Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Food aversions”

Sensory Food Aversions occur frequently in children who are likely to appear on Speech-Language Pathologist’s (SLP’s) caseloads. The lack of research regarding intervention for Sensory Food Aversions in schools and the assertion of a gap in school-based services for children with feeding disorders was a significant indicator for the need of the study. A quantitative, descriptive, exploratory research design was selected using a self-developed questionnaire in order to exploreschool-based SLP’s perceptions of their knowledge and skills related to Sensory Food Aversions, as well as determine resources available for working with this population. Findings from the study suggest a need for educational training, emphasize the advocacy role of an SLP, and shed light on the challenges/barriers SLPs face in regard to treating Sensory Food Aversions in schools. This study may be useful for SLPs in order to meet the needs of children with Sensory Food Aversions.

Ranchers, farmers, land managers, and resource management agencies have been plagued with various types of invasive weeds for decades, ultimately affecting millions of acres of viable wildlife habitat, grazing, and recreational opportunities. Invasive weeds often have nutritional contexts that negatively affect animals in some way, increasing the incentive to avoid consuming it by various animal species and domestic livestock. With the current amount of land infested with this weed, and the limited knowledge of the reason for avoidance, the underlying causes of livestock avoidance require in-depth and fundamental understanding. In my MS program, I sought to explore the relationship of plant and herbivore interactions in regards to grazing, animal diet selection through the use of supplementation, along with understanding the chemical compounds that cause avoidance of medusahead by domestic animals. This research will help us better understand the reasoning behind grazing avoidance and preference, and provide further understanding and management approaches using livestock as an alternative management tool in hopes of creating sustainable ecosystems with complementary benefits for soils, plants, animals, and land managers.

This study examined the food acceptance behaviour of preschool children in Taiwan from their parents’ perspectives. The research explored food preferences and aversions of preschool children and how parents’ beliefs, concerns and coping strategies influenced their food acceptance behaviour. This qualitative study used in-depth interviews to obtain answers to the research questions. This appears to be the first study of its kind in Taiwan. The results of this research were represented in three ways: as themes and sub-themes, as narratives for two families, and as concept maps to show the relationship between themes and preschool children’s food acceptance behaviour. The major findings of this research are firstly, that children showed a wide range of food acceptance behaviours that are established early in life. Secondly, parents had a number of beliefs and concerns about the nature of the food acceptance behaviour of their preschool children. They described many factors that they believe affect their children’s eating behaviour including the influence of caregivers, parents themselves, siblings, grandparents, peers, the kindergarten teacher, the kindergarten cook, and the media. Thirdly, parents’ rearing styles influence the eating habits of preschool children. The thesis concludes by pointing to useful directions and recommendations for further research, education and policy around the issue of early childhood food acceptance behaviour.

L'étude des mécanismes comportementaux et cérébraux sous-tendant la modulation hédonique de la prise alimentaire chez le porc juvénile présente d'importants enjeux en termes d'applications en production porcine et en recherche biomédicale. L'objectif de cette thèse était de décrire ces déterminants par le biais du développement d'un modèle porcin des préférences et aversions alimentaires conditionnées, en utilisant des méthodes comportementales et des techniques d'imagerie cérébrale fonctionnelle. Sur le plan comportemental, nous avons validé un modèle porcin de l'aversion alimentaire conditionnée, obtenue via des injections duodénales de chlorure de lithium et caractérisée par une modification drastique des choix alimentaires. Nos résultats suggèrent également que les préférences alimentaires sont plus difficiles à induire que les aversions, et qu'un renforcement calorique et sucré, comme le saccharose, représente un stimulus efficace pour l'induction d'une préférence chez le porc. Sur le plan neurobiologique, l'exposition à des flaveurs alimentaires aux valeurs hédoniques contrastées et la perception combinée de saccharose aux niveaux oral et viscéral ont engendré des différences d'activation dans les circuits neuronaux impliqués chez l'Homme et les rongeurs, dans l'évaluation hédonique des stimuli sensoriels, la motivation, le traitement de la récompense (amygdale, cortex préfrontal, noyaux de la base) et la mémoire (hippocampe, cortex parahippocampique). Des études complémentaires sont nécessaires pour déterminer dans quelle mesure des facteurs de variation liés à l'animal ou aux paradigmes expérimentaux ont pu influencer l'expression des conditionnements.

