Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Executive functions”

Questa tesi offre un'ampia panoramica dello sviluppo di EXecutive-functions Innovative Tool 360° (EXIT 360°), dalla sua progettazione alla validazione come strumento sensibile per la valutazione della funzionalità esecutiva (FE). Identificare strategie precoci per rilevare i deficit esecutivi appare una priorità, dal momento che la disfunzione esecutiva rappresenta un problema significativo a causa del suo impatto sulle attività quotidiane. Pertanto, abbiamo ideato e sviluppato EXIT 360°, un nuovo strumento che sfrutta la tecnologia 360° per una valutazione ecologicamente valida del FE. Si tratta di un nuovo compito fruibile tramite smartphone e visore per la realtà virtuale, in cui i partecipanti devono eseguire sette compiti giornalieri in ambienti domestici. Le tre principali proprietà psicometriche di EXIT 360° —usabilità, validità convergente e di costrutto— sono state il focus degli studi discussi in questa tesi. Gli studi sull'usabilità hanno dimostrato che EXIT 360º debba essere considerato uno strumento tecnologico semplice, usabile e facile da apprendere. Lo studio di validità convergente ha mostrato una correlazione tra i punteggi di EXIT 360° e i test standardizzati carta-e-matita per il FE. Infine, lo studio di validità di costrutto ha mostrato l'efficacia di EXIT 360° nel discriminare il gruppo patologico da quello di controllo, evidenziando una maggiore accuratezza diagnostica rispetto ai test tradizionali. Nel complesso, i risultati offrono una chiara evidenza che EXIT 360° debba essere visto come uno strumento valido e innovativo per una valutazione ecologicamente valida del FE, altamente utilizzabile per una diagnosi tempestiva e l’arruolamento precoce del paziente in una riabilitazione mirata.
This thesis offers a broad overview of EXecutive-functions Innovative Tool 360° (EXIT 360°) development from its concept to validation as a sensitive instrument for evaluating executive functionality (EF). Identifying early strategies to detect executive impairments appears a priority since executive dysfunction represents a significant health problem due to its high negative impact on daily activities. Therefore, we conceptualized and developed EXIT 360°, a new 360°-based instrument for an ecologically valid assessment of EF. It consists of a new task delivered via smartphone and a comfortable head-mounted display, where participants must perform seven everyday subtasks in 360° domestic environments. The three main psychometric properties of EXIT 360°—usability, convergent and construct validity—have been the focus of the studies discussed in this thesis. Usability studies involving patients and healthy subjects showed EXIT 360° is a straightforward, usable, and easy-to-learn technological instrument. Convergent validity study displayed a correlation between EXIT 36o° scores and standardized paper-and-pencil tests for EF. Finally, the construct validity study showed the effectiveness of EXIT 360° in discriminating between pathological and control groups with high precision, displaying its higher diagnostic accuracy compared to traditional tests. Overall, findings offer clear evidence that EXIT 360° must be seen as a valuable and innovative instrument for an ecologically valid evaluation of EF, highly usable for prompt diagnosis and early patient enrolment in focused rehabilitation.

Objective: the relationship between Executive Functions (EFs) and Empathy, in particular Theory of Mind (ToM), is well known, considering neuropsychological performances and the neural correlates underpinning each one. Evidences regarding deficits on ToM skills related to impairment in EFs are nowadays well known in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) and Myothonic dystrophy (DM1). The aim of the present study was the evaluation of ToM and its association with EFs in four neuromuscular diseases in which EFs can be impaired, and so: Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD), Facioscapulohumeral dystrophy (FSHD) and X-linked Spinal and Bulbar Muscular Atrophy (X-SBMA). Moreover, also abilities related to Affective Empathy have been investigated. Methods: the study involved 25 DMD patients, 21 BMD patients, 21 FSHD patients, 64 X-SBMA patients and 145 healthy controls matched for age, education and gender. Both patients and controls completed tests and questionnaires with the aim to assess EFs, ToM and Affective Empathy abilities. Results: deficits in EFs have been found only in DMD patients. EFs impairment resulted to be associated with deficits in ToM ability but also with problems related to Affective Empathy. Conclusions: DMD patients without mental retardation manifest problems on EFs. These deficits are related to impairments in ToM abilities and Affective Empathy skills. These results can give an important contribution to clinical practice: know the Empathic abilities of patients may be useful to clinicians in order to create a good alliance which is extremely useful in the compliance of treatments and therapeutic choices.
Obiettivo: la relazione tra Funzioni Esecutive (EFs) ed Empatia, in particolare la Teoria della Mente (ToM), è ben nota, sia se si considerano le evidenze neuropsicologiche e se si pensa ai correlati neurali che sottostanno a questi costrutti. Oggigiorno sono presenti numerose ricerche, in patologie come la Sclerosi Laterale Amiotrofica (ALS) e la Distrofia Miotonica (DM1), che evidenziano che deficit nelle capacità di ToM sono legati alla compromissione delle EFs. Lo scopo del presente studio è la valutazione delle abilità legate alla ToM e la sua associazione con le EFs in quattro patologie neuromuscolari in cui le EFs possono essere compromesse, quindi la distrofia muscolare di Duchenne (DMD), la distrofia muscolare di Becker (BMD), la distrofia facioscapolomerale (FSHD) e l’atrofia muscolare spinale e bulbare (SBMA). Inoltre, sono state valutate anche le abilità legate all’empatia affettiva. Metodo: lo studio ha previsto il reclutamento di 25 pazienti DMD, 21 pazienti BMD, 21 pazienti FSHD, 64 pazienti SBMA e 145 controlli sani abbinati per età, scolarità e genere. Sia i pazienti che i controlli hanno completato test e questionari allo scopo di valutare le EFs, la ToM e l’empatia affettiva. Risultati: sono stati rilevati deficit nelle EFs solamente nei pazienti affetti da DMD. La compromissione delle EFs è risultata essere associata alla compromissione della ToM e dell’empatia affettiva. Conclusioni. Pazienti affetti da DMD senza ritardo mentale hanno manifestato problemi nelle EFs. Inoltre, questi deficit sono risultati essere legati a problemi nella ToM e nelle abilità di empatia affettiva. Questi risultati possono offrire un importante contributo alla pratica clinica: conoscere la abilità empatiche dei pazienti può essere utile al personale sanitario al fine di creare una buona alleanza con il paziente, cosa estremamente utile se si pensa alla compliance ai trattamenti e alle scelte terapeutiche.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of acute stress on parallel task performance with the Game of Dice Task (GDT) to measure decision making and the Stroop test.  Two previous studies have found that the combination of stress and a parallel task with the GDT and an executive functions task preserved performance on the GDT for a stress group compared to a control group.  The purpose of this study was to create and use a new parallel task with the GDT and the stroop test to elucidate more information about the executive function contributions from the stroop test and to ensure that this parallel task preserves performance on the GDT for the stress group.  Sixteen participants (Mean Age: 26.88) were randomly assigned to either a stress group with the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) or the control group with the placebo-TSST.  The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) were given before and after the TSST or placebo-TSST and were used as stress indicators.  The results showed a trend towards the stress group performing marginally better than the control group on the GDT but not significantly.  There were no significant differences between the groups for accuracy on the Stroop test trial types.  However, the stress group had significantly slower mean response times on the congruent trial type of the Stroop test, p < .05, though.  This study has shown further evidence that stress and a parallel task together preserve performance on the GDT.

PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO
COORDENAÇÃO DE APERFEIÇOAMENTO DO PESSOAL DE ENSINO SUPERIOR
PROGRAMA DE SUPORTE À PÓS-GRADUAÇÃO DE INSTS. DE ENSINO
O entendimento de que o desenvolvimento infantil acontece de maneira dinâmica entre fatores biológicos e ambientais sugere que essa fase constitui um período flexível, que pode ser aprimorado através de intervenções. Desta maneira, crianças em idade pré-escolar são simultaneamente vulneráveis às influências do meio e capazes de se beneficiar com intervenções precoces, apontando para a importância do estudo do desenvolvimento cognitivo nesta etapa da vida. Na literatura, as funções executivas são apresentadas como habilidades cognitivas flexíveis, necessárias para a adaptação do ser humano frente às novas situações, articuladas àquelas ações necessárias para alcançar determinado objetivo. Desta forma, o objetivo deste trabalho foi realizar uma revisão bibliográfica referente aos estudos que investigam os estágios iniciais do desenvolvimento destas funções e, a partir disto, elaborar uma proposta para medir as funções executivas de crianças em idade pré-escolar, apontando os benefícios dessas investigações para a área do desenvolvimento infantil. A partir da revisão de literatura, verificou-se a necessidade de publicações nacionais visando à adaptação e validação de instrumentos de avaliação neuropsicológica direcionados às etapas iniciais do desenvolvimento no ciclo vital. O presente estudo apresenta uma ferramenta alternativa que sirva de instrumento para a investigação destas funções ainda na primeira infância.
The understanding that child development occurs through a dynamicinteraction between biological and environmental factors suggests that this phase is a flexible and amenable to improvements through interventions. In this context, pre-school children are simultaneously vulnerable to environmental influences and able to benefit from early interventions, pointing to the importance of understanding cognitive development at this stage of life. In the literature, executive functions are presented as flexible cognitive skills, necessary for the adaptation of the human being to the new situations, articulated to those actions necessary to reach a certain goal. Thus, the goal of this study was to carry out a bibliographic review of studies that investigate the initial stages executive function development and, from this, elaborate a proposal aiming to measure executive functions in pre-school children, pointing out the benefits of these studies in the area of child development. Results indicated the need for national publications aiming at the adaptation and validation of neuropsychological assessment instruments targeting the initial stages of human development.

Der vorliegende Arbeit systematisiert Befunde aus dem Gebiet der exekutiven Funktionen und ihren Modulationen durch verschiedene Parameter (d.h. Shifting, Inhibition, Updating, Dual tasking). Diese Parameter werden in einer entsprechenden Rahmenkonzeption illustriert und umfassen die Parameter Kontext, Training, Alter und ihre Kombinationen. Die vorliegende Arbeit zeigt Beispiele, wie diese Parameter in Bezug auf exekutive Funktionen realisiert werden können. Im Rahmen des Kontext-Parameters wird beispielsweise gezeigt, wie die Vorhersagbarkeit von Aufgaben und Aufgabenreihenfolgen Dual tasking (Heinrich et al., 2012) und wie aktuelle Anforderungen an das Arbeitsgedächtnis Inhibition (Soutschek et al., 2013) modulieren kann. Allerdings zeigen Töllner et al. (2012) auch Grenzen des Kontext-Parameters bei der Modulation der erstgenannten exekutiven Funktion. Der Parameter Training wurde realisiert mit Fokus auf (1) Shifting (Strobach et al., 2012a) und (2) Updating (Salminen et al., 2011, 2012). Schubert and Strobach (2012) sowie Strobach et al. (2012b) untersuchten den Transfereffekt von Video-game- und Arbeitsgedächtnistraining auf Dual tasking und Shifting. Schließlich zeigen Strobach et al. (2012c, 2012d) Modulationseffekte bei der Kombination des Alters- und Trainingsparameters auf die exekutive Funktion Dual tasking. Abschließend systematisiert die vorgestellte Rahmenkonzeption die Lücken und Ziele zukünftiger Forschung zur Modulation von exekutiven Funktionen.
The present review aims at a systematization of findings in the field of executive functions and their modulation due to different operational parameters (i.e., dimensions). This systematization is realized in the form of the Framework on modulations of executive functions. Basically, this framework illustrates how different types of executive functions (i.e., Shifting, Inhibition, Updating, Dual tasking) are modulated by their context (Context dimension), training (Training dimension), age (Age dimension), and combinations of these dimensions. The present review includes examples of studies that demonstrate a realization of each of these dimensions and their effects on executive function types. In detail, the Context dimension modulates the executive function type Dual tasking (i.e., due to task order predictability in dual tasks; Hendrich et al., 2012 ) and Inhibition (i.e., due to the level of concurrent working memory demand in a Stroop task; Soutschek et al., 2013); however, Töllner et al. (2012) demonstrated that Context also affects processes that are not related with executive functioning (i.e., perception and motor processes) in a dual-task situation. The framework’s Training dimension was realized when (1) Strobach et al. (2012a) investigated effects of training on the executive function Shifting in a task switching situation and (2) Salminen et al. (2011, 2012), Schubert and Strobach (2012), as well as Strobach et al. (2012b) investigated transfer effects on executive functioning of Dual tasking and Shifting after video game and working memory training. Finally, Strobach et al. (2012c, 2012d) illustrated modulation effects of age and training (i.e., the combination of Age and Training dimension) on the executive function type Dual tasking. In sum, this framework helps to systematize research gaps and future studies in this field (i.e., executive functions).

