Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Flow and heat transfer”

Synthetic jets are produced by the oscillatory movement of a membrane inside a cavity, causing fluid to enter and leave through a small orifice. This results in a net jet that is able to transfer kinetic energy and momentum to a fluid medium without the need of an external fluid source. This is why synthetic jets are interesting and will have key roles in a wide range of relevant applications such as active flow control, thermal cooling or fuel mixing. From the phenomenological point of view, synthetic jets are formed by elaborate flow patterns given their non-linear nature and, under certain conditions, unstable complex flows can be observed. The present dissertation is focused on the investigation of the fluid flow and thermal performance of synthetic jets. Two different synthetic jet actuator geometries (i.e., slotted and circular) are studied. The jets in both configurations are confined by two parallel isothermal plates with an imposed temperature difference, and impinge into a heated plate located at a certain distance from the actuator orifice. The unsteady three-dimensional Navier-Stokes equations are solved for a range of Reynolds numbers using time-accurate numerical simulations. Moreover, a detailed model of the actuator that uses Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) formulation to account for the movement of the actuator membrane is developed. This model, based on the governing numbers of the flow, is used to conduct the numerical analyses. The flows obtained in both configurations are noticeably different and three-dimensional for almost all the Reynolds numbers considered. The jet in the slotted configuration is formed by a pair of vortices that undergo turbulent transition and eventually coalesce into the jet. The external flow is dominated by two major recirculation structures that find their counterparts inside the actuator cavity. A new vortical structure, observed in confined slotted jets, appears as an interaction of the synthetic jet flow with the bottom wall and results in a change on the jet’s heat transfer mechanisms. On the other hand, the jet in the circular configuration presents three different flow regions that have been identified according to the literature: the main vortex ring, the trailing jet and the potential core. In this case, the external flow is dominated by the main vortex ring and the trailing jet, thus presenting a different morphology and heat transfer behavior than the slotted configuration. A detailed analysis of the vortex trajectories has shown that the advected vortices on the circular configuration reach the impingement before their slotted counterparts. Distributions of turbulent kinetic energy at the expulsion and vortex swirl and shear strength have revealed that the flow on the circular jet is mostly concentrated near the jet centerline, while it is more spread for the slotted configuration. For these reasons, at the same jet ejection velocity and actuator geometry, synthetic jet formation on the circular configuration can occur at higher frequencies than on the slotted configuration. The analysis of the synthetic jet outlet temperature has shown that assuming a uniform profile is reasonable if the Reynolds number is high enough. Moreover, the outlet jet temperature is significantly higher than the cold plate temperature. The two configurations present different impinging behaviors due to the differences on the flow. Heat transfer analysis on the hot wall has revealed that the circular configuration reaches a higher heat transfer peak than the slotted configuration, however, heat transfer decays faster in the circular configuration when moving away from the jet centerline. Eventually, correlations for the heat transfer at the hot wall and the outlet temperature with the Reynolds number are proposed. They can be useful to include the cavity effects when using simplified models that do not account for actuator cavity.<br>Els jets sintètics (SJ) són produïts pel moviment oscil·latori d'una membrana a l'interior d'una cavitat, cosa que fa que el líquid entri i surti per un petit orifici. Això es tradueix en un jet que és capaç de transferir energia cinètica i impuls a un medi fluid sense la necessitat d'una font externa. És per això que els SJ són interessants i tindran un paper clau en una àmplia gamma d'aplicacions rellevants, com ara el control actiu de flux, el refredament tèrmic o la barreja de combustible. Des del punt de vista fenomenològic, els SJ estan formats per patrons de flux elaborats per la seva naturalesa no lineal i, sota certes condicions, es poden observar fluxos complexos i inestables. Aquesta tesis està centrada en la investigació del flux de fluids i el rendiment tèrmic dels jets sintètics. S'estudien dues geometries diferents d’actuadors de SJ (és a dir, ranurats i circulars). Els jets en ambdues configuracions estan confinats per dues plaques isotèrmiques paral·leles amb una diferència de temperatura imposada i afecten a una placa escalfada situada a una certa distància de l'orifici de l'actuador. Les equacions tridimensionals inestables de Navier-Stokes es resolen per un nombre de Reynolds utilitzant simulacions numèriques precises en el temps. A més, es desenvolupa un model detallat de l'actuador que utilitza la formulació arbitrària lagrangiana-euleriana (ALE) per explicar el moviment de la membrana de l'actuador. Aquest model, basat en els números de govern del flux, s'utilitza per realitzar els anàlisis numèrics. Els fluxos obtinguts en ambdues configuracions són notablement diferents i tridimensionals per a gairebé tots els números de Reynolds considerats. El jet en la configuració ranurada està format per un parell de vòrtexs que experimenten una transició turbulenta que finalment formen el jet. El flux extern està dominat per dues recirculacions principals amb els seus homòlegs dins de la cavitat de l'actuador. Una nova estructura, observada en els jets ranurats confinats, apareix com una interacció del flux amb la paret inferior i provoca un canvi en els mecanismes de transferència de calor del jet. D'altra banda, el jet en la configuració circular presenta tres regions de flux diferents que s'han identificat segons la literatura: l'anell de vòrtex principal, el jet final i el nucli potencial. En aquest cas, el flux extern està dominat per l'anell de vòrtex principal i el jet de sortida, presentant així un comportament diferent de morfologia i transferència de calor que la configuració ranurada. Un anàlisi detallat de les trajectòries de vòrtex ha demostrat que els vòrtexs de la configuració circular arriben a la paret superior abans que els seus homòlegs ranurats. Les distribucions d'energia cinètica turbulenta a l'expulsió, entre altres, han revelat que el flux del jet circular es concentra majoritàriament a prop de la línia central del jet, mentre que és més estès per a la configuració ranurada. Per aquestes raons, a la mateixa velocitat d'ejecció del jet i geometria de l'actuador, la formació de SJ en la configuració circular pot produir-se a freqüències més altes que a la configuració ranurada. L'anàlisi de la temperatura de sortida dels SJ ha demostrat que assumir un perfil uniforme és raonable si el nombre de Reynolds és prou elevat. A més, la temperatura del jet de sortida és significativament superior a la temperatura de la placa freda. Les dues configuracions presenten diferents comportaments a causa de les diferències en el flux. L’anàlisi de la transferència de calor a la paret calenta ha revelat que la configuració circular arriba a un màxim de transferència de calor més gran que la configuració ranurada, però, la transferència de calor es desaccelera més ràpidament en la configuració circular quan s’allunya de la línia central. Finalment, es proposen correlacions per a la transferència de calor a la paret calenta i la temperatura de sortida amb el nombre de Reynolds. Poden ser útils per incloure els efectes de la cavitat quan s’utilitzen models simplificats que no tenen en compte la cavitat de l’actuador.