Conflicts between humans and black bears (Ursus americanus) jeopardize the safety of both humans and bears, especially when bears become food-conditioned to anthropogenic food sources in areas such as campgrounds. Interest in using non-lethal techniques, such as aversive conditioning, to manage such conflicts is growing. I conducted a captive experiment at The Wildlife Science Center in Minnesota and two field experiments in the La Sal Mountains, Utah, to investigate the effects of taste aversion conditioning using thiabendazole (TBZ) with a novel flavor cue and food removal on black bear food consumption and visitation to human food sources. In 2007, I conducted food trials with 6 captive black bears (3 control, 3 treatment). Controls received 1 kg baked goods scented with a peppermint-canola oil mixture and treatments received 1 kg baked goods also scented with a peppermint-canola oil mixture but mixed with 10-20 g TBZ. In the 2007 field experiment, I baited 24 field sites with 300 g of baked goods during a baseline phase for approximately 3 weeks. Half of these sites were then treated with 10 g of TBZ and camphor during a treatment phase for 4 weeks. In 2008, I baited 22 sites with 300 g of baked goods during a baseline phase for approximately 4 weeks. I then removed food and discontinued baiting at half of the sites for 4 weeks. Infrared cameras and barbed-wire hair snags were established at field sites to document bear visitation. I did not establish taste aversion in treated bears in captivity and bears fully consumed food in the majority of trials. Treating food supplies with 10 g TBZ and camphor flavor did not significantly reduce bear visitation (P = 0.615) or food consumption at field sites (P = 0.58). However, I observed a significant reduction in bear activity at sites where food was removed (P = 0.006). Potential reasons for my failure to reduce bear visitation using thiabendazole include insufficient conditioning, reluctance of bears to desist in investigating sites that previously contained untreated food, and masking of a treatment effect due to continued encounters of sites by new individuals.

Nest predation is one of the principle constraints on bird breeding success, accounting for 20 to 80% of all nest failures. It can be exacerbated by anthropogenic factors and the resultant increased predation pressure has caused the decline of numerous bird species worldwide. Identifying management strategies to reduce nest predation is consequently a priority for biodiversity conservation. Many lethal and non-lethal methods of predator control can be ineffective, unethical, time-consuming and expensive to implement. An alternative is the use of Conditioned Food Aversion (CFA), a method by which animals are deliberately induced to avoid nests following consumption of eggs treated with an illness-inducing toxin. Previous studies suggest that this technique is effective but many have been subject to several methodological flaws that limit their applicability. Here I employ an improved experimental design that uses both spatial and temporal controls and incorporates quantification of predator identity and abundance. By so doing the resultant effects can be attributed to CFA treatment with higher certainty. In the Berg River Estuary, South Africa, nest losses of the Kittlitz's Plover (Charadrius pecuarius) are high due to Pied Crow (Corvus albus) nest predation. I used this common plover as a model species to test whether CFA can be used as a conservation management tool to reduce nest predation. I used a field experiment to assess whether provisioning quail eggs treated with carbachol, an illness-inducing chemical, resulted in reduced nest predation. To assess the effects of treatment, nest survival data for both artificial plover nests containing quail eggs and natural Kittlitz's plover nests, as well as predator abundance were compared across three experimental phases (pre-treatment, treatment and post-treatment) and according to treatment type (carbachol versus water).

Los adultos jóvenes exhiben los niveles más bajos de educación financiera entre todos los grupos de edad. Esto es problemático ya que es probable que los hábitos financieros adoptados durante esta edad persistan en la edad adulta. La literatura ha identificado algunos determinantes del nivel de alfabetización financiera (NAF), como el género, la edad, la educación y los ingresos. Sin embargo, otros factores más relevantes que probablemente influyen en el NAF, como las preferencias económicas, la aversión al riesgo, la persistencia, entre otros, no han recibido suficiente atención. Este estudio investigó una de las dimensiones más importantes subyacentes a la preferencia económica, la aversión al riesgo (AR) y su relación con el NAF de jóvenes adultos con edades entre 18 y 25 años de edad. Se utilizó una muestra de 2,144 estudiantes universitarios en Medellín, Colombia. Utilizando el análisis factorial confirmatorio y modelos de ecuaciones estructurales (SEM, por sus siglas en inglés), los resultados indican que la AR tiene un efecto positivo directo sobre el NAF (β = .29; valor p <0.01) y explica explica cerca del 8,2% de la variación transversal del NAF. Este hallazgo se validó realizando varias comprobaciones de robustez. Los resultados respaldan la literatura actual sobre la asociación entre la actitud financiera, el comportamiento financiero y el conocimiento financiero hacia el NAF entre los adultos jóvenes. Finalmente, este estudio investigó las posibles diferencias grupales utilizando las variables género, disciplina académica e ingresos del hogar. La relación entre AR y NAF es independiente entre estos grupos. Dado que la AR tiene un efecto positivo directo en el NAF de los adultos jóvenes, los programas de educación financiera pueden diseñarse mejor si se resalta el riesgo que enfrentan las personas durante sus vidas para que sus participantes tengan más probabilidades de invertir en la adquisición mayores NAF.
Tesis

