Kliknij ten link, aby zobaczyć inne rodzaje publikacji na ten temat: Fairlop Fair.
Książki na temat „Fairlop Fair”
Utwórz poprawne odniesienie w stylach APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard i wielu innych
Sprawdź 49 najlepszych książek naukowych na temat „Fairlop Fair”.
Przycisk „Dodaj do bibliografii” jest dostępny obok każdej pracy w bibliografii. Użyj go – a my automatycznie utworzymy odniesienie bibliograficzne do wybranej pracy w stylu cytowania, którego potrzebujesz: APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago, Vancouver itp.
Możesz również pobrać pełny tekst publikacji naukowej w formacie „.pdf” i przeczytać adnotację do pracy online, jeśli odpowiednie parametry są dostępne w metadanych.
Przeglądaj książki z różnych dziedzin i twórz odpowiednie bibliografie.
1
Codell, Esmé Raji. Fairly fairy tales. New York: Aladdin, 2011.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
2
Atanu, Roy, red. Wingless: A fairly weird fairy tale. New Delhi: IndiaInk, 2003.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
3
Clayton, James Lee. Fairly fractured fairy tales for discerning adults and precocious children. Lakeland, Fla: Puttrow Books, 1998.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
4
Scieszka, Jon. The Stinky Cheese Man and Other Fairly Stupid Tales. New York (NY): Penguin Publishing Group (est. 1935), 1992.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
5
Scieszka, Jon. The Stinky Cheese Man and Other Fairly Stupid Tales. New York, N.Y., U.S.A: Viking, 1992.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
6
Trading, Great Britain Office of Fair. Trading malpractice: A report by the Director General of Fair Trading following consideration of proposals for a general duty to trade fairly. (London): Office of Fair Trading, 1990.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
7
Great Britain. Office of Fair Trading., red. Trading malpractices: A report by the Director General of Fair Trading following consideration of proposals for a general duty to trade fairly. [London]: Office of Fair Trading, 1989.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
8
Mayer, Rosemary. 'Fairly Green' Fall Fair. Lulu Press, Inc., 2015.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
9
Codell, Esmé Raji, i Elisa Chavarri. Fairly Fairy Tales. Simon & Schuster, Limited, 2011.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
10
Heard, Kate Poels; Tom. Fairly Scary Fairy. Maverick Arts Publishing, 2023.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
11
Fairly Royal Fairy Wedding. Austin Macauley Publishers Ltd., 2017.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
12
Kayley, Eunice. Fairly Royal Fairy Wedding. Austin Macauley Publishers Ltd., 2017.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
13
Kincade, Shavahna. Fairy Light Fairly Glow. Ormond, Jennifer, 2023.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
14
Tamini, Tuansi. FAIRL: The Old World. BookSurge Publishing, 2007.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
15
My Fairly Dangerous Godmother: My Fair Godmother #3. Rally Point Press, 2015.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
16
Brams, Steven J. Fair Division. Redaktorzy Donald A. Wittman i Barry R. Weingast. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199548477.003.0024.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This article provides a review of the literature on fair division, which has flourished in recent years. It focuses on three different literatures in the field: the allocation of several indivisible goods, the division of a single heterogeneous good, and the division, in whole or in part, of several divisible goods. The article discusses problems that arise in allocating indivisible goods, and highlights the trade-offs that must be made when not all of the criteria of fairness can be satisfied at the same time. It also describes and provides the procedures for dividing divisible goods fairly, which is based on different criteria of fairness.
17
Anand, Paro. Wingless ; A Fairly Weird Fairy Tale. Indiaink Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., 2003.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
18
Fairy Tales Fairly Told 2nd Edition. lulu.com, 2012.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
19
Vanderschraaf, Peter. Playing Fair. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199832194.003.0005.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Norms requiring individuals to treat their partners fairly can evolve even in populations that lack well-defined identity groups. The emergence of fairness equilibria in the bargaining problem and in Augmented Stag Hunt is analyzed with inductive and evolutionary learning models applied to populations that are not subdivided into preexisting groups. Inductive learning models applied to the bargaining problem yield distributions of equilibrium solutions centered around the egalitarian solution that corresponds to a norm of equal division of benefits. Inductive and evolutionary learning models applied to the Augmented Stag Hunt yield distributions of equilibrium solutions where each side contributes to a commonly desired good that are supported by costly punishments for noncontributors. These results support the strong reciprocity hypothesis in the social sciences without employing the controversial idea of group selection.