The objective of this research work is to enhance the understanding of heat transfer and pressure loss in heated tubes equipped with flow obstacles by experimentally investigating the axial and circumferential distributions of convective heat transfer in a heated tube, complemented by pressure loss and velocity measurements in an adiabatic pipe flow. The heat transfer experiments employed refrigerant R-134a as the working fluid with a Reynolds number range of 14,000 to 97,000. Three types of flow obstructions were investigated: eccentric cylinders with flat and rounded ends and annular obstacles, each having a flow blockage of either 0.15 or 0.3. The axial distribution of heat transfer coefficient was measured downstream from the downstream end of the obstruction over a distance of 3 to 70 tube diameters. The experimental data indicate that heat transfer augmentation downstream from the flow obstructions depends on the obstructed area, the flow Reynolds number, the distance from the flow blockage and, to a lesser extent, the shape and the circumferential location of the obstruction. Our experiments confirm the previous findings that heat transfer augmentation (compared to the bare tube heat transfer case) decreases with an increase of flow Reynolds number. It was found that heat transfer augmentation typically extends up to 30 diameters downstream of a flow obstacle. An improved prediction method that correlates the obstructed flow area, Re number and the distance from the trailing edge of the obstacle has been derived. Pressure loss and velocity measurements were also collected for a flow Reynolds number range from 11,000 to 65,000, for flat ended (blunt) and rounded cylinders with a flow blockage ratio of 0.3 and a blunt cylinder with a flow blockage ratio of 0.15. The results showed that blockage ratio and shape of flow obstacle affect the obstacle pressure loss coefficient significantly and they confirm previous research findings that obstacle pressure loss coefficient decreases with an increase of bulk Reynolds number. Measurements of the reattachment length downstream from flow obstacles indicated that the reattachment length for three-dimensional turbulent flow around square-shaped cylinders was significantly shorter than two-dimensional flow over a backward-facing step. An important finding of the current investigation is that, for the flow range investigated, heat transfer augmentation could not be correlated with the local pressure loss coefficient of the obstruction, which differs from the smooth heated channel case where the Reynolds analogy usually applies. Additionally, to assess the capabilities of the widely used k- turbulence model, some CFD simulations were performed. The CFD results were generally in satisfactory agreement with the experimental data; however, near the obstacle, close to the separation and recirculation areas, the agreement with the experimental data was less satisfactory. The current research can be applied to the design and optimization of spacers and appendages of nuclear fuel elements, as well as serve for the improvement of state of the art computer codes employed in the safety assessment of nuclear reactors.

The requirement of modern industrial society is to continuously improve the performance of manufactured products and most notably increase performance density. At the same time, this has caused the micro-electronics industry to be faced with increasingly high heat fluxes which need to be dissipated. It is expected in few years that advanced microprocessors will be dissipating heat fluxes as high as 300 W/cm2 and require cooling to maintain device temperature below a limit that is set by reliability and material concerns. This limit varies, from 85°C for commercial microprocessors to 125°C for defence electronics applications. Flow boiling in micro-channels is gaining significant attention in recent years due to its capability to dissipate very high heat fluxes. The major advantage of flow boiling systems is the ability of the fluid to carry larger amounts of thermal energy through the latent heat of vaporisation. For the performance assessment and design of a micro-channel cooling device, it is very important to be able to define accurately the pressure drop and flow boiling heat transfer for a given operating condition for a particular micro-channel geometry. The present study aims to add to the knowledge of the fundamentals of two-phase flow heat transfer in a micro-channel heat sink with parallel small passages, through analysis of the effect of different fluid properties, operational conditions and channel sizes. The database includes test results for two different fluids, deionised water and refrigerant R134a, for a total of over 1400 data points. The experimental data was compared to several correlations from literature. An observation of the two-phase flow was conducted with and without an orifice (porous insert) positioned at the inlet of micro-channels. Visualisation confirmed the existence of the back flow, flow instability and non-uniform flow distribution among the channels (maldistribution) when the porous insert was removed. Flow patterns in the micro- channels and their evolution with increasing heat flux were observed. Keywords: Two-phase flows, micro-channel, heat transfer, pressure drop, flow pattern.