Executive functions and problem solving are important skills for success in school and life. Measuring executive functions and problem solving with child-friendly tools that can be applied outside the traditional clinical settings remains a challenge. The overall aim of this PhD project was to design a new child-friendly online assessment tool (eFun) to better understand relationships among executive function constructs, problem solving and academic outcomes. The assessment tool eFun was developed in collaboration with designers, software developers, and researchers to ensure validity and usability. eFun measures problem solving ability and the core executive function constructs working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility on an iPad. This PhD thesis addresses two major gaps in the executive function literature. Firstly, it introduces the development and evaluation of new cognitive tasks for children. Secondly, it addresses the relationship between executive functions, problem solving and academic outcomes. This research adds to the current limited evidence base by investigating children’s evaluation of game-based executive function and problem solving assessments and by exploring new approaches to measuring cognitive functions and validating executive function tasks for children. Furthermore, the thesis extends the literature by examining intercorrelations among the newly developed cognitive tasks and academic achievement, and compares results with existing theories. Findings indicate that children enjoy playing the newly developed eFun tasks, especially the inhibition task. Overall, low to medium associations were found between the performance scores of individual executive functions and between executive functions and problem solving. Furthermore, executive functions were found to be a predictor of academic success (grades), whereas the association between problem solving and academic outcomes was less clear. The eFun problem solving task was enjoyed more than the traditional Tower of Hanoi task. The eFun problem solving task performance was found to be positively associated with the Tower of Hanoi task performance, providing some initial evidence for convergent validity for the eFun problem solving task. The newly developed eFun tasks will offer enhanced opportunities to measure children’s cognitive functions (i.e., executive functions and problem solving) in a school context. This research advances the cognitive function literature and provides insights into new approaches to measuring cognitive functions in children.

Executive functioning (EF) follows a protracted course of development, emerging in early infancy and continuing to develop throughout childhood, adolescence and early adulthood, before declining in older age (Diamond, 2006; Zelazo, Craik, & Booth, 2004). Despite this, the majority of developmental research has focused on the emergence of EF before age 5 (Best, Miller, & Jones, 2009). Recent research also suggests that EF can usefully be separated into hot (more emotionally driven) and cool (more abstract) factors (Kerr & Zelazo, 2004), and that these factors likely have distinct neural underpinnings (Bechara, Damasio, & Damasio, 2000). The current program of research investigated the development of hot and cool EF in a sample of 126 (59 males and 67 females) typically developing Australian 5 to 12-year-old children. Six different behavioural measures of EF (three hot and three cool) were administered. The first study examined and compared the age-related development of hot and cool EF in a series of cross-sectional age-group comparisons. Age-related improvements were observed on all six EF tasks. Across the age-range studied, all EF tasks showed a linear relationship with age. Analysis using composite measures of hot and cool EF showed no significant differences in the rate of development between hot and cool EF, suggesting that hot and cool EF develop at similar rates across middle childhood. Factor analysis of the EF tasks also supported a single factor solution. Thus, the first study did not find evidence supporting a hot-cool EF distinction during middle childhood.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy in Clinical Psychology (PhD ClinPsych)
School of Applied Psychology
Griffith Health
Full Text

Aim of the present study was to evaluate executive functions (EF) such as inhibition, planning, working memory, set-shifting in children with Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) via comparison of three ADHD subtype groups (ADHD-I, ADHD-C and ADHD-Comorbid) and a normal control group. Participants consist of 147 children. Total of 111 children were assigned into the ADHD groups of the study. Thirty seven children (5 girl and 32 boys) were assigned into the ADHD-Inattentive group, thirty seven children (6 girls and 31 boys) were assigned into the ADHD-Combined group
and thirty seven children (4 girls and 33 boys) were classified as ADHD-Comorbide group (ADHD-C with Oppositional Defiant Disorder consists of 4 girls and 31 boys, and/or Conduct Disorders consists of 2 boys). Thirty six children (6 girls and 30 boys
age range: 7- 12) were assigned as control group by matching with the ADHD groups according to the WISC-R Full Scale IQ score, sex and age. Conner&rsquo
s Parental and Teacher Rating Scales, Child Behavior Check List and Wechsler Intelligence Scale Revised, Tower of London Test, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Stroop Color Word Test, Cancellation Task, Trail Making Test, California Verbal List Test for Children, Verbal Fluency Test, Continuous Performance Test, Go-No-Go Task and Bender-Gestalt Test were used for the assessment of children. The data were analyzed by one-way within subject ANOVA for all dependent variables measured by the assessment tools. Additionally discriminant function analyses were conducted to determine the variables that differentiate the three ADHD groups and control group. Outcome of study indicated that subjects in ADHD-Comorbid group had more severe Executive Function (EF) deficits than subjects in ADHD-I and ADHD-C group. The findings were discussed in the light of the literature.