20
Dagger, Richard. Punishing Fairly. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199388837.003.0008.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Philosophers tend to think of the problem of punishment as being the problem of demonstrating that it is or can be justified. Settling the question of whether punishment is justified as a practice, however, does not answer the practical questions of when and how punishment is justified in particular cases, nor does it tell us whether some other response to lawbreaking is preferable or complementary to punishment. There are, in fact, a variety of problems associated with punishment, and I attend to four of them in this chapter in order to demonstrate the reach and power of fair-play theory. Two of them—the problems of excessive incarceration and of voting rights for felons—are much-discussed matters in recent years. The other two—the problems of assessing punishment for recidivists and of what role restitution should play in the sentencing of offenders—are also matters of both practical and philosophical interest.
21
Fairly Certain: A Love of Fairs Tale. D&D Universe, 2014.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
22
Fairly Certain: A Love of Fairs Tale. D&D Universe, 2014.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
23
Davis, Debo. Fairly Certain: A Love of Fairs Tale. D&D Universe, 2014.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
24
Boris the Dog: A Fairly Twisted Fairy Tale. Spectacle Films, Inc., 2020.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
25
Sesame Street Fairly Furry Fairy Tales: Rhyming Rapunzel. Studiomouse, 2008.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
26
Fairly certain. Colchester, CT: D&D Universe LLC, 2015.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
27
Trickey, N. Fairly Fairy: A Coloring Book with a Wingful Flair. Independently Published, 2020.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
28
Scieszka, Jon, Lane Smith i John Glore. Stinky Cheese Man and Other Fairly Stupid Tales. Playscripts, Incorporated, 2015.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
29
Scieszka, Jon. The Stinky Cheese Man and Other Fairly Stupid Tales. Viking Juvenile, 2007.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
30
Scieszka, Jon, i Lane Smith. The Stinky Cheese Man and Other Fairly Stupid Tales. Scholastic Inc. Viking Penguin impression, 1993.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
31
The Stinky Cheese Man and Other Fairly Stupid Tales. Scholastic Inc, 1992.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
32
Shurtliff, Liesl. Red: The (Fairly) True Tale of Red Riding Hood. Knopf Books for Young Readers, 2016.
Znajdź pełny tekst źródła
33
Cardon, Nathan. A New South Vision. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190274726.003.0002.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Chapter 1 explores the motives behind the expositions. New South boosters at the fairs presented an argument for an industrial, modern, and imperial South. They exhibited the region as future-oriented, open to northern investment and industrial development. At the same time, the expositions were not singular spaces. The fairs looked to the future, while celebrating the region’s past. They praised the machine, while remaining ambiguous about its true effects. Architecture suggested the stability and achievements of the past and yet subtly condemned the modern city. Despite these contradictions, the Atlanta and Nashville expositions did present a fairly unified vision. A dream that made few excuses for the southern past, the fairs spread bourgeois values in the present and suggested a future in which a class and racial hierarchy joined to form a peaceful yet powerful New South.
34
Basu, Sanjay. Value. Redaktor Sanjay Basu. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190667924.003.0002.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter seeks to answer the question: how much should we pay for a public health program? We often have to decide how to allocate funds to different public health programs or decide whether a new medical test or treatment is worth the cost. How can we make such decisions fairly? The author first works through some examples of commonly used decision trees to make these judgments in a rigorous and fair way. Some decision trees are used to solve value of information problems, which are used to perform cost-benefit analysis to determine whether we want to pay for a new service, test, or treatment if we are focused on lowering the costs of operations. The reader will then understand how to perform cost-effectiveness analysis to identify under what circumstances a more expensive new service, test, or treatment might be worth the cost because it meaningfully improves health outcomes.
