of subtropical southern Africa are observed, with repercussions and challenges for agriculture and water availability. Some elements of these observed changes are captured in model simulations of greenhouse gas-induced climate change, especially an early demise of the rainy season. The projected changes are quite regional, however, and more high-resolution study is needed. In addition, there has been very limited study of climate change in the Congo Basin and across northern Africa. Continued efforts to understand and predict climate using higher-resolution simulation must be sustained to better understand observed and projected changes in the physical processes that support African precipitation systems as well as the teleconnections that communicate remote forcings into the continent.
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47

Hagelberg, Teresa King. The response of pliocene climate to orbital forcing: Radiolarian evidence from the eastern equatorial Pacific. 1989.

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48

Yang, Kun. Observed Regional Climate Change in Tibet over the Last Decades. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.587.

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The Tibetan Plateau (TP) is subjected to strong interactions among the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, and biosphere. The Plateau exerts huge thermal forcing on the mid-troposphere over the mid-latitude of the Northern Hemisphere during spring and summer. This region also contains the headwaters of major rivers in Asia and provides a large portion of the water resources used for economic activities in adjacent regions. Since the beginning of the 1980s, the TP has undergone evident climate changes, with overall surface air warming and moistening, solar dimming, and decrease in wind speed. Surface warming, which depends on elevation and its horizontal pattern (warming in most of the TP but cooling in the westernmost TP), was consistent with glacial changes. Accompanying the warming was air moistening, with a sudden increase in precipitable water in 1998. Both triggered more deep clouds, which resulted in solar dimming. Surface wind speed declined from the 1970s and started to recover in 2002, as a result of atmospheric circulation adjustment caused by the differential surface warming between Asian high latitudes and low latitudes.The climate changes over the TP have changed energy and water cycles and has thus reshaped the local environment. Thermal forcing over the TP has weakened. The warming and decrease in wind speed lowered the Bowen ratio and has led to less surface sensible heating. Atmospheric radiative cooling has been enhanced, mainly through outgoing longwave emission from the warming planetary system and slightly enhanced solar radiation reflection. The trend in both energy terms has contributed to the weakening of thermal forcing over the Plateau. The water cycle has been significantly altered by the climate changes. The monsoon-impacted region (i.e., the southern and eastern regions of the TP) has received less precipitation, more evaporation, less soil moisture and less runoff, which has resulted in the general shrinkage of lakes and pools in this region, although glacier melt has increased. The region dominated by westerlies (i.e., central, northern and western regions of the TP) received more precipitation, more evaporation, more soil moisture and more runoff, which together with more glacier melt resulted in the general expansion of lakes in this region. The overall wetting in the TP is due to both the warmer and moister conditions at the surface, which increased convective available potential energy and may eventually depend on decadal variability of atmospheric circulations such as Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation and an intensified Siberian High. The drying process in the southern region is perhaps related to the expansion of Hadley circulation. All these processes have not been well understood.
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49

Goswami, B. N., i Soumi Chakravorty. Dynamics of the Indian Summer Monsoon Climate. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.613.