Bilingualism has been found to modulate executive functions because bilinguals constantly manage language selection through inhibition and conflict-monitoring (Bialystok et al., 2012). However, some studies failed to replicate these findings (Paap & Greenberg, 2013). To explain these inconsistencies, research needs to pinpoint which bilingual practices modulate which aspects of the executive system (Bak, 2016). This project is novel in that it investigated the differential impact of three code-switching types (Muysken, 2000) on executive functions: (1) Alternation of structurally independent stretches from each language, (2) Insertion of lexical items from one language into the grammar of the other, (3) Dense code-switching mixing languages at the lexical and grammatical level. Processing models of code-switching suggest that code-switching types involving greater levels of language separation (Alternation) train inhibition, whilst code-switching types maintaining high levels of linguistic co-activation (Dense code-switching) train conflict-monitoring (Treffers-Daller, 2009; Green & Wei, 2014). To test this prediction, German-English bilinguals' relative usage frequency of code-switching types was assessed and correlated with their performance in executive tasks teasing apart inhibition and conflict-monitoring (Costa et aI., 2009). Study 1 compared two groups (N=22) differing in Dense code-switching frequency. As predicted, frequent Dense code-switchers excelled in the condition challenging conflict-monitoring. Study 2 investigated individual differences in immersed adult bilinguals (N=43). In line with existing models, greater usage frequency of Dense code-switching correlated positively with performance in the condition challenging conflict monitoring. Alternation predicted inhibitory performance in the low-monitoring condition, in which bilinguals also outperformed an English monolingual baseline group (N=4I). In Study 3, bilinguals (N=29) were administered a flanker task inducing different language modes (Wu & Thierry, 2013). The Ll-dominant bilinguals performed best at inhibition in the task block inducing an L2-monolingual mode. This was explained by an increase in inhibitory activation required to suppress the dominant Ll (Meuter & Allport, 1999) and suggests that dominance patterns modulated executive functioning (Treffers-Daller, 2016). Moreover, Dense code-switching was a negative predictor of inhibitory performance in the monolingual mode, suggesting that monolingual modes require more global (Guo et al., 2011) forms of inhibition than Dense code-switching. To summarise, the results provide key novel evidence that different code-switching types modulate different aspects of cognition. Moreover, the findings support existing processing models of code-switching and highlight the importance of controlling for sociolinguistic practices in bilingualism research.

Arithmetic abilities are required when solving problems such as “3x4” or “24+33” and are important for many everyday life situations: for instance, to make a recipe or to pay at the store. Given the high incidence of arithmetic difficulties throughout development, the acquisition of arithmetic abilities received much attention in field of numerical cognition. However, although fundamental, only a handful of studies (e.g. Geary & Wiley, 1991) investigated the impact of normal aging on arithmetic problem solving.Therefore the question of whether and how arithmetic abilities are affected by the decline of cognitive processing remains poorly understood. The aim of the current thesis was to fill in this gap and to investigate whether and how arithmetic abilities as well as the related executive functions change when aging. Our results showed that the deficit with age in arithmetic abilities and related executive functions is not general but specific to the executive function under investigation. Moreover, our findings suggest that these executive functions could be specific to the arithmetic domain and not an instance of a more general executive system.In our view, this thesis constitutes an initial step towards enhancing our comprehension of the impact of age on executive functions in the arithmetic domain and its potential specificity with other domains. However, especially because of the lack of studies directly addressing these issues, the results reported here need to be replicated to strengthen our conclusions. In this respect, we believed that the DDM could help to specify exactly which cognitive processes remain intact with age and which become deficient.
Doctorat en Sciences psychologiques et de l'éducation
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Executive functions are control mechanisms that allow us to direct thoughts and behaviour according to goals and play an important role in everyday life. Research suggests that emotion can affect these functions, but it is less clear how the emotion-cognition interactions change with age, as ageing is associated with changes in both emotional and cognitive functioning. The aim of the present research was to investigate the effects of emotion on younger and older adults’ performance in tasks targeting three executive functions: updating, inhibition and task switching. It was also investigated whether emotional valence, the task relevance of emotion and the modality of emotional items (e.g., verbal or facial material) played a role in the modulating effect of emotion on cognition. Across nine behavioural experiments, the following main results were observed. First, it was found that age modulated the effects of emotional valence on executive functions. More specifically, positive emotion improved cognitive performance in both age groups, whereas the mixed but predominantly impairing effects of negative emotion were more pronounced in older adults. Second, emotion affected executive functions when it was task-relevant and older adults were not more affected by task-irrelevant emotional material than younger adults. Third, effects observed for emotional faces could not be replicated with emotional words and the effects of emotion varied for different executive functions, suggesting that the effects of emotion are modality- and task-specific. This dissertation highlights that theories aimed at explaining the effects of emotion on executive functions need to be extended to accommodate age-related differences in this interaction. A better understanding of the facilitating and impairing effects of emotion on executive functions in ageing is important, as it can help identifying areas in which emotion buffers age-related cognitive decline.

