Gotowa bibliografia na temat „Fast Voltage Equalization”

This paper presents a hybrid equalization (EQ) topology of lithium-ion batteries (LIB). Currently, LIBs are widely used for electric mobility due to their characteristics of high energy density and multiple recharge cycles. In an electric vehicle (EV), these batteries are connected in series and/or parallel until the engine reaches the voltage and energy capacity required. For LIBs to operate safely, a battery management system (BMS) is required. This system monitors and controls voltage, current, and temperature parameters. Among the various functions of a BMS, voltage equalization is of paramount importance for the safety and useful life of LIBs. There are two main voltage equalization techniques: passive and active. Passive equalization dissipates energy, and active equalization transfers energy between the LIBs. The passive has the advantage of being simple to implement; however, it has a longer equalization time and energy loss. Active is complex to implement but has fast equalization time and lower energy loss. This paper proposes the combination of these two techniques to implement simultaneously to control a pack of LIBs, equalizing voltage between stacks and at the cell level. For this purpose, a pack of LIBs was simulated with sixty-four cells connected in series and divided into eight stacks with eight battery cells each. The rated voltage of each cell is 3.7 V, with a capacity of 106 Ah. The total pack has a voltage of 236.8 V and 25 kW. Some LIBs were fitted with different SOC values to simulate an imbalance between cells. In the simulations, different topologies were evaluated: passive and active topology at the cell level and combined active and passive equalization at the pack level. Results are compared as a response time and state of charge (SOC) level. In addition, equalization topologies are applied in an EV model with the FTP75 conduction cycle. In this way, it is possible to evaluate the autonomy of each equalization technique simulated in this work. The hybrid topology active at the stack level and passive at the module level showed promising results in equalization time and autonomy compared with a purely active or passive equalization technique. This combination is a solution to achieve low EQ time and satisfactory SOC when compared to a strictly active or passive EQ.

Batteries are widely used in our lives, but the inevitable inconsistencies in series-connected battery packs will seriously impact their energy utilization, cycle life and even jeopardize their safety in use. This paper proposes a balancing topology structure combining Buck-Boost circuit and switch array to reduce this inconsistency. This structure can realize multi-cell-to-multi-cell (MC2MC) battery balancing by controlling the switch array and having a fast balancing speed, easy expansion and few magnetic components. Then, the operation principle of the proposed balancing topology is analyzed, and the simulation model is verified. In addition, the effects of switching frequency and voltage difference on the equalization effect are further analyzed. The results show that the higher the switching frequency, the lower the time efficiency, but the higher the energy efficiency. The voltage difference significantly impacts the duty cycle, so it is absolutely necessary to introduce a variable duty cycle in the multi-cell-to-multi-cell equalization. Finally, eight series batteries are selected for simulation verification. The simulation results show that, compared with any-cell-to-any-cell (AC2AC) equalization, the time efficiency of multi-cell-to-multi-cell equalization is improved considerably, the energy efficiency is improved slightly, and the variance of the completed equalization is reduced, demonstrating the excellent performance of multi-cell-to-multi-cell equalization.

Many battery equalizers have been proposed to achieve voltage consistency between series connected battery cells. Among them, the multicell-to-multicell (MC2MC) equalizers, which can directly transfer energy from consecutive more-charged cells to less-charged cells, can enable fast balancing and a high efficiency. However, due to the limitations of the equalizers, it is not possible to achieve fast equalization and reduce the size of the circuit at the same time. Therefore, a MC2MC equalizer based on a full-bridge bipolar-resonant LC Converter (FBBRLCC) is proposed in this paper, which not only implements MC2MC equalization, but also greatly reduces the circuit size by reducing the number of switches by nearly half. A mathematical model and simulation comparison with conventional equalizers are used to illustrate the high-speed equalization performance of the proposed equalizer and excellent balancing efficiency. An experimental prototype for eight cells is built to verify the performance of the proposed FBBRLCC equalizer and the balancing efficiencies in different operating modes are from 85.19% to 88.77% with the average power from 1.888 W to 14.227 W.