Introdução: A neoplasia maligna da mama é o segundo tipo de câncer que mais atinge a população brasileira e a principal causa de morte entre as mulheres. Em pacientes com neoplasia mamária o tratamento quimioterápico adjuvante tem sido associado à alteração no estado nutricional, pois pode promover modificação no peso e na composição corporal, além de contribuir para o desenvolvimento de aversões alimentares e alterações na qualidade de vida. Objetivo: Avaliar o impacto do tratamento quimioterápico no estado nutricional e comportamento alimentar de pacientes com neoplasia mamária e suas conseqüências na qualidade de vida. Métodos: Participaram do estudo 25 pacientes, 46(9) anos, pré e pós-menopausadas, com diagnóstico de câncer de mama em estadiamento clínico (EC) I e II, atendidas no Departamento de Mastologia do Hospital AC Camargo – São Paulo, submetidas à cirurgia e ao tratamento quimioterápico adjuvante. As pacientes foram avaliadas em dois momentos: T0 – antes e T1 – após o tratamento quimioterápico. Foram realizadas: avaliação nutricional (peso, índice de massa corporal e composição corporal); avaliação de ingestão alimentar com 3 recordatórios de 24h (R24h); avaliação de aversão alimentar e avaliação de qualidade de vida. Resultados: Os resultados mostraram que o tratamento quimioterápico esteve associado ao aumento no peso das pacientes (2,2 kg; p<0,0001). Essa variação refletiu as diferenças significativas observadas nos valores IMC (1,0 kg/m2; p=0,00) e promoveu aumento no percentual de pacientes obesas (4%) entre os momentos T0 e T1. Os percentuais de água, gordura e massa magra entre os dois momentos permaneceram inalterados. Ao contrário, o ângulo de fase mostrou redução (-0,40; p=0,00). A ingestão de nutrientes não apresentou alteração significativa após o tratamento. Entretanto, foi verificada redução significativa no consumo de alimentos do grupo das Frutas e Sucos (p=0,03). Foram observadas aversões alimentares no grupo de bebidas (escore= -5,04; p= 0,00) e 52% das pacientes citaram pelo menos um alimento ou grupo como indicativo de aversão. Em relação à qualidade de vida foi verificada redução no aspecto de bem-estar físico (escore=-3,47; p=0,00). O estado nutricional não apresentou correlação significativa com qualidade de vida. Porém alguns aspectos do comportamento alimentar foram mutuamente correlacionados com a qualidade de vida Conclusões: O tratamento quimioterápico em mulheres com câncer de mama promoveu ganho de peso associado à redução no ângulo de fase. Estas variáveis em associação às alterações no consumo alimentar e na qualidade de vida reduzida agravam os prognósticos clínico e social dessa população.
Introduction: The breast cancer is the second leading type of cancer in the Brazilian population and it is the leading cause of death between women. In breast cancer patients adjuvant chemotherapy has been linked to changes in nutritional status, because it can modify weight and corporal composition, besides contributing to development of food aversion and modification on quality of life. Objective: To assess the impact of chemotherapy on nutritional status and eating patterns of breast cancer patients and their consequences on quality of life. Methods: It were recruited from Departamento de Mastologia do Hospital AC Camargo – São Paulo, 25 patients, 46(9) years, pre and post-menopaused, with breast cancer diagnostic in I and II stage, submitted to surgery and adjuvant chemotherapy. Patients were assessed in two moments: T0 – before and T1 – after chemotherapy. Nutritional assessment (weight, body mass index, corporal composition); food intake assessment by three 24 hour recall (R24h); food aversion assessment and quality of life assessment were conducted. Results: The results showed that adjuvant chemotherapy was linked to increase on weight (2.2 kg; p<0.00). This variation was confirmed by differences on BMI (1.0 kg/m2; p=0.00) and increase on percent of obese patients value (4%), between T0 and T1. Water, fat and soft mass percent between two moments didn’t change. In opposite, the phase angle showed reduction (-0.40; p=0.00). Results didn’t show modification in nutrients intake, but the patients showed lower intake on fruit and juice group after treatment (p=0.03). It was observed food aversion to drinks group (score= -5.04; p= 0.00) and 52% patients cited just one food agreement with bed feel. In relation to quality of life we verified reduction on physic well be (score=-3.47; p=0.00). Nutritional status didn’t have correlation with quality of life, but some aspects of eating patterns showed correlations with quality of life variables. Conclusion: Chemotherapy treatment in breast cancer patients promoted increase weight linked to reduction on phase angle. Theses variables, associated with intake feed alterations and lower quality of life, to make worsen the clinic and social prognostic this population.