Whilst the positive relationship between neuroticism and burnout is well-established within the extant literature, it is also acknowledged that neurotic individuals may differ in the extent to which they experience such detriments in well-being. In concordance with dual-processing theories of behaviour, it was suggested in this thesis that executive functions may enable one to enact in a ‘goal-orientated’ manner, and thus overcome one’s instinctive neurotic tendencies towards burnout. Through the four studies of this thesis, a research model was constructed and examined in which the core executive functions of working memory, active inhibition and task switching were proposed to reduce the extent to which neuroticism positively predicted burnout (which in studies 2 and 3 was suggested to occur via negative affect). Although the overall neuroticism-burnout relationship was not found to be conditional upon any of the three executive functions, there was some evidence that the constituent paths of an indirect neuroticism-burnout model (via negative affect) were moderated by executive functions. Specifically, active inhibition significantly decreased the negative affect-burnout relationship in study 2, and this relationship was found to be conditional on task-switching in study 3, to the extent that lower task-switching reduced the moderating effect of active inhibition on the relationship between negative affect and burnout. In study 3 it was also found that higher levels of working memory capacity were associated with a reduction in the neuroticism-negative affect relationship. The findings of this research did not support an overall moderating effect of executive functions, whilst only partly supporting the broader suggestion that executive functions may regulate the negative outcomes that occur when vulnerable individuals experience stressors. In light of the results of this thesis, limitations of the research were discussed (including methodological differences across studies and the use of unitary executive function measures) and suggestions made for future research (e.g. longitudinal study designs).

The aim of the study was to examine the acute effects of exercise on three executivefunctions: attention, inhibition and working memory, in regularly exercising women (​n​ = 10)and men (​n​ = 10). Furthermore, the purpose was to investigate if different intensity levels ofaerobic exercise had an effect on executive functioning. Twenty adults, aged 21-54 years,participated in the study. The participants were randomly assigned to one of two differentexercise intensity levels, moderate or vigorous. Every participant was assigned twoconditions, inactive and active. In both conditions, the participants were exposed to twentyminutes on a stationary bicycle, followed by a 10 minute delay before testing cognitivefunctions. To evaluate executive performance, three cognitive tests were used: the Strooptest, Trail Making Test and Digit span. No significant results were found. Results fromprevious studies, combined with the present study, indicate that the relationship betweenexercise and executive functioning is very complex and needs further research.

Tourette’s syndrome (TS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder often associated with social difficulties and inappropriate behaviours (e.g. Kurlan et al., 1996). These behavioural difficulties may indicate impairment on aspects of social-emotional processing, but may also be related to impairments in executive functions which have been reported in TS, particularly for aspects of inhibition. This thesis aims to examine different aspects of social-emotional processing and executive functions in TS, and to assess the possible contribution of executive processes. A series of experimental studies was conducted to compare those with TS to healthy matched control participants. With respect to social-emotional processing, ability to decode social-emotional cues, to regulate emotional experience, and to regulate social behaviour according to context, and possible executive contributions to these processes were examined. Further studies extended previous research by examining inhibitory functions not previously assessed in TS, and explored the contribution of task complexity to inhibitory performance. The findings of the experimental studies are considered in the context of recent models of social-emotional processing (Ochsner, 2008), executive functions (Miyake et al., 2000) and inhibition (Nigg, 2000). Several alternative explanations of the findings of this thesis were identified: selective inhibitory impairment, level of executive task demands, or multiple deficits in executive and social-emotional processing. The applicability of these different explanations to the findings is discussed, and the implications of the findings are reviewed.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, San Diego and San Diego State University, 2009.
Title from first page of PDF file (viewed April 16, 2009). Available via ProQuest Digital Dissertations. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 85-94).

Psychology
Ph.D.
This study examined the association between executive functions (EF), trait rumination, and symptoms and diagnosis of unipolar depression in early adolescence. In addition, the current study examined associations between executive functions and risk for depression due to maternal history of depression. Participants were 486 early adolescents (230 males, 256 females; M age = 12.88 years; SD = .62) and their mothers, who were recruited through local schools as part of the Temple University (TU) Adolescent Cognition and Emotion (ACE) Project. Measures included (a) a semi-structured diagnostic interview of mother and adolescent, (b) youth self-report forms assessing depressive symptoms and trait rumination, (c) mother-report forms assessing demographic information and offspring pubertal status, and (d) behavioral tests of EF (sustained, selective and divided attention, attentional set shifting, and working memory). Deficits in executive function were not associated with higher levels of trait rumination. Better sustained attention was marginally significantly positively associated with higher levels of trait rumination after controlling for concurrent depressive symptoms. Conversely, poorer sustained attention was significantly associated with depressive symptoms after controlling for rumination. Gender moderated the set shifting-rumination association, such that better set shifting accuracy was significantly associated with higher levels of trait rumination in boys only. Diagnosis did not moderate EF-rumination associations. No association was found between EF deficits and adolescent lifetime history of unipolar depression. Likewise, no association was found between EF deficits and maternal lifetime history of unipolar depression. In conclusion, findings do not provide evidence that EF deficits are associated with trait rumination in early adolescence, either alone or in interaction with diagnosis or gender. Rather, findings suggest dissociable patterns of association between EF and depression versus rumination and are more consistent with theories postulating that trait rumination is associated with enhanced performance on some tests of EF. In addition, findings do not provide evidence for an association between EF deficits and lifetime history of depression in early adolescence and do not suggest that deficits are present in adolescents at high risk (due to maternal history of disorder) of depression prior to first onset of disorder. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Temple University--Theses

Substantial empirical literatures link executive functioning (EF) and temperament, respectively, to externalizing behaviors (e.g., hyperactivity, impulsivity, conduct problems), but they rarely have been considered jointly. As indices of presumed brain function, neither neuropsychological scores nor temperament traits alone are sufficient as a comprehensive developmental model of externalizing behaviors. The current study aimed to examine the triangular relation among temperament traits, EF, and externalizing behaviors in a community sample of male youth. Participants included 174 male youth 11 to 16 years (M =13.4; SD=1.4) and their mothers. Youth were administered a comprehensive battery of neuropsychological measures tapping the broad domain of executive functions and overall intellectual functioning and completed a personality measure assessing both primary traits and broad temperaments. Mothers reported on their son's temperament and behaviors. Results indicated that, as expected, high Negative Temperament and Disinhibition were associated with both youth and mother reports of externalizing behaviors, with similar cross-informant associations. Specific EF dimensions were correlated with both temperament and externalizing behaviors and provided an incremental contribution above and beyond temperament in explaining externalizing behaviors. Results of the study contribute to the extant literature concerning the dimension of externalizing and inform future research on developing a comprehensive etiological model of externalizing behaviors.