35
Freeman, Samuel. Private Law and Rawls’s Principles of Justice. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190699260.003.0006.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter discusses the application of Rawls’s principles of justice to private law, or the law of legal relationships between individuals, including the law of property, contracts, and torts. Some have argued that Rawls’s principles of justice apply only to public law—legislation affecting government’s relationships to individuals. This chapter contends that the first principle plays a crucial role in assessing and determining private law; moreover, fair equality of opportunity and the difference principle are to be applied to the assessment of many rules of private law. The difference principle addresses the question of how a society is to fairly design and efficiently organize the institutions that make economic cooperation possible among free and equal persons actively engaged in productive activity. Certain core legal institutions, including property and economic contract, are necessary for economic cooperation and are among the institutions covered by the second principle of justice.
36
Fleck, Leonard M. Precision Medicine and Distributive Justice. Oxford University PressNew York, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197647721.001.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Abstract Wicked ethical problems have been generated by precision medicine due to both the wiliness of cancer and the fragmentation of health care financing in the United States. The wiliness of cancer has resulted in these targeted cancer therapies yielding only very marginal gains in life expectancy for most patients at very great cost, thereby threatening the just allocation of health care resources. As a life-threatening phenomenon, cancer is not morally special. Philosophers have high hopes for the utility of their theories of justice. However, metastatic cancer and costly precision medicines generate extremely complex problems of health care justice that none of these theories can address adequately. What is needed instead is a political conception of health care justice (following Rawls) and a fair and inclusive process of rational democratic deliberation governed by public reason. A basic assumption is that society has only limited health care resources to meet unlimited health care needs (generated by emerging medical technologies). The primary ethical and political virtue of rational democratic deliberation is that it allows citizens as citizens to fashion autonomously shared understandings of how to address fairly the complex problems of health care justice generated by precision medicine. Still, in a pluralistic world, ideally just outcomes are a moral and political impossibility. Wicked problems can metastasize if rationing decisions are made invisibly, in ways effectively hidden from those affected by those decisions. A fair and inclusive process of democratic deliberation makes wicked problems visible to public reason.
37
Weston, Maureen A. The Regulation of Doping in U.S. and International Sports. Redaktor Michael A. McCann. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190465957.013.4.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This chapter examines the regulation of doping in U.S. professional and amateur sport, as well as the anti-doping regime for Olympic and international sport. Doping is generally defined as the presence, use or attempted use, trafficking, possession, or administration of any prohibited substance or method—as well as evading, refusing, or failing to submit to sample collection; to file whereabouts, information, or missed tests; or to tampering or attempting to tamper with any part of doping control. Doping in sport jeopardizes the health and safety of athletes, undermines the fairness and integrity of sport competition, and is outright cheating. The “war” against doping in sport is truly global, yet the regulatory schemes vary depending on the applicable sport governance authority. Doping in sport can be addressed effectively and fairly by looking at the practical, political, legal, and ethical concerns related to doping, doping control, fair process, privacy, and impact on sport.
38
Pessoa, Luiz. Attention, Motivation, and Emotion. Redaktorzy Anna C. (Kia) Nobre i Sabine Kastner. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199675111.013.001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The first part of the chapter describes effects of motivation on attention at the behavioural and physiological levels. For example, reward increases detection sensitivity (dprime) in both endogenous attention and exogenous attention tasks, enhances stimulus coding, and influences the filtering of task-irrelevant stimuli. These recent findings are surprising insofar as traditional psychological models have described motivation as a fairly unspecific ‘force’. The results reviewed are far from global. Instead they reflect specific mechanisms that are manifested selectively both at behavioural and neural levels. The second part of the chapter describes the role of attention when emotion-laden visual stimuli are processed. When one considers the bulk of the evidence, emotional processing is revealed to be capacity-limited. Yet, emotional processing is prioritized relative to that of neutral items.