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To determine the ability of Baccharis coridifolia to induce aversion to consumption to Ipomoea carnea var. fistulosa in goats and sheep, as well as evaluating the duration of the aversion and the behavior of animals applying this technique, two experiments were performed. In the first, 13 goats were divided into two groups: Group 1 was treated with 175 mg/kg of body weight of LiCl and Group 2 was treated with 0.25 g/kg of body weight of B. coridifolia for three consecutive days. B. coridifolia induced incomplete aversion for 30 days after the start of experimentation in two goats, while complete aversion was observed for 330 days after the start in five goats. No goat was completely averted by LiCl. In the second experiment, 15 sheep were divided into three groups: aversion with LiCl; aversion to B. coridifolia, and control group. The sheep were challenged to consume Ipomoea carnea until the 74th day after the first day of aversion. The time allotted to consumption of I. carnea was 2.4%±1.6% of total grazing time. Both B. coridifolia and LiCl induced incomplete aversion to consumption of I. carnea in sheep. This was likely due to I. carnea not naturally being consumed by sheep. The results of the first experiment showed that B. coridifolia could be advantageously used in inducing aversion to toxic plants when compared with LiCl. A literature review was conducted on the application of the technique of conditioned aversion in Brazil.
Para determinar a capacidade de Baccharis coridifolia de induzir aversão à Ipomoea carnea var. fistulosa em caprinos e ovinos bem como avaliar a duração da aversão e o comportamento dos animais frente a esta técnica foram realizados dois experimentos. No primeiro, 13 caprinos foram divididos em dois grupos: Grupo 1 avertido com 175 mg/kg de peso corporal de LiCl administrado via sonda orogástrica; Grupo 2, avertido com 0,25 g/kg de peso corporal de B. coridifolia. Esse procedimento foi repetido por três dias consecutivos. B. coridifolia induziu a aversão incompleta até os 30 dias após o primeiro dia da aversão em dois caprinos, e completa em cinco caprinos durante os 330 dias após o início da aversão. Nenhuma cabra foi completamente avertida pelo LiCl. No segundo experimento 15 ovinos foram divididos em três grupos: aversão com LiCl; aversão com B. coridifolia; e controle. Os ovinos foram desafiados ao consumo da planta até o 74º dia após o primeiro dia da aversão. O tempo destinado pelos ovinos ao consumo de I. cárnea foi de 2,4%±1,6% do total de tempo de pastejo. Tanto B. coridifolia como LiCl induziram aversão incompleta ao consumo de I. carnea em ovinos. Isso ocorreu em função de que I. carnea não é consumida pelos ovinos. Os resultados do primeiro experimento demonstraram que B. coridifolia pode ser usado com vantagens na indução de aversão a plantas tóxicas quando comparado com o LiCl. Foi realizada uma revisão bibliográfica sobre a aplicação da técnica de aversão condicionada no Brasil.

Determina la relación entre características de inicio de alimentación complementaria y aversión sensorial a los alimentos en niños de 18 a 30 meses en el Centro Materno Infantil Villa María del Triunfo. Usa una metodología descriptiva de asociación cruzada, retrospectiva, de corte transversal y cuantitativa. Utiliza una muestra de 90 niños(as) de 18 a 30 meses y sus respectivas madres. Aplica un cuestionario sobre características de inicio de alimentación complementaria y un test de conducta pediátrica actual (BPFAS) para valorar aversión sensorial a los alimentos. Elabora una base de datos en Excel seguido del análisis con el software SPSS 21.0 y la aplicación de la prueba de correlación de Spearman. Las principales medidas de resultados son nivel de calidad de la preparación ofrecida al niño, circunstancias en que se ofrece, nivel de interacción positiva madre-niño y grado de aversión sensorial. Obtiene los siguientes resultados: El 60% de madres inició la alimentación complementaria con preparaciones semisólidas, el resto lo hizo con licuados y preparaciones líquidas. El 80% inició con alimentos naturales e industrializados. El 53% de las madres ofreció la preparación al niño en circunstancias adecuadas y, el 38% mostraron un alto nivel de interacción positiva madre-niño durante el tiempo de comida. Se encontró mayor cantidad de niños(as) con un grado moderado de aversión sensorial a los alimentos. Concluye que los niños(as) que tienen un bajo nivel de interacción positiva con su cuidadora desarrollan un alto nivel de aversión sensorial, al igual que los niños(as) cuyas cuidadoras les ofrecieron la preparación en circunstancias inadecuadas. Es necesario considerar este problema como un factor de riesgo nutricional, susceptible de ser modificado.
Tesis