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Executive functions refer to the individual capacity of engage in objective oriented behaviors, that is, to carry out autonomous and auto-organized actions, oriented for specific goals. Abilities related to the executive functions overlap the psychological concept of intelligent behavior; however, some studies have revealed inconsistency in the relation between those functions and intelligence. Based on this, the proposed study investigated the relation between executive and non-executive functions with intelligence. Specifically, this study analyzed the difference between groups with medium, higher and much higher intelligence concerning the executive and non-executive functions; possible gender effects over performance in executive, non-executive functions and intelligence; the relation among executive functions, non-executive functions and intelligence; and if the relation between intelligence and executive functions is more evident than the relation between intelligence and non-executive functions as the intelligence level increases. The participants were 120 students, boys and girls at age 15 and 16, attending High School in one public and three private schools in the state of São Paulo. They were divided in three groups which are medium, higher, and much higher intelligence. The material utilized were Raven Progressives Matrices General Scale, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III), Computerized Stroop Test, FAS Verbal Fluency Test, Trail Making Test part B, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Pseudowords and Words Repetition Test and Rey Complex Figure Test. Variance and Tukey posthoc analyses revealed significant differences in performance among the groups in the measure of verbal IQ and execution IQ in the WISC-III, verbal fluency, cognitive flexibility, vocabulary and visospatial processing. Student s t-Test evidenced that the girls performance were superior comparing to the boys on the Vocabulary sub-test from WISC-III, while the boys showed superior performance in the Information and Cubes sub-tests from WISC-III and in the selective attention measure evaluated by Stroop comparing to the girls. Pearson s Correlation Analysis evidenced correlations among intelligence, executive and non-executive functions most of them in a low to moderate level confirming literature regarding the executive functions multidimensionality and to the need of differenciating such construct regarding intelligence. There were no evidences that the relation between tests of intelligence and executive functions increases according to the intelligence level. So, this investigation tried to support the comprehension of the relation among executive, non-executive functions and intelligence.
As funções executivas referem-se, de forma geral, à capacidade do sujeito de engajar-se em comportamentos orientados a objetivos, ou seja, à realização de ações voluntárias, independentes, autônomas, auto-organizadas e orientadas para metas específicas. Habilidades relacionadas às funções executivas sobrepõem-se ao conceito psicológico de comportamento inteligente, porém alguns estudos têm revelado inconsistências na relação entre tais funções e inteligência. Nesse sentido, o presente estudo investigou a relação das funções executivas e não-executivas com a inteligência. Especificamente, foram analisadas as diferenças entre grupos com inteligência média, inteligência superior e inteligência muito superior nas funções executivas e não-executivas; possíveis efeitos de gênero sobre o desempenho em funções executivas, não-executivas e inteligência; a relação entre funções executivas, não-executivas e inteligência; e se a relação entre inteligência e funções executivas é mais evidente do que entre inteligência e funções não-executivas conforme aumenta o nível de inteligência. Participaram 120 adolescentes de 15 e 16 anos, alunos do Ensino Médio, de ambos os sexos, de uma escola pública e três particulares do Estado de São Paulo, divididos em três grupos, quais sejam, inteligência média, inteligência superior e inteligência muito superior. O material utilizado para a coleta de dados se constituiu das Matrizes Progressivas de Raven Escala Geral, da Escala de Inteligência Wechsler para Crianças (WISC-III), do Teste de Stroop Computadorizado, do Teste de Fluência Verbal, do Teste de Trilhas B, do Teste de Vocabulário por Imagens Peabody, do Teste de Repetição de Palavras e Pseudopalavras e do Teste Figuras Complexas de Rey. Análises de Variância e de comparação de pares de Tukey revelaram diferenças significativas de desempenho entre os grupos nas medidas de QI verbal e de execução do WISC-III, fluência verbal, flexibilidade cognitiva, vocabulário e processamento visoespacial. Test t de Student evidenciou que o desempenho das meninas foi superior em relação ao desempenho dos meninos no subteste Vocabulário do WISC-III, enquanto os meninos apresentaram desempenho superior nos subtestes Informação e Cubos do WISC-III e na medida atenção seletiva avaliada pelo Stroop quando comparados com as meninas. Análises de Correlação de Pearson evidenciaram correlações entre os testes de inteligência, funções executivas e funções não-executivas, a maioria delas de baixas a moderadas, corroborando a literatura no que tange à multidimensionalidade das funções executivas e à necessidade de diferenciar tal construto em relação à inteligência. Não houve evidências de que a relação entre inteligência e funções executivas aumenta em função do nível de inteligência. Desta forma, essa investigação tentou auxiliar na compreensão da relação entre funções executivas, não-executivas e inteligência.