39
Thompson, William R., i Leila Zakhirova. The Leadership Long Cycle Framework. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190699680.003.0002.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
In this chapter, we lay out the leadership long cycle theory as our framework for assessing systemic leadership and then modify it. This revised framework is then applied to the political–economic evolution of the past one thousand years to identify the factors underlying the rise and fall of a sequence of system leaders and to examine the fairly strong evidence for the linkage of energy transitions and technological leadership. We find that it is difficult to imagine the ascent of the last three system leaders (the Netherlands, Britain, and the United States) in a situation with significantly different energy foundations. In other words, had there been no peat, coal, or petroleum/electricity, respectively, these episodes of systemic leadership would have been far less likely to have occurred.
40
Pugh, Martin. Britain and its Empire. Redaktor R. J. B. Bosworth. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199594788.013.0027.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Traditionally, fascism in Britain has been seen in fairly narrow terms as a phenomenon of the 1930s associated with Sir Oswald Mosley and the British Union of Fascists (BUF). This approach to the subject made it easy to account for the fortunes of fascism as a movement essentially marginal to British society and thus of limited significance. The Union Movement that Mosley founded in 1948 campaigned for imperial control of Africa, a united Europe, and an end to coloured immigration. But this did not amount to a full fascist programme; the movement found itself caught halfway between the conventional parties and the racist fringe. More extreme elements soon spawned a range of new groups including the National Party, the National Workers Movement, and Chesterton's League of Empire Loyalists, which proved to be influential as a training ground for a new generation of leaders of the far right.
41
Griffith-Jones, Stephany, José Antonio Ocampo i Paola Arias. Conclusions. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198827948.003.0013.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Based on the seven case studies analysed in this volume, this chapter concludes that national development banks (NDBs) have been successful in many cases in supporting innovation and entrepreneurship, key new sectors like renewable energy, and financial inclusion. They have developed new instruments, such as far greater use of guarantees, equity (including venture capital) and debt funds, and new instruments for financial inclusion. The context in which they operate is key to their success. Active countercyclical policies, low inflation, fairly low real interest rates, a well-functioning financial sector, and competitive exchange rates are crucial. They are also more effective if the country has a clear development strategy, linked to production sector strategies that foster innovative sectors. Under these conditions, the chapter argues that there is great need for a larger scale of NDB activity in Latin America and in developing countries in general.
42
Milanka, Kostadinova. Part II Guide to Key Preliminary and Procedural Issues, 6 Aspects of Procedure for Institution of Proceedings and Establishment of Tribunals in Investment Treaty Arbitration. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198758082.003.0006.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The institution of treaty-based proceedings in a particular forum or under particular set of arbitration rules depends on the consent provisions of the underlying investment treaty. Some 767 arbitration cases have been initiated so far under the total of 3,324 bilateral investment treaties and other international investment agreements signed to date. This chapter provides an overview of the technical and fairly complex procedures for initiating proceedings and constituting tribunals in investment treaty arbitration. It examines the prevalent practices from the perspective of the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Dispute (ICSID) Convention and Rules, and other leading sets of international arbitration rules such as the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law Arbitration Rules, the Rules of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce, and the Arbitration Rules of the Arbitration Institute of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce, which are among the non-ICSID Rules more commonly referenced in investment treaties.
43
Walsh, Bruce, i Michael Lynch. Long-term Response: 3. Adaptive Walks. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830870.003.0027.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
One model for long-term evolution is an adaptive walk, a series of fixations of mutations that moves the trait mean toward some optimal value. The foundation for this idea traces back to Fisher's geometric model, which showed that mutations of large effect are favored when a trait is far from its optimal, while smaller effects are favored as it approaches the optimal value. Under fairly general conditions, this results in a roughly exponential distribution of fixed adaptive effects. An alternative to trait-based walks are walks in fitness space, motivated by considering a series of mutations to improve the fitness of a particular sequence. In such settings, extreme value theory also suggests a roughly exponential distribution, now of fitness (instead of trait) effects, for mutations fixed during the walk. Much of this theory offers at least partial experimental testing, and this chapter describes not only the theory, but also some of the empirical work testing the models.