Abstract It is now been over 15 years since Hybrid Photon Counting Detectors (HPCD) became one of the standard position-sensitive detectors for synchrotron light sources and X-ray detection applications. This is mainly due to their single-photon sensitivity over a high dynamic energy range and electronic noise suppression thanks to energy thresholding. To reach those performances, all HPCD pixels must feature the same electrical response against photons of the same energy. From the analysis of a monochromatic beam, in case of an ideal HPCD detector, it would be sufficient to apply a fixed voltage threshold among all pixels, positioned at half of the mean pulse amplitude to count every photon above the threshold. However, in practical cases, it must be considered that noise baselines from all pixels are not always strictly located at the same voltage level but can be spread over some voltage ranges. To address this kind of issue, most of all HPCDs apply a conventional threshold equalization method, that mainly relies on three steps; the setting of a global threshold at an arbitrary value, the identification of pixels noise baseline around that global threshold through an in-pixel threshold trimmer, and the computation of the required threshold offsets for setting all pixels at their own noise baseline at the same time. However, in case of a first-time use of an HPCD prototype, the threshold equalization might be biased by parameters that are wrongly set. Those biases can sometimes be characterized by the inability to localize some pixel noise baselines, which could be outside the voltage range of the threshold trimmer. The recovery of those biased pixels could be performed by changing the position of the global threshold, or by increasing the voltage range of the threshold trimmer. Unfortunately, both solutions could be time consuming due to the lack of information on the required steps for recovering all noise baselines. In order to overcome this issue in a reasonable time, this work introduces a pragmatic method that can be applied to HPCDs for an early and effective identification of appropriate pixels’ parameters, avoiding the need to test a high number of pixels configurations. The application of this method, at the early stage of the HPCD calibration, may drastically reduce the investigation time for finding the optimal operating parameters of HPCD prototypes.

A fast determination of cell quality after formation is challenging due to transient effects in the self-discharge measurement. This work investigated the self-discharge of NMC622/graphite single-layer pouch cells with varying anode dimensions to differentiate between SEI growth and anode overhang equalization processes. The transient self-discharge was measured directly after formation via voltage decay and for 20 weeks of calendar storage at three states-of-charge (SOC), 10%, 30%, and 50%. The transient behavior persisted for the entire measurement duration, even at a low SOC. Still, the low SOC minimized the impact of SEI growth and anode overhang equalization compared to moderate SOCs. Evaluating the coulombic efficiency from cycle aging showed a distinct capacity loss for the first cycle after storage, indicating further SEI growth, which stabilized in subsequent cycles. The aged capacity after cycling showed no significant dependence on the calendar storage, which further promotes fast self-discharge characterization at low SOC.

AbstractIn electric vehicle applications, it is necessary to use series strings of batteries since the required voltage is higher than the one that can be obtained from a single battery. Due to several factors, imbalance of batteries in these battery systems is usual and an important factor that has to be taken into account. Many balancing methods have been developed with a lot of different advantages, but all of them also have a lot of disadvantages such as complexity and/or high cost, which are the common problems that can be found in most of these equalization methods. In the present work, a low cost and very simple equalization method is proposed, in which a novel control is applied to a shunting transistor topology. It allows the transistors to regulate the amount of current that goes through each battery cell in the string depending on their State of Charge (SOC), during the charging process. This control ensures that the least charged cells to be charged faster, and the most charged ones to be charged more slowly. Design criteria are discussed and simulation results are carried out in a generic battery low power application which proves the control method. Fast equalization with a low complexity and cost is obtained

In this study, an active inductive equalizer with fast energy transfer based on adaptive balancing current control is proposed to rapidly equilibrate lithium-ion battery packs. A multiphase structure of equalizer formed by many specific parallel converter legs (PCLs) with bidirectional energy conversion serves as the power transfer stage to make the charge shuttle back and forth between the cell and sub-pack or sub-pack and sub-pack more flexible and efficient. This article focuses on dealing with the problem of slow balancing rate, which inherently arises from the reduction of balancing current as the voltage difference between the cells or sub-packs decreases, especially in the later period of equalization. An adaptive varied-duty-cycle (AVDC) algorithm is put forward here to accelerate the balance process. The devised method has taken the battery nonlinear behavior and the nonideality of circuit component into consideration and can adaptively modulate the duty cycle with the change of voltage differences to maintain balancing current nearly constant in the whole equilibrating procedure. Test results derived from simulations and experiments are provided to demonstrate the validity and effectiveness of the equalizer prototype constructed. Comparing with the conventional fixed duty cycle (FDC) method, the improvements of 68.3% and 8.3% in terms of balance time and efficiency have been achieved.