In the present set of experiments, we investigated the effects of age and COMT genotypes on traditional measures of executive functions, e.g., Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST; Hart et al., 1988), a battery of executive functions based on the 3 factor model (shifting, updating, inhibition) described by Miyake et al. (2000) and developed at the University of Arizona (Alexander et al., 2012), and two fMRI tasks of executive functions (shifting, updating). The results of experiment 1 showed that COMT influenced performance on several traditional measures of executive functions, with Met homozygotes outperforming Val homozygotes. However, on the WCST we did not observe less perseverative errors in Met carriers as reported previously (Barnett, Jones, Robbins, & Muller, 2007; Bruder et al., 2005; Malhotra et al., 2002; Nagel et al., 2008). According to Miyake et al. (2000), however, such tasks as the WCST may actually involve multiple executive processes, making it difficult to tease apart the different types of executive functions being measured. Furthermore, COMT may be sensitive to some aspects of executive functions and not others. To this end, in experiment 2 we investigated associations between COMT and measures of executive functions from each of the 3 domains described in Miyake et al. (2000). According to the models proposed by Bilder et al. (2004) and Cools and D’Esposito (2011), the Val allele promotes cognitive flexibility, while the Met allele promotes cognitive stability. Contrary to what we expected, Met homozygotes actually performed better than Met/Val heterozygotes but no better than Val homozygotes on one measure of updating (flexibility). Upon closer examination of the processes involved in the updating task, however, the results may not necessarily be contradictory as the task may have required greater stability than previously thought. In the fMRI experiment, although behavioral performance was largely similar between age groups and COMT genotypes on the fMRI tasks, we observed differences in activation such that younger adults and Met homozygotes showed higher levels of activation relative to older adults and Val carriers, respectively. Our results suggest that these higher levels of activation may have been relied upon to maintain similar levels of performance. Additionally, across the 3 experiments the effects of COMT indicate that an overall Met advantage cannot be assumed. Rather, the benefits of one allele compared to the other should be investigated in terms of the specific cognitive processes involved in the task at hand. Thus, it is important for future studies to continue characterizing the unity and diversity of executive functions and investigate factors that may influence these patterns behaviorally and neurally, such as age and genetics.