44
Lafollette, Hugh. In Defense of Gun Control. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190873363.001.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
The gun control debate is more complex than most disputants acknowledge. We are not tasked with answering a single question: Should we have gun control? There are three distinct policy questions confronting us: Who should we permit to have which guns, and how should we regulate the acquisition, storage, and carrying of guns people may legitimately own? To answer these questions we must decide whether (and which) people have a right to bear arms, what kind of right they have, and how stringent it is. We must also evaluate divergent empirical claims about (a) the role of guns in causing harm, and (b) the degree to which private ownership of guns can protect innocent civilians from attacks by criminals, either in their homes or in public. This book sorts through the conceptual, moral, and empirical claims to fairly assess arguments for and against serious gun control. I argue that the United States needs far more gun control than we currently have in most jurisdictions.
45
De Rújula, Alvaro. Enjoy Our Universe. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198817802.001.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
This book’s title is meant to be interpreted almost verbatim. “Enjoy” is its keyword, motivation, and spirit. Universe refers to all “observable things,” ranging in size from the entire cosmos to elementary particles, and bracketing other fundamental objects such as black holes. Observable things understandable by most people, that is, which excludes economics, politics, and other decreasingly alluring disciplines. And you can only enjoy our Universe, claims of “Multiverses” being so far closer to fiction than to science. In that spirit, only subjects that we understand fairly well are discussed, admitting our ignorance wherever it prevails. Some of this ignorance is only the author’s, thus the exclusion of many enjoyable disciplines, such as condensed matter physics, or the life sciences. In descriptions of our Universe and of the way it functions, beauty is a recurring word. In an attempt to draw the eyes of the beholder, it is very profusely illustrated, often with tongue in cheek. Admiring the beauty of this Universe of yours and trying to understand how it works is indeed extremely enjoyable. In this guided visit to our Universe, I intend to share this joy with the reader.
46
Clifford, Damian. Data Protection Law and Emotion. Oxford University PressOxford, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192845863.001.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Abstract Data protection law is often positioned as a regulatory solution to the risks posed by computational systems. This is logical given the pervasive data processing that underpins much of the technology we rely on daily. Despite the widespread adoption of data protection laws, however, there are those who remain very sceptical about their capacity to regulate these risks. Much of this criticism focuses on the role of us, the ‘data subjects’. For instance, it has been demonstrated repeatedly that we lack the capacity to act in our own best interests and, what is more, that our decisions have negative impacts on others. It is hard to dispute these points. Our decision-making limitations seem to be the inevitable by-product of the technological, social, and economic reality. The problems with data protection law also seem baked in through notions such as consent and the subjective control rights provided for in these frameworks and also the reliance on those processing our data to do so fairly. Despite these valid concerns, this book argues that the critiques of the instrumental role of control fail to recognize that its effectiveness is often more difficult to discern than the more critical literature would suggest, but it also emphasizes the importance of the conceptual value of subjective control. These points are analysed (and, indeed, exposed) by exploring data protection law through the lens of the insights provided by law and emotion scholarship.
47
Griesel, Jake. Retaining the Old Episcopal Divinity. Oxford University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197624326.001.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
John Edwards of Cambridge (1637–1716) has typically been portrayed as a marginalized ‘Calvinist’ in an overwhelmingly ‘Arminian’ later Stuart Church of England. In Retaining the Old Episcopal Divinity, the author challenges this depiction of Edwards and the theological climate of his contemporary Church. The author demonstrates that Edwards was recognized in his own day and the immediately following generations as one of the pre-eminent conforming divines of the period, who featured prominently in notable theological controversies concerning contemporaries such as John Locke, Gilbert Burnet, Daniel Whitby, William Whiston, and Samuel Clarke. Despite some Arminian opposition, Edwards’ theological works are shown to have enjoyed a warm reception among sizeable segments of the established Church’s clergy, many of whom shared his Reformed convictions. Instead of a theological misfit, this study contends that the anti-Arminian Edwards was a decidedly mainstream churchman. The author’s reassessment has ramifications far beyond the figure of Edwards, however, and ultimately serves as a prism through which to visualize with much greater clarity the broader theological landscape of the later Stuart Church of England, and particularly the place of Reformed orthodoxy within it. It substantially develops recent research on the persisting vitality of Reformed theology within the post-Restoration Church by demonstrating to an unprecedented extent the sheer strength and numbers of Reformed conforming divines between the Restoration and the evangelical revivals. Finally, the author problematizes the idea that the post-Restoration Church developed a fairly homogeneous ‘Anglican’ identity, and argues instead that the Church in this period was theologically and ecclesio-politically variegated.