Master of Science<br>Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering<br>Steven Eckels<br>The current research presents the experimental investigation of heat transfer and flow characteristics of sonic multiphase flow in a converging-diverging nozzle. R134a and R123 are used in this study. Four different nozzle assemblies with two different throat sizes (2.43mm and 1.5 mm with 1° growth angle with the centerline of the nozzle in the diverging section) and two different heater lengths (200 mm and 125 mm) were tested. Each test section was an assembly of aluminum nozzle sections. The experimental facility design allowed controlling three variables: throat velocity, inlet temperature, back pressure saturation temperature. The analysis used to find the average heat transfer of the fluid to each nozzle section. This was achieved by measuring the nozzle wall temperature and fluid pressure in a steady state condition. Two methods for finding the average heat flux in sonic nozzle were included in the data analysis: infinite contact resistance and zero contact resistance between nozzle sections. The input variables ranges were 25 °C and 30 °C for inlet temperature and back pressure saturation temperatures, 1100-60,000 kg/m[superscript]2s for mass flux, and 1.4-700 kW/m[superscript]2 heat flux. The effect of the mass flux and heat flux on the average two-phase heat transfer coefficients was investigated. The flow quality, Mach number(M), and Nusselt number ratio ([phi]) were also calculated for each section of the nozzle. As the fluid flowed through the nozzle, the pressure of the liquid dropped below the inlet saturation pressure of the liquid due to sonic expansion in the nozzle. This temperature drop was significantly lower in the case of R134a than R123. The results showed that the two-phase heat transfer coefficients were above of 30000 W/m^2 K in the first 75 mm of the nozzle, and they decreased along the nozzle. The Mach number profile appeared similar to the temperature profile, and the fluid was in the sonic region as long as temperature of the fluid dropped in the nozzle. Nusselt number ratios were compared with the Mach numbers and showed that the Nusselt number ratio were increased in the sonic region. The results showed that the length of the sonic region was larger for R123 than for R134a, and the Mach numbers were higher for R123. The Nusselt ratios of R123 were low compared to the R134a cases, and the trend in the Nusselt ratios was notably different as well.

This experimental study explores the heat transfer from heated bare and finned tubular surfaces to particulates in packed bed cross flow. The results from this experiment will be used to help select the type of particulates that will be used. Additionally, these results will assist in estimating heat transfer in prototype and commercial particle to fluid heat exchangers (PFHX). This research is part of larger effort in the use of particulates in concentrating solar power technology. These solid particles are heated by concentrated sunlight to very high temperatures at which they are a suitable heat source for various thermal power and thermochemical cycles. Furthermore, one of the advantages of this concept is the ability to store thermal energy in the solid particles at relatively low cost. However, an important feature of any Particle Heat Receiver (PHR) system is the PFHX, which is the interface between the solar energy system and the thermal power or chemical system. In order to create this system material data is needed for the design and optimization of this PFHX. The paper focuses on the heat transfer properties of particulates to solid surfaces under plug flow conditions. The particulates will be evaluated for three grain sizes of sand and two grain sizes of proppants. These two materials will be tested at one, five and ten millimeters per second in order to see how the various flow rates, which will be required for different loads, will affect the heat transfer coefficient. Finally the heat transfer coefficient will also be evaluated for both finned and non-finned heat exchangers to see the effect that changes in the surface geometry and surface area have on the heat transfer coefficient. The heat transfer coefficient will help determine the appropriate material that will be used in the PHR system.

Three applications of two-phase flow and heat transfer in plate-fin heat exchangers have been studied. A dephlegmator is a heat exchanger in which reflux condensation of a vapour mixture occurs, and plate-fln versions have importance in cryogenic gas separation processes. Numerical calculations for different binary mixtures show that the number of transfer units can be expressed as a simple function of the inlet vapour state and flow rate, heat load, and channel geometry. The calculations also show that the vapour and liquid exit compositions tend to limiting values as the number of transfer units increase. These limiting values correspond to liquid leaving the exchanger in equilibrium with the vapour entering. The effect of surface tension on liquid running down the rectangular passages of plate-fin exchangers is to draw it to the corners leaving less liquid on the walls and possible dry-out. A comparison of two CFD calculations with and without surface tension shows that effect can be significant. For a liquid with a surface tension only 1% that of water, about 50% more mass flows down the corner region of a square duct of side 0.944 mm. This transfer of liquid to the corner takes place in the first millimetre of flow downwards. Experimental measurements of pressure drop were taken for air and air-water flow through eight different plate-fin pads. The two-phase pressure drops for the serrated fin were two to five times larger than those for the plain fin. However, the effect of increasing the water flow rate at a fixed air flow rate was to increase the pressure drop by up to 75% in both cases. Over 200 two-phase pressure drops measurements were made, nearly all of the data were predicted to within 20% by the Lockhart and Martinelli (1949) correlation with C factor of 12.