L'objectif de cette thèse est de décrire le réseau cérébral et la dynamique neuronale qui pourraient servir de support aux aversions alimentaires de type olfactives. Nous avons réalisé des enregistrements multisites de potentiel de champ locaux chez le rat vigile engagé dans cet apprentissage, en proposant deux modes de présentation de l'indice olfactif : à proximité de l'eau de boisson (distal) ou ingéré (distal-proximal). Après apprentissage, la présentation du seul indice distal induit l'émergence d'une activité oscillatoire de forte amplitude dans la bande de fréquence beta (15-40 Hz). Finement corrélée au comportement d'aversion de l'animal, cette activité est proposée comme la signature du réseau de structures fonctionnellement impliquées dans la reconnaissance de l'odeur en tant que signal. Nous montrons que ce réseau peut être plus ou moins étendu selon la façon dont le stimulus a été perçu lors du conditionnement: dans certaines aires (bulbe olfactif, cortex piriforme, amygdale basolatérale, cortex orbitofrontal) la modulation en puissance de l'activité beta se fait indépendamment du mode de conditionnement; dans d'autres aires (cortex insulaire, cortex infralimbique) ces changements ont lieu si et seulement si l'odeur a été ingérée. Complétés par l'étude des interactions fonctionnelles entre ces différentes structures dans la bande de fréquence considérée, ces résultats nous permettent de mieux comprendre comment un stimulus peut être représenté en mémoire dans un réseau cérébral en fonction de l'expérience que l'animal en a fait.

Food waste has several long-term implications for the environmental, economic, and social domains, with households assuming the major responsibility for these losses. Specifically, the fear of not being a “good” provider is linked to an over-serving behaviour. Despite literature suggesting that this over-serving behaviour could be due to a risk aversion effect towards facing status losses, this was never experimentally tested. So, we hypothesized that status losses would prevent people from reducing their served food quantities, and that this would be explained by a higher risk aversion towards these immediate losses. To accomplish that, 126 participants were presented with binary choice paradigms regarding hypothetical food quantities options (cook just the enough food vs cook more than the enough food). In a within-subjects design, where each of these two options were accompanied by a description of its possible consequences relatively to two different specific domains (environmental, economic, social, and status), we manipulated the temporal framing perspective of those consequences (immediate losses and delayed gains vs immediate gains and delayed losses). The results show that the salience of the status losses increased the served food quantities, while temporal effect had no significant effect in this relationship. Overall, our findings open a path for other researchers to explore the household food waste from an empirically perspective, as well as these have practical implications for consumers, for packaged goods managers, and for public policy officials, since these findings may be a useful insight towards the designing of effective food waste reduction nudging interventions.
O desperdício alimentar acarreta implicações a longo prazo em termos ambientais, económicos, e sociais, sendo as famílias os principais responsáveis. O medo de não ser um “bom” anfitrião está associado a um comportamento de preparar comida em excesso. A literatura sugere que este comportamento poder-se-á dever a um efeito de aversão ao risco face às perdas de estatuto, contudo isto nunca foi testado experimentalmente. Desta forma, hipotetizámos que as perdas de estatuto impediriam a redução das quantidades de comida servida, sendo isto explicado por uma aversão ao risco superior para perdas imediatas. Assim, 126 participantes foram apresentados com paradigmas de escolhas binárias relativamente a opções hipotéticas de escolhas de quantidades de comida (cozinhar à justa vs cozinhar de sobra). Num desenho intra-sujeitos, estas duas opções foram acompanhadas por uma descrição das suas possíveis consequências relativamente a dois domínios específicos diferentes (ambiental, económico, social, e de estatuto), sendo manipulado o enquadramento temporal dessas mesmas consequências (perdas imediatas e ganhos futuros vs ganhos imediatos e perdas futuras). Os resultados mostram que as perdas de estatuto aumentaram as quantidades de comida servida, enquanto que o efeito temporal não teve um efeito significativo nesta relação. As nossas descobertas possibilitam que outros investigadores explorem o desperdício alimentar doméstico do ponto de vista empírico, assim como têm implicações práticas para os consumidores, para os responsáveis por mercadorias embaladas, e para os oficiais de políticas públicas, uma vez que poderão ser um insight útil para o desenho de intervenções com vista à redução do desperdício alimentar.