48
Noack, Christian, red. Politics of the Russian Language Beyond Russia. Edinburgh University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474463799.001.0001.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Russia increasingly emphasises the importance of ‘soft power’ for securing its foreign policy interests. Recent research has paid more attention to Russia’s intentions rather than to the receiving end of its cultural and public diplomacy. This volume addresses this gap and explores the specifics of both Russian language promotion and its acceptance in a number of case and country studies, including Ukraine, Germany and Ireland. The authors discuss the legal status and the practical use of Russian for communication or media use, both in the ‘near’ and the ‘far abroad’, examining the politics of the Russian language, the role of the Russian Federation in influencing these politics and the challenges that the promotion of Russian faces in particular contexts across the globe. They discern a fairly instrumental approach towards Russian language promotion. With its strong focus on the former Soviet space, language promotion aims at preserving cohorts of Russian heritage speakers, who are conceived as quasi-natural agents of Russian influence in the neighbourhood. By contrast, the willingness to engage with Russia’s language promotion is seriously diminished by the ideological loading of culture and language in Russian discourses, like those on the ‘compatriots’ and the ‘Russian World’. By declaring the active use of Russian as an expression of political loyalty, Russia almost excludes utilitarian approaches to the learning of the language. Moreover, the book documents a rather traditional understanding of culture with essentialist and static features. Instead of seeing culture as an autonomous free space for negotiation of political possibilities, Russia’s culture and language promotion rests on narrowly codified high culture.
49
Norrgård, Stefan. Changes in Precipitation Over West Africa During Recent Centuries. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.536.
Pełny tekst źródłaStreszczenie:
Water, not temperature, governs life in West Africa, and the region is both temporally and spatially greatly affected by rainfall variability. Recent rainfall anomalies, for example, have greatly reduced crop productivity in the Sahel area. Rainfall indices from recent centuries show that multidecadal droughts reoccur and, furthermore, that interannual rainfall variations are high in West Africa. Current knowledge of historical rainfall patterns is, however, fairly limited. A detailed rainfall chronology of West Africa is currently only available from the beginning of the 19th century. For the 18th century and earlier, the records are still sporadic, and an interannual rainfall chronology has so far only been obtained for parts of the Guinea Coast. Thus, there is a need to extend the rainfall record to fully understand past precipitation changes in West Africa.The main challenge when investigating historical rainfall variability in West Africa is the scarcity of detailed and continuous data. Readily available meteorological data barely covers the last century, whereas in Europe and the United States for example, the data sometimes extend back two or more centuries. Data availability strongly correlates with the historical development of West Africa. The strong oral traditions that prevailed in the pre-literate societies meant that only some of the region’s history was recorded in writing before the arrival of the Europeans in the 16th century. From the 19th century onwards, there are, therefore, three types of documents available, and they are closely linked to the colonization of West Africa. These are: official records started by the colonial governments continuing to modern day; regular reporting stations started by the colonial powers; and finally, temporary nongovernmental observations of various kinds. For earlier periods, the researcher depends on noninstrumental observations found in letters, reports, or travel journals made by European slave traders, adventurers, and explorers. Spatially, these documents are confined to the coastal areas, as Europeans seldom ventured inland before the mid-1800s. Thus, the inland regions are generally poorly represented. Arabic chronicles from the Sahel provide the only source of information, but as historical documents, they include several spatiotemporal uncertainties. Climate researchers often complement historical data with proxy-data from nature’s own archives. However, the West African environment is restrictive. Reliable proxy-data, such as tree-rings, cannot be exploited effectively. Tropical trees have different growth patterns than trees in temperate regions and do not generate growth rings in the same manner. Sediment cores from Lake Bosumtwi in Ghana have provided, so far, the best centennial overview when it comes to understanding precipitation patterns during recent centuries. These reveal that there have been considerable changes in historical rainfall patterns—West Africa may have been even drier than it is today.