2012/2013<br>The exploitation of geothermal heat by ground source heat pumps is presently growing throughout Europe and the world. In Italy, at the end of 2010, borehole heat exchangers covered most of the 30% of the total energy used for space conditioning, showing an increase of 50%compared to 2005. The forecasts for 2015 suggest a further increase in the direct uses of the geothermal heat exceeding 50% compared to 2010 and a corresponding increase in the geothermal energy consumption. The possibility to design plants with higher efficiency and lower costs of installation and operation is required, to support the growth of the ground source heat pump systems and the consequent diffusion of the exploitation of the geothermal resources. Research and better knowledge of the processes involved in the heat transfer between the borehole heat exchanger and the surrounding ground is crucial to predict the behavior of the plant-geothermal source interaction in any possible operational condition. The knowledge of the hydrogeological characteristics of the specific site where the plant has to be installed is also essential to prevent over- or under-sizing of the heat exchanger(s) due to a rough design. Over the years, several analytical solutions have been proposed to calculate the temperature distribution around a borehole heat exchanger during operation. The infinite line source analytical model considers an infinite linear heat source which exchanges heat with the surrounding ground by conduction only. Other models, based on the infinite linear heat source, have been later developed, considering also the contribution to the conductive heat transfer due to groundwater flow. The presence of flowing water around a borehole heat exchanger implies forced convection, resulting in an increased efficiency of the heat transfer between the ground and the borehole heat exchanger. Studying this process may suggest new ways to improve the efficiency and to reduce the cost of ground source heat pump systems. In this thesis, the contribution of groundwater flow in the heat transfer process between borehole heat exchangers and surrounding ground has been investigated, in order to increase the theoretical knowledge as well as to improve the existing design tools. Two-dimensional models have been considered, taking into account the actual cylindrical geometry of the borehole. The groundwater flow has been modeled as steady, horizontal and with variable flow rates, in order to encompass most of the real ground source heat pump applications. Gravitational effects, i.e. the effects of a possible natural convection, have been neglected. The results suggest that in the considered range of Darcy number, the calculation of the heat transfer efficiency is not affected if Darcynian model is used to describe the velocity field, although the viscous effects, and consequently the formation of the hydraulic boundary layer, are neglected. Calculations made using numerical simulations are compared with an analytical solution which takes into account forced convection due to groundwater flow and based on the linear heat source model. The regions of space and time where this analytical solution is affected by the effects of the line source assumption, in both cases of single- and multiple-borehole(s) systems, have been defined. The potential of the thermal response test analysis as a tool to predict the spacing between boreholes when groundwater flow occurs has been investigated, defining and studying the Influence Length as function of groundwater flow rate. The results suggest that even relatively low flow rates allow to reduce significantly the spacing between boreholes in the perpendicular direction with respect to groundwater flow. The distance from the borehole where the temperature disturbance becomes not-significant (Influence Length) is roughly predictable by thermal response test analysis. The study of the Influence Length may be a useful tool in the design of dissipative multiple-boreholes systems, as well as in areas with a high density of single-borehole plants, to reduce the spacing avoiding thermal interferences. Moreover, an expeditious, graphical method to estimate the hydraulic conductivity of the ground by thermal response test analysis has been proposed. An example of application of the methodology is presented, taking into account experimental data as well as plausible hydrological and petrological assumptions when the data are unavailable. The obtained result is in agreement with the hydraulic conductivity range reported in literature for the type of substrate considered in the example. In order to verify this method, further inv1estigations and developments are required. In fact, the graphs used in the procedure presented in this work are referred to specific borehole conditions (borehole filled by groundwater) and are based on two-dimensional models (i.e. end-effects and natural convection are neglected). Besides, the assumptions required to compensate the unavailable data imply that the method cannot be considered verified. Finally, further studies are suggested in order to improve and develop the proposed methods.<br>Negli ultimi anni, l’utilizzo del calore geotermico tramite pompe di calore accoppiate al terreno sta aumentando significativamente in tutta Europa e in generale nel mondo. In Italia, alla fine del 2010, le sonde geotermiche coprivano più del 30% dell’energia totale utilizzata per riscaldamento e raffrescamento degli edifici, mostrando un aumento del 50% rispetto al 2005. Le previsioni per il 2015 suggeriscono un ulteriore aumento degli utilizzi diretti del calore geotermico maggiore del 50% rispetto al 2010 e un analogo incremento del consumo di energia geotermica in generale. Con l’aumento della diffusione di questa tecnologia, e quindi un maggior sfruttamento di tale risorsa, aumenta anche la necessità di progettare impianti con la massima efficienza possibile e con bassi costi di installazione ed esercizio. La comprensione dei processi coinvolti nel trasferimento di calore tra sonda geotermica e terreno circostante è fondamentale per prevedere il comportamento degli impianti. Anche la conoscenza delle caratteristiche idrogeologiche del sito specifico nel quale l’impianto deve essere installato è essenziale al fine di evitare un’errata progettazione che può causare sovra- o sotto-dimensionamento della sonda. Nel corso degli anni, diverse soluzioni analitiche sono state proposte per calcolare la distribuzione di temperatura attorno alla sonda geotermica durante il suo utilizzo. Il modello analitico della sorgente di calore lineare e infinita considera lo scambio di calore che avviene per sola conduzione attorno ad una sorgente di raggio infinitesimo e di lunghezza infinita. Altri modelli successivi a questo e anch’essi basati sulla sorgente di calore lineare ed infinita, tengono conto anche del contributo convettivo dovuto al flusso dell’acqua di falda. La presenza di un flusso di acqua attorno ad una sonda geotermica, infatti, comporta convezione forzata e, di conseguenza, un aumento dello scambio di calore tra sonda e terreno. Per questo motivo, lo studio degli effetti di tale processo è un fattore chiave per riuscire a migliorare l’efficienza degli scambiatori di calore accoppiati al terreno. Questa tesi presenta lo studio del contributo del flusso delle acque di falda sul processodi scambio termico tra sonde geotermiche e terreno circostante, al fine di incrementare la conoscenza teorica e migliorare gli strumenti di progettazione già esistenti. Per raggiungere questo scopo ci si è serviti di modelli numerici bi-dimensionali che tengono conto della reale geometria cilindrica della sonda. Il fusso delle acque di falda è stato assunto come stazionale e orizzontale. Al fine di includere la maggior parte delle applicazioni geotermiche reali, un vasto range di portate è stato preso in considerazione. Gli effetti gravitativi, e quindi i possibili effetti di convezione naturale, sono stati invece trascurati. Sono stati confrontati i risultati del calcolo del trasferimento di calore ottenuti utilizzando rispettivamente l’equazione di Darcy e l’equazione di Darcy-Brinkman per descrivere il campo di velocità dell’acqua di falda attorno alla sonda. Le conclusioni raggiunte suggeriscono che utilizzando il modello di Darcy, il risultato risulta comunque sufficientemente accurato per i numeri di Darcy considerati, nonostante gli effetti viscosi, e quindi la formazione dello strato-limite fluidodinamico, vengano trascurati. I risultati delle simulazioni numeriche sono stati comparati con un modello analitico che prevede convezione forzata, dovuta al flusso di falda, attorno ad una sorgente di calore lineare ed infinita. Sono quindi state definite le regioni dello spazio e del tempo dove tale soluzione analitica è soggetta agli effetti della linearit`a della sorgente, sia nel caso di sonda singola, sia nel caso di campo-sonde. Sono inoltre state studiate le potenzialità dell’analisi del test di risposta termica come strumento per prevedere la spaziatura tra le sonde in funzione della portata del flusso dell’acqua di falda. I risultati suggeriscono che portate relativamente modeste, permettono una riduzione significativa della spazitura tra le sonde in direzione perpendicolare rispetto a quella di scorrimento dell’acqua di falda. Sfruttando l’analisi del test di risposta termica, è possibile stimare approssimativamente la distanza dalla sonda alla quale il disturbo di temperatura diventa trascurabile (distanza di influenza). Lo studio di questa distanza di influenza pu`o essere un utile strumento per la progettazione di sistemi dissipativi composti da sonde multiple, così come nelle aree con un’alta densità di impianti a sonda singola, al fine di ridurre la spaziatura tra le sonde, evitando allo stesso tempo l’insorgere di interferenze termiche tra sonde adiacenti. Inoltre è stato proposto un metodo grafico e speditivo per la stima della conducibilità idraulica del substrato tramite l’analisi del test di risposta termica. È stato presentato un esempio dell’applicazione di questa metodologia utilizzando sia dati sperimentali sia assunzioni plausibili di carattere idrologico e petrologico, quando non è stato possibile avvalersi di dati sperimentali. I risultati ottenuti sono in accordo con i valori di conducibilità idraulica proposti in letteratura per il tipo di substrato dell’esempio. Per poter verificare l’affidabilità di questo metodo, ulteriori studi e sviluppi sono sono necessari. Infatti, i grafici utilizzati nella procedura presentata in questa tesi, si riferiscono a specifiche condizioni della sonda (acqua di falda come materiale di riempimento) e sono inoltre basati su modelli bi-dimensionali (trascurando quindi gli effetti di fine-pozzo e il contributo della convezione naturale). Infine vengono forniti suggerimenti riguardo ulteriori studi che consentirebbero di migliorare e sviluppare ulteriormente le metodologie proposte.<br>XXVI Ciclo<br>1985