This article developed a coupled inductor balancing method to overcome cell voltage variation among cells in series, for Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries in Electrical Vehicles (EV). For an "eight cells in series" example, the developed balance circuit has four inductors, one magnetic circuit with one winding per two cells, and one control switch per cell, as compared to the traditional inductor-based equalizer that needs N-1 inductors and magnetic circuits for N number of cells and more switches. Therefore, ultimately, a more efficient, cost-effective circuit and low bill of materials (BOM) will be built up. All switches are logic-level N-Channel metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) and they are controlled by a pair of complementary signals in a synchronous trigger pattern. In the proposed topology, less components and fast equalization are achieved compared to the conventional battery management system (BMS) technique for electrical vehicles based on the inductor balancing method. This scheme is suitable for fast equalization due to the inductor-based balancing method. The inductors are made with a well-chosen winding ratio and all are coupled with one magnetic core with an air gap. Theoretical derivation of the proposed circuit was well-presented, and numerical simulation relevant to the electrochemical storage devices was conducted to show the validity of the proposed balance circuit. A complete balance circuit was built to verify that the proposed circuit could resolve imbalance problems which existed inside battery modules.

Lithium-ion batteries have now become an essential constituent of the Electrical Power System of solar-powered satellites due to their high energy density, wider operating temperature range , and better radiation tolerance. For the compact realization and better space utilization, the series-parallel connected Li-ion batteries are operated with currents close to the design limit of the cells. This consequently speeds up the increase in the inherent initial imbalance in the individual cell voltages in a series connected stack, demanding fast equalization. Active multicell-to-multicell equalization achieves fast equalization by efficient charge transfer among multiple cells in the series connected stack. PS-MAHB equalizer is a multicell-to-multicell equalizer, with its open-loop control maintaining high equalization current throughout the equalization. Its soft-switched operation and modularization abilities make it an attractive choice for space applications. However, it lacks the necessary protective features and redundancy essential for its use in space applications. Hence, Modified PS-MAHB (MPS-MAHB) equalizer is developed by incorporating necessary protection features and redundancy in the PS-MAHB equalizer. The Failure Mode Impact Analysis of the MPS-MAHB equalizer reveals that during the most likely switch short circuit failure mode, the faulty part of the equalizer is disconnected by the protective device and the circuit redundancy does not let the cell get out of the equalization. The existing static phase shift-based control of the equalizer causes direct dependency of the equalization currents on the cell voltages and limits the equalization current levels to lower than the design equalization current value when the cell voltages are lower. Thus, the control works with a reduced rate of equalization and causes the under-utilization of the equalizer hardware for a significant duration of time in the charge-discharge cycle. A dynamic phase shift-based control is proposed to maximize the equalization current through the cells irrespective of the cell voltages to further increase the rate of equalization, and improve the equalizer hardware utilization. In the simulation, a significant improvement in the equalization rate compared to the static phase shift control is verified with the proposed dynamic phase shift based-control. The compact hardware realization of the equalizer hardware and the voltage sensor board addresses the space-volume constraints in satellite applications. The compact realization of 4-cell equalizer modules is achieved by pushing the switching frequency to 1MHz thereby reducing the values of the passive components. The challenges faced during the PCB design of the 4-cell equalizer module are discussed. A non-isolated high-precision op-amp-based voltage sensing scheme is developed to target the equalization band close to 10mV. The concept of an easy-to-design motherboard-based interface is implemented, which does not require any changes in the design of the 4-cell equalizer module and the voltage sensor board, irrespective of the cell connector geometry. The experimental results verify the operation of the equalizer showing the convergence of cell voltages from the initial imbalance of 300mV to the band of 10mV. The impact of the non-ideal dynamic response of the Li-ion cell voltage on the voltage-sensing-based control algorithm is discussed along with the necessary modifications brought in the control.
ISRO-IISc Space Technology Cell, ISTC/EEE/VJ/439