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Lifeline for about one-sixth of the world’s population in the subcontinent, the Indian summer monsoon (ISM) is an integral part of the annual cycle of the winds (reversal of winds with seasons), coupled with a strong annual cycle of precipitation (wet summer and dry winter). For over a century, high socioeconomic impacts of ISM rainfall (ISMR) in the region have driven scientists to attempt to predict the year-to-year variations of ISM rainfall. A remarkably stable phenomenon, making its appearance every year without fail, the ISM climate exhibits a rather small year-to-year variation (the standard deviation of the seasonal mean being 10% of the long-term mean), but it has proven to be an extremely challenging system to predict. Even the most skillful, sophisticated models are barely useful with skill significantly below the potential limit on predictability. Understanding what drives the mean ISM climate and its variability on different timescales is, therefore, critical to advancing skills in predicting the monsoon. A conceptual ISM model helps explain what maintains not only the mean ISM but also its variability on interannual and longer timescales.The annual ISM precipitation cycle can be described as a manifestation of the seasonal migration of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) or the zonally oriented cloud (rain) band characterized by a sudden “onset.” The other important feature of ISM is the deep overturning meridional (regional Hadley circulation) that is associated with it, driven primarily by the latent heat release associated with the ISM (ITCZ) precipitation. The dynamics of the monsoon climate, therefore, is an extension of the dynamics of the ITCZ. The classical land–sea surface temperature gradient model of ISM may explain the seasonal reversal of the surface winds, but it fails to explain the onset and the deep vertical structure of the ISM circulation. While the surface temperature over land cools after the onset, reversing the north–south surface temperature gradient and making it inadequate to sustain the monsoon after onset, it is the tropospheric temperature gradient that becomes positive at the time of onset and remains strongly positive thereafter, maintaining the monsoon. The change in sign of the tropospheric temperature (TT) gradient is dynamically responsible for a symmetric instability, leading to the onset and subsequent northward progression of the ITCZ. The unified ISM model in terms of the TT gradient provides a platform to understand the drivers of ISM variability by identifying processes that affect TT in the north and the south and influence the gradient.The predictability of the seasonal mean ISM is limited by interactions of the annual cycle and higher frequency monsoon variability within the season. The monsoon intraseasonal oscillation (MISO) has a seminal role in influencing the seasonal mean and its interannual variability. While ISM climate on long timescales (e.g., multimillennium) largely follows the solar forcing, on shorter timescales the ISM variability is governed by the internal dynamics arising from ocean–atmosphere–land interactions, regional as well as remote, together with teleconnections with other climate modes. Also important is the role of anthropogenic forcing, such as the greenhouse gases and aerosols versus the natural multidecadal variability in the context of the recent six-decade long decreasing trend of ISM rainfall.
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50

Gao, Yanhong, i Deliang Chen. Modeling of Regional Climate over the Tibetan Plateau. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.591.

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The modeling of climate over the Tibetan Plateau (TP) started with the introduction of Global Climate Models (GCMs) in the 1950s. Since then, GCMs have been developed to simulate atmospheric dynamics and eventually the climate system. As the highest and widest international plateau, the strong orographic forcing caused by the TP and its impact on general circulation rather than regional climate was initially the focus. Later, with growing awareness of the incapability of GCMs to depict regional or local-scale atmospheric processes over the heterogeneous ground, coupled with the importance of this information for local decision-making, regional climate models (RCMs) were established in the 1970s. Dynamic and thermodynamic influences of the TP on the East and South Asia summer monsoon have since been widely investigated by model. Besides the heterogeneity in topography, impacts of land cover heterogeneity and change on regional climate were widely modeled through sensitivity experiments.In recent decades, the TP has experienced a greater warming than the global average and those for similar latitudes. GCMs project a global pattern where the wet gets wetter and the dry gets drier. The climate regime over the TP covers the extreme arid regions from the northwest to the semi-humid region in the southeast. The increased warming over the TP compared to the global average raises a number of questions. What are the regional dryness/wetness changes over the TP? What is the mechanism of the responses of regional changes to global warming? To answer these questions, several dynamical downscaling models (DDMs) using RCMs focusing on the TP have recently been conducted and high-resolution data sets generated. All DDM studies demonstrated that this process-based approach, despite its limitations, can improve understandings of the processes that lead to precipitation on the TP. Observation and global land data assimilation systems both present more wetting in the northwestern arid/semi-arid regions than the southeastern humid/semi-humid regions. The DDM was found to better capture the observed elevation dependent warming over the TP. In addition, the long-term high-resolution climate simulation was found to better capture the spatial pattern of precipitation and P-E (precipitation minus evapotranspiration) changes than the best available global reanalysis. This facilitates new and substantial findings regarding the role of dynamical, thermodynamics, and transient eddies in P-E changes reflected in observed changes in major river basins fed by runoff from the TP. The DDM was found to add value regarding snowfall retrieval, precipitation frequency, and orographic precipitation.Although these advantages in the DDM over the TP are evidenced, there are unavoidable facts to be aware of. Firstly, there are still many discrepancies that exist in the up-to-date models. Any uncertainty in the model’s physics or in the land information from remote sensing and the forcing could result in uncertainties in simulation results. Secondly, the question remains of what is the appropriate resolution for resolving the TP’s heterogeneity. Thirdly, it is a challenge to include human activities in the climate models, although this is deemed necessary for future earth science. All-embracing further efforts are expected to improve regional climate models over the TP.
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