Modern nuclear reactors still use Zirconium-4 Alloy (Zircaloy®) as the cladding material for fuel elements. A substantial amount of research has been done to investigate the boiling heat transfer behind the cooling mechanism of the reactor. Boiling heat transfer is notoriously difficult to quantify in an acceptable manner and many empirical correlations have been derived in order to achieve some semblance of a mathematical model. It is well known that the surface conditions on the heat transfer surface plays a role in the formulation of the heat transfer coefficient but on the other hand it also has an effect on the pressure drop alongside the surface. It is therefore necessary to see whether there might be an optimum surface roughness that maximises heat transfer and still provides acceptably low pressure drop. The purpose of this study was to experimentally measure pressure drop and heat transfer associated with vertical heated tubes surrounded by flowing water in order to produce flow boiling heat transfer. The boiling heat transfer data was used to ascertain what surface roughness range would be best for everyday functioning of nuclear reactors. An experimental set-up was designed and built, which included a removable panel that could be used to secure a variety of rods with different surface roughnesses. The pressure drop, surface temperature, flow rate and heat input measurements were taken and captured in order to analyse the heat transfer and friction factors. Four rods were manufactured with different roughnesses along with a fifth rod, which remained standard. These rods were tested in the flow loop with water in the upward flow direction. Three different system mass flow rates were used: 0kg/s, 3.2kg/s and 6.4kg/s. Six repetitions were done on each rod for the tests; the first repetition was not used in the results since it served the purpose to deaerate the water in the flow loop. The full range of the power input was used for each repetition in the tests. For the heat transfer coefficient at a system mass flow rate of 3.2kg/s, satisfactory comparisons were made between the test results and those found in literature with an average deviation of 14.53%. At 6.4kg/s system mass flow rate the comparisons deviated on average 55.45%. The velocity of the fluid in the test section was calculated from the pressure drop and was validated using separate tests. The plain rod, with no added roughness, was found to be the optimal surface roughness which is what is used in industry today. The flow loop was in need of a couple of redesigns in order to produce more accurate results. Future work suggestions include adding more rods in the test section in order to investigate the nature of heat transfer in a rod bundle array as well as implementing all the suggested changes listed in the conclusion.<br>Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2017.<br>Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering<br>MEng<br>Unrestricted