In my dissertation, I investigate the relationship between household consumption expenditures and transitory income shocks. In the first two essays, I pay particular attention to household expenditures in the aftermath of natural disasters, which are becoming more frequent and costly in the U.S. since 1980. Additionally, I study specialty farm producers' risk attitudes after an income shock due to natural disasters. Although the permanent income hypothesis predicts that households smooth consumption over their lifetimes, credit-constrained households may find consumption smoothing impractical. This dissertation brings forth evidence regarding heterogeneity in the effect of income shocks on household expenditures. First, I find that floods and hurricanes affect food-at-home (FAH) spending in different ways. The average 15-day decrease in FAH spending is about $2 in the 90 days after a flood and about $7 in the 30 days after a hurricane. In other words, floods have a prolonged effect and hurricanes have an immediate effect. I find that floods and hurricanes remain a threat to the FAH expenditures of vulnerable households, for instance, low-income households and households in coastal states. Second, Indiana specialty farm households reduce their monthly expenses of food and miscellaneous categories by about $119 and $280, respectively, after an income loss of 20%-32%. I also find that Indiana specialty producers are less willing to take financial risk after an income loss experience, i.e., they have a decreasing absolute risk aversion. Finally, in the third essay, I show that Australian households exhibit loss aversion in consumption expenditures which also means that they behave asymmetrically in their consumption response to income shocks. However, it is only working-age younger households that show asymmetric consumption behavior as opposed to the symmetric behavior of retirement-age households. The main message of these various findings is clear: after an income shock, the magnitude of change in consumption expenditures and the saliency of certain expenditure categories for adjustment are context- and population-dependent. Hence, income support policies and post-disaster relief programs may benefit from a better understanding of the consumption behavior of beneficiary population, to achieve maximum impact through better targeting.

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) could have a significant impact on the U.S. agriculture industry and the welfare of U.S. producers and U.S. consumers. In order to address the potential impact from animal disease outbreaks, this project is designed to utilize a combined epidemic and economic modeling framework to evaluate animal disease management strategies which can be used to reduce the potential losses in an unusual event such as FMD outbreaks. In this study, we compare the welfare changes among three different parties with different strategies using, 1) ANOVA analysis; 2) cost benefit analysis; and 3) Risk Aversion Coefficient (RAC) analysis. Four types of index feedlots are selected in the study including, Feedlot Type 1 (> 50,000 heads of animals), Feedlot Type 4 (backgrounder feedlot), Large Beef Grazing (>100 heads of animals), and Backyard (<10 heads of animals). Results suggest that early detection of FMD events has the advantage in reducing risk as shown in the epidemiological impacts. Enhanced surveillance is found to be a preferred mitigation strategy for U.S. consumers in the scenario of smaller feedlot disease introductions (e.g. Large Beef Grazing and Backyard) and for U.S. producers in the larger feedlot disease introduction scenarios (e.g. Feedlot Type 1 and Feedlot Type 4). Adequate vaccination is not cost effective when seeking to minimize average loss but becomes a preferred strategy when the risk aversion rises. Risk modeling with stochastic programming adopted in this study also confirms the importance of incorporating risk evaluation into decision making process. It offers another option for us to evaluate the mitigation strategies. Two portfolio models are adopted in this study including, E-V model (mean variance portfolio choice model) and Unified model. The results show that the preference for control strategies depends on risk attitude. Early detection proves to be preferable for U.S. consumers and is also preferred by U.S. processors and producers as Risk Aversion Parameters (RAP) rises. Adequate vaccination strategy can benefit U.S. consumers but does not give U.S. processors a better outcome. Adequate vaccination provides a better choice for U.S. producers when the RAP rises. Enhanced surveillance is preferred for U.S. consumers. For U.S. processors, enhanced surveillance does not give a better risk/return outcome. U.S. producers are likely to switch their preferences from regular surveillance to enhanced surveillance as their RAP rises.