In this research, an elastic cylinder that utilized vortex-induced vibration (VIV) was applied to improve convective heat transfer rates by disrupting the thermal boundary layer. Rigid and elastic cylinders were placed across a fluid channel. Vortex shedding around the cylinder led to the periodic vibration of the cylinder. As a result, the flow-structure interaction (FSI) increased the disruption of the thermal boundary layer, and therefore, improved the mixing process at the boundary. This study aims to improve convective heat transfer rate by increasing the perturbation in the fluid flow. A three-dimensional numerical model was constructed to simulate the effects of different flow channel geometries, including a channel with a stationary rigid cylinder, a channel with a elastic cylinder, a channel with two elastic cylinders of the same diameter, and a channel with two elastic cylinders of different diameters. Through the numerical simulations, the channel maximum wall temperature was found to be reduced by approximately 10% with a stationary cylinder and by around 17% when introducing an elastic cylinder in the channel compared with the channel without the cylinder. Channels with two-cylinder conditions were also studied in the current research. The additional cylinder with the same diameter in the fluid channel only reduced the surface wall temperature by 3% compared to the channel without any cylinders because the volume of the second cylinder could occupy some space, and therefore, reduce the effect of the convective heat transfer. By reducing the diameter of the second cylinder by 25% increased the effect of the convection heat transfer and reduced the maximum wall temperature by around 15%. Compared to the channel with no cylinder, the introduction of cylinders into the channel flow was found to increase the average Nusselt number by 55% with the insertion of a stationary rigid cylinder, by 85% with the insertion of an elastic cylinder, by 58% with the insertion of two cylinders of the same diameter, and by approximately 70% with the insertion of two cylinders of different diameters (the second cylinder having the smaller diameter). Furthermore, it was also found that the maximum local Nusselt number could be enhanced by around 200%-400% at the entrance of the fluid channel by using the elastic cylinders compared to the channel without cylinders.

A three-dimensional finite difference code was developed to simulate fluid flow and heat transfer phenomena in continuous casting processes. The mathematical model describes steady state transport phenomena in a three dimensional solution domain that involves: turbulent fluid flow, natural and forced convection, conduction, release of latent heat at the solidus surface, and tracing of unknown location of liquid/solid interface. The governing differential equations are discretized using a finite volume method and a hybrid central, upwind differencing scheme. A fully three-dimensional ADI-like iterative procedure is used to solve the discretized algebraic equations for each dependent variable. The whole system of interlinked equations is solved by the SIMPLE algorithm. The developed computer code was used for parametric studies of continuous casting of aluminum. The results were compared against available experimental data. This numerical simulation enhances understanding of the fluid flow and heat transfer phenomena in continuous casting processes and can be used as a tool to optimize technologies for continuous casting of metals.<br>Applied Science, Faculty of<br>Mechanical Engineering, Department of<br>Graduate

Different types of base fluids, such as water, engine oil, kerosene, ethanol, methanol, ethylene glycol etc. are usually used to increase the heat transfer performance in many engineering applications. But these conventional heat transfer fluids have often several limitations. One of those major limitations is that the thermal conductivity of each of these base fluids is very low and this results a lower heat transfer rate in thermal engineering systems. Such limitation also affects the performance of different equipments used in different heat transfer process industries. To overcome such an important drawback, researchers over the years have considered a new generation heat transfer fluid, simply known as nanofluid with higher thermal conductivity. This new generation heat transfer fluid is a mixture of nanometre-size particles and different base fluids. Different researchers suggest that adding spherical or cylindrical shape of uniform/non-uniform nanoparticles into a base fluid can remarkably increase the thermal conductivity of nanofluid. Such augmentation of thermal conductivity could play a more significant role in enhancing the heat transfer rate than that of the base fluid. Nanoparticles diameters used in nanofluid are usually considered to be less than or equal to 100 nm and the nanoparticles concentration usually varies from 5% to 10%. Different researchers mentioned that the smaller nanoparticles concentration with size diameter of 100 nm could enhance the heat transfer rate more significantly compared to that of base fluids. But it is not obvious what effect it will have on the heat transfer performance when nanofluids contain small size nanoparticles of less than 100 nm with different concentrations. Besides, the effect of static and moving nanoparticles on the heat transfer of nanofluid is not known too. The idea of moving nanoparticles brings the effect of Brownian motion of nanoparticles on the heat transfer. The aim of this work is, therefore, to investigate the heat transfer performance of nanofluid using a combination of smaller size of nanoparticles with different concentrations considering the Brownian motion of nanoparticles. A horizontal pipe has been considered as a physical system within which the above mentioned nanofluid performances are investigated under transition to turbulent flow conditions. Three different types of numerical models, such as single phase model, Eulerian-Eulerian multi-phase mixture model and Eulerian-Lagrangian discrete phase model have been used while investigating the performance of nanofluids. The most commonly used model is single phase model which is based on the assumption that nanofluids behave like a conventional fluid. The other two models are used when the interaction between solid and fluid particles is considered. However, two different phases, such as fluid and solid phases is also considered in the Eulerian-Eulerian multi-phase mixture model. Thus, these phases create a fluid-solid mixture. But, two phases in the Eulerian-Lagrangian discrete phase model are independent. One of them is a solid phase and the other one is a fluid phase. In addition, RANS (Reynolds Average Navier Stokes) based Standard κ-ω and SST κ-ω transitional models have been used for the simulation of transitional flow. While the RANS based Standard κ-ϵ, Realizable κ-ϵ and RNG κ-ϵ turbulent models are used for the simulation of turbulent flow. Hydrodynamic as well as temperature behaviour of transition to turbulent flows of nanofluids through the horizontal pipe is studied under a uniform heat flux boundary condition applied to the wall with temperature dependent thermo-physical properties for both water and nanofluids. Numerical results characterising the performances of velocity and temperature fields are presented in terms of velocity and temperature contours, turbulent kinetic energy contours, surface temperature, local and average Nusselt numbers, Darcy friction factor, thermal performance factor and total entropy generation. New correlations are also proposed for the calculation of average Nusselt number for both the single and multi-phase models. Result reveals that the combination of small size of nanoparticles and higher nanoparticles concentrations with the Brownian motion of nanoparticles shows higher heat transfer enhancement and thermal performance factor than those of water. Literature suggests that the use of nanofluids flow in an inclined pipe at transition to turbulent regimes has been ignored despite its significance in real-life applications. Therefore, a particular investigation has been carried out in this thesis with a view to understand the heat transfer behaviour and performance of an inclined pipe under transition flow condition. It is found that the heat transfer rate decreases with the increase of a pipe inclination angle. Also, a higher heat transfer rate is found for a horizontal pipe under forced convection than that of an inclined pipe under mixed convection.

Flow characteristics including resonance phenomena, bubble phenomena, particle circulation and mixing patterns as well as surface-to-bed heat transfer in aerated vibrated beds were studied experimentally. Beds of various model particles were vibrated in the vertical direction with a frequency varying from 0-25 Hz and half-amplitude from 0-4 mm. Alumina, glass beads and molecular sieve particles of sizes ranging from 6 $ mu$m to 3600 $ mu$m were used as the model particles. Air flow rates through holes in the bottom plates varied from 0 to 4 times the minimum fluidizing velocity with one, five or a multiplicity of holes. The resonance phenomenon was characterized by a sudden bed expansion and intense surface agitation; this phenomenon was generally observed only in beds of small particles (d$ sb{ rm p}$ $<$ 250 $ mu$m). Bubble sizes increased while the bubble rise velocities decreased with increasing vibration frequency. An analytical model was developed to predict the resonant frequency assuming that the aerated vibrated bed behaves as a porous piston undergoing reciprocating motion at the applied frequency. Contact heat transfer between an immersed circular cylinder and the vibrated bed was found to be a function of particle circulation which, in turn, depends on the vibration parameters. Particle circulation is maximal at the point at which the bed displayed resonant behaviour. The cylinder-to-bed heat transfer coefficient is also maximal at resonance. A correlation is proposed for the surface-to-bed heat transfer based on these features.

Boiling in microchannels is a very efficient mode of heat transfer with high heat and mass transfer coefficients achieved. Less pumping power is required for two-phase flows than for single-phase liquid flows to achieve a given heat removal. Applications include electronics cooling such as cooling microchips in laptop computers, and process intensification with compact evaporators and heat exchangers. Evaporation of the liquid meniscus is the main contributor to the high heat fluxes achieved due to phase change at thin liquid films in a microchannel. The microscale hydrodynamic motion at the meniscus and the flow boiling heat transfer mechanisms in microchannels are not fully understood and are very different from those in macroscale flows. Flow instability phenomena are noted as the bubble diameter approaches the channel diameter. These instabilities need to be well understood and predicted due to their adverse effects on the heat transfer. A fundamental approach to the study of two-phase flow boiling in microchannels has been carried out. Simultaneous visualisation and hydrodynamic measurements were carried out investigating flow boiling instabilities in microchannels using two different working fluids (n-Pentane and FC-72). Rectangular, borosilicate microchannels of hydraulic diameter range 700-800 μm were used. The novel heating method, via electrical resistance through a transparent, metallic deposit on the microchannel walls, has enabled simultaneous heating and visualisation to be achieved. Images and video sequences have been recorded with both a high-speed camera and an IR camera. Bubble dynamics, bubble confinement and elongated bubble growth have been shown and correlated to the temporal pressure fluctuations. Both periodic and nonperiodic instabilities have been observed during flow boiling in the microchannel. Analysis of the IR images in conjunction with pressure drop readings, have allowed the correlation of the microchannel pressure drop to the wall temperature profile, during flow instabilities. Bubble size is an important parameter when understanding boiling characteristics and the dynamic bubble phenomena. In this thesis it has been demonstrated that the flow passage geometry and microchannel confinement effects have a significant impact on boiling, bubble generation and bubble growth during flow boiling in microchannels.

A detailed investigation of swirling flow in an axisymmetric pipe has been undertaken and the findings from both an experimental and analytical research programme have been reported in this thesis. The study was divided into two sections, firstly that concerning isothermal flow, before extending it to account for heat transfer resulting from swirling flow within a heated pipe. An experimental test-rig was manufactured to permit a detailed interrogation of all flow variables. The rig incorporated a specially designed swirl generator, fitted to the inlet of a perspex circular pipe, enabling varying intensities of swirl flow to be stimulated over a Reynolds number range of 20-60 x 10<SUP>3</SUP>. An identical pipe, manufactured out of copper, enabled a constant heat flux to be applied at its outer surface, thereby permitting a corresponding investigation of the heat transfer phenomena. An analysis of the above flow regimes was undertaken through the solution of the equations of flow and the one-equation (k-1) model together with corresponding boundary conditions, for depicting isothermal turbulent flow with swirl. For the heat transfer analysis, a solution of the energy equation with its appropriate boundary conditions was included. The solution of the mathematical model was effected by using the finite element method and discretising in three dimensions over the domain. The effect of increasing the swirl intensity results in a migration of the locus of the points of maximum axial and tangential velocity towards the pipe wall. This is accompanied by higher heat transfer rates for a constant surface heat flux. The analysis has provided a viable technique for predicting turbulent flow with low swirl intensities, exhibiting good comparisons with the experimental results over much of the flow field. The main discrepancy occurred in the region of flow reversal, where the analysis is underpredictive, a consequence of the limitation of the one-equation model in accounting for momentum transport across the boundary of zero velocity.

COORDENAÇÃO DE APERFEIÇOAMENTO DO PESSOAL DE ENSINO SUPERIOR<br>O presente trabalho investigou numericamente e experimentalmente as características de transferência de calor e queda de pressão de um escoamento espiralado, turbulento, de caindo através de um duto retangular de elevada razão de aspecto. A condição de escoamento espiralado na estrada do duto foi obtida por meio de tubos paralelos contendo fitas torcidas de modo a produzir vórtices girando em sentidos opostos, dois a dois. Coeficientes de transferência de calor locais e médios foram determinados através da utilização da técnica de sublimação de naftaleno em conjunto com a anologia entre processos de transferência de calor e massa. Os valores locais foram medidos sobre toda a superfície ativa do duto, com o auxílio de uma mesa de coordenadas controlada por microcomputador. Resultados para os coeficientes transferência de calor e da queda de pressão foram obtidas para três valores do número de Reynolds do duto e para três valores da intensidade do escoamento espiralado, dados pela utilização de fitas torcidas com diferentes relações de passo/diâmetro. Para posições axiais próximas da entrada do duto, os resultados revelaram altas taxas de aumento na transferência de calor, relativamente ao caso base, representado por escoamento turbulento sem a imposição do escoamento espiralado. Os resultados para a queda de pressão demonstraram que a presença da componente tangencial da velocidade do escoamento espiralado imposto reduziu os efeitos de recuperação de pressão existentes na região de entrada de dutos com entrada abrupta. Foi também verificado que o comprimento de desenvolvimento hidrodinâmico do escoamento aumenta com a intensidade do escoamento espiralado. As equações de conservação de massa , movimento linear e energia, incorporadndo o modelo de turbulência K – E foram resolvidas numericamente para a configuração em estudo. Os resultados numéricos apresentaram boa concordância com os experimentos, permitindo a<br>The presente work investigated experimentally and numerically the heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of turbulent decaying swirl flows through a rectangular duct of high aspect ratio. The swirl flow inlet condition was obtained by a set of parallel tubes with twisted-tape inserts wich produced pairs of counterrotating vortices. Local and average heat transfer coefficients were determined by the utilization of the naphthalene sublimation technique in conjunction with the analogy between heat and mass transfer. Local result were obtained along the whole active surface of the duct, utilizing a computer-assisted coordinate table and depth gage. The study encompassed the investigation of the local and average heat transfer coefficient distribution and pressure drop, for three values of the duct Reynolds number, and for three values of the swirl intensity given by different tape pitch-to-diameter rations. The results showed regions of high heat transfer augmentation situated close to the entrance of the duct, when compared to the base case results characterized by turbulent flow through a duct without the swirl flow inlet condition. The pressure drop results demonstrated that the presence of the tangencial velocity component of the imposed swirl flow was seen to reduce the pressure recover effect present in sharp-edged entrance ducts. It was also verifyied that the hydroninamic developing length increases with the intensity of the swirl flow. The equations governing conservation of mass, linear momentum and energy were solved numerically for the configuration investigated. The K-E turbulence model was employed. The numerical results displayed good agreement with the experiments and provided additional information related to velocity and temperature fields which complemented the experimental program.

A theoretical study of convective heat transfer is presented for a laminar flow subjected to an axial variation in the external heat transfer coefficient (or dimensionless Biot number). Since conventional techniques fail for a variable boundary condition parameter, a variable eigenfunction approach is developed. An analysis is carried out for a periodic heat transfer coefficient, which serves as a model for heat transfer from a duct fitted with an array of evenly spaced fins. Three solution methods for the variable eigenfunction technique are examined: an Nth order approximation method, an iterative method and a stepwise periodic method. The stepwise periodic method provides the most convenient and accurate solution for a stepwise periodic Biot number. Graphical results match exactly to ones obtained by Charmchi and Sparrow from a finite-difference scheme. A connected region technique is also developed to provide limited exact results to test the validity of the three solution methods. The study of a finned duct by a stepwise periodic Biot number is carried out via a parametric study, an average (constant) Biot number approximation and an assumed velocity profile analysis. Results for the parametric study show that external finning yields substantial heat transfer enhancement over an unfinned duct, especially when the Biot number of the unfinned regions is low. A decrease in the interfin spacing causes increased enhancement. Variations of the period of the Biot number causes relatively small changes in enhancement as long as the ratio of finned to unfinned surface remains unchanged. An average (constant) Biot number approximation for a specified finned tube is compared to the stepwise periodic Biot number solution. The results show that the constant Biot number approximation provides accurate results. Finally, the results for the influence of the assumed velocity profile demonstrate that a constant velocity flow provides increased heat transfer and more effective enhancement by external finning than a laminar fully developed flow, especially at high Biot numbers. This study provides insight into heat transfer enhancement due to finning and also develops a solution methodology for problems involving variable boundary condition parameters.<br>M.S.

This thesis describes work relating to the reflood phase of a Large Break Loss-of-Coolant Accident (LB-LOCA) in Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR). Three related types of experiment have been carried in this context, namely studies of particle motion in an annulus geometry simulating drop motion in a ballooned fuel element, studies of single phase flow in a 3×3 tube bundle simulating a ballooned fuel element and studies of reflooding of a hot tube in which it was possible to photograph the region above the rewetting front using axial view photography. In the particle tracking studies, Particle Tracking Velocimetry (PTV) was used to determine typical particle tracks in an annulus test section in which the inner surface was ballooned to simulate the clad ballooning likely to occur during the reflood phase of an LB-LOCA. Excellent agreement was obtained between the measured particle tracks and ones calculated using the STAR-CD CFD code. The second set of experiments focussed on investigating the effect of pin ballooning on the vapour flow. An idealised, simulated PWR bundle containing a 3×3 rod arrangement with a central ballooned pin was designed and constructed and, using a novel isokinetic probe sampling technique, the axial deviation in mass flow of an outer sub-channel was measured. Again, good agreement was obtained between the flows measured and those calculated from the STAR-CD code. To further elucidate the rewetting process itself and the behaviour of the associated two-phase flow, an axial-viewing reflood (AVR) rig has been designed and constructed. Within this facility, experiments have been carried out to examine the thermal-hydraulic effects occurring during bottom-up reflooding of a single hot tube. A high-speed high-temperature axial viewing technique has been developed and applied to observe the quench front, and any precursory droplet production, deposition and entrainment ahead of the propagating quench front.