Objectius: L’entrenament de la consciència plena és un mètode didàctic pràctic i acceptat, dirigit a millorar les funcions executives dels alumnes d’educació primària. Amb tot, els estudis de consciència plena realitzats fins ara sobre els alumnes d’ensenyament primari han estat dirigits majoritàriament per instructors externs, aliens a l’aula i a la seva rutina escolar. Calen més projectes de recerca sobre la consciència plena liderats per docents i integrats en els plans d’estudi. Mind Yeti és un programa d’intervenció basat en la consciència plena que compleix amb aquests requisits. En aquest estudi s’avaluen els efectes que els programes d’entrenament de la consciència plena tenen sobre els components administratius del Mind Yeti, la qual cosa afecta les funcions executives dels estudiants d’educació primària. Així mateix, hem analitzat la forma en què els alumnes van interpretar la seva pròpia experiència en el programa d’intervenció. Plantegem la hipòtesi que aquest programa d’intervenció, integrat en el pla d’estudis, tindria efectes positius sobre totes les funcions executives: inhibició, control emocional, flexibilitat cognitiva, atenció sostinguda, memòria de treball i organització. Metodologia: Un variat grup d’estudiants de 3r, 4t i 5è d’educació primària (n = 177; amb edats compreses entre els 8 i els 11 anys) va participar en un programa d’intervenció de Mind Yeti que es va dur a terme a la seva aula habitual al llarg de sis sessions setmanals distribuïdes en sis setmanes. Els estudiants van autoavaluar les seves funcions executives a través d’uns qüestionaris que van realitzar anteriorment i posteriorment a la prova. Els participants inclosos en aquest breu programa d’intervenció basat en la consciència plena anomenat Mind Yeti es van establir a tota l’escola. Els professors van seguir un calendari específicament adaptat per tal de poder incorporar les sessions de Mind Yeti a les seves classes durant 45 minuts setmanals. Els alumnes van respondre a dos qüestionaris, un previ al programa d’intervenció i un altre posterior a aquest, perquè poguéssim conèixer els seus nivells de percepció de les funcions executives. Les puntuacions obtingudes es van utilitzar per calcular la puntuació global corresponent a cada funció executiva. Els alumnes també van respondre a una enquesta posterior a la prova, en la qual van compartir la seva opinió sobre el programa d’intervenció basat en la consciència plena. Resultats: Els resultats van revelar que els estudiants havien millorat significativament la puntuació prèviament obtinguda en quant a inhibicions, memòria de treball i flexibilitat cognitiva. Així mateix, els alumnes de 5è curs van respondre millor al Mind Yeti que els alumnes de 3r any. Inesperadament, no es van produir canvis significatius pel que fa al control emocional, l’atenció sostinguda i l’organització. L’aspecte qualitatiu de l’estudi va generar tres temes i set categories que van demostrar que els estudiants tenien preferència per les activitats relacionades amb la respiració, l’escolta i la imaginació. A més, les troballes qualitatives van posar de manifest que les activitats de consciència plena els van mantenir tranquils, relaxats i concentrats. Els alumnes també van recomanar realitzar sessions de consciència plena més sovint. Conclusió: Els resultats van coincidir parcialment amb la hipòtesi que sembla indicar que el Mind Yeti constitueix un instrument d’intervenció apropiat i eficaç pel que fa a la millora de les funcions executives dels alumnes i, per tant, pot ser una aportació positiva als programes d’estudis d’ensenyament primari. Calen noves investigacions que permetin reproduir aquestes troballes.
Objetivos: El entrenamiento de la conciencia plena es un enfoque didáctico práctico y aceptado, dirigido a mejorar las funciones ejecutivas de los alumnos de Educación Primaria. Sin embargo, los estudios realizados hasta ahora sobre alumnos de enseñanza primaria han estado dirigidos mayoritariamente por instructores externos, ajenos al aula y a su rutina escolar. Se necesitan más proyectos de investigación sobre la conciencia plena, liderados por docentes e integrados en los planes de estudio. Mind Yeti es un programa de intervención basado en la conciencia plena que cumple con estos requisitos. En el presente estudio se evalúan los efectos que tienen los programas de entrenamiento de la conciencia plena sobre los componentes administrativos del Mind Yeti, los cuales afectan a las funciones ejecutivas de los estudiantes de Educación Primaria. Asimismo, hemos analizado la forma en que los alumnos interpretaron su propia experiencia en el programa de intervención. Planteamos la hipótesis de que este programa de intervención, integrado en el plan de estudios, tendría efectos positivos sobre todas las funciones ejecutivas: inhibición, control emocional, flexibilidad cognitiva, atención sostenida, memoria de trabajo y organización. Metodología: Un variado grupo de estudiantes de 3º, 4º y 5º de Educación Primaria (n = 177; con edades comprendidas entre los 8 y los 11 años) participó en un programa de intervención de Mind Yeti que se llevó a cabo en su aula habitual a lo largo de seis sesiones semanales distribuidas en seis semanas. Los estudiantes autoevaluaron sus funciones ejecutivas a través de los cuestionarios que realizaron con anterioridad y posterioridad a la prueba. Los participantes incluidos en este breve programa de intervención basado en la conciencia plena, llamado Mind Yeti, se establecieron en toda la escuela. Los profesores siguieron un calendario específicamente adaptado con el fin de poder incorporar las sesiones de Mind Yeti a sus clases durante 45 minutos semanales. Los alumnos respondieron a dos cuestionarios, uno previo al programa de intervención y otro posterior al mismo, para que pudiéramos conocer sus niveles de percepción de las funciones ejecutivas. Las puntuaciones obtenidas se utilizaron para calcular la puntuación compuesta correspondiente a cada función ejecutiva. Los alumnos también respondieron a una encuesta posterior a la prueba, en la cual compartieron su opinión sobre el programa de intervención basado en la conciencia plena. Resultados: Los resultados revelaron que los estudiantes habían mejorado significativamente la puntuación previamente obtenida en cuanto a inhibiciones, memoria de trabajo y flexibilidad cognitiva. Asimismo, los alumnos de 5º curso respondieron mejor al Mind Yeti que los alumnos de 3er año. Sorprendentemente, no se produjeron cambios significativos en lo que respecta al control emocional, la atención sostenida y la organización. El aspecto cualitativo del estudio generó tres temas y siete categorías que demostraron que los estudiantes tenían preferencia por las actividades relacionadas con la respiración, la escucha y la imaginación. Además, los hallazgos cualitativos pusieron de manifiesto que las actividades de conciencia plena los mantuvieron tranquilos, relajados y centrados. Los alumnos también recomendaron realizar sesiones de conciencia plena con mayor frecuencia. Conclusión: Los resultados coincidieron parcialmente con la hipótesis, lo cual parece indicar que el Mind Yeti constituye un instrumento de intervención apropiado y eficaz en lo que respecta a la mejora de las funciones ejecutivas de los alumnos y, por tanto, puede ser una aportación positiva a los programas de enseñanza primaria. Se necesitan nuevas investigaciones que permitan replicar estos hallazgos.
Objectives: Mindfulness training is an accepted and practical didactic approach to improve the executive functions of elementary school students. However, previous mindfulness studies that were conducted on elementary school students have been primarily led by external instructors, outside of the natural classroom and school-day routine. More teacher-led, curriculum-embedded mindfulness research is needed. The Mind Yeti program is a mindfulness intervention that fulfils these requirements. This study evaluates the effects of mindfulness training programs on the administrative components of Mind Yeti, impacting the executive functions of elementary school students. We also looked how students interpreted their experience with the intervention. We hypothesize that this curriculum-embedded intervention would have positive effects on each executive function: inhibition, emotional control, cognitive flexibility, sustained attention, working memory, and organization. Method: A diverse sample of 3rd, 4th, and 5th-grade elementary school students (n = 177; aged 8 to 11 years old) participated in a Mind Yeti intervention in their general education classroom, with six sessions per week for six weeks. Students self-reported their executive functions on pretest and posttest questionnaires. The participants in the brief mindfulness intervention program, Mind Yeti, were implemented on a school-wide basis. Teachers followed a specifically tailored calendar to play Mind Yeti sessions to their classes for a total of 45 minutes weekly. Students completed a pretest questionnaire before the intervention, and posttest questionnaire after the intervention to report on their perceived levels of executive functions, and their scores were used to calculate the composite score for each executive function. Students also completed posttest surveys to share their opinion of their perception of the mindfulness intervention program. Results: The results indicated that students significantly improved scores of inhibitions, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Additionally, students in 5th grade responded better to Mind Yeti than students in 3rd grade. Unexpectedly, changes in emotional-control, sustained attention, and organization were not significant. The qualitative aspect of the study generated three themes and seven categories showing that students preferred the breathing, listening, and imagining activities. Additionally, the qualitative findings showed that the mindfulness activities made them calm, relaxed, and focused. Students also recommended having more frequent mindfulness sessions than were offered. Conclusion: Results were partially consistent with the hypothesis, suggesting that Mind Yeti is an appropriate and effective intervention for improving students’ executive functions, and thus may be a positive addition to elementary schools’ curriculum. Future research is required to replicate these findings.

This study examined the relation between executive functioning (EF) and risk taking in adolescents using a dual system approach. According to the dual system perspective adolescents are prone to engage in risky behaviors as a result of an imbalance between the cognitive control system and the affective system (Casey, Getz & Galvan, 2008; Cohen, 2005; Steinberg, 2008; Van Leijenhorst et al., 2010). We investigated both the possible direct impact EF capacity has on risk taking as well as how the developmental trajectory of EF influences adolescent risk taking. 34 participants between 15-18 years of age from a non-clinical group carried out four computerized tasks. Two tasks measured risk taking, the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) and the Columbia Card Task (CCT) and two tasks measured EF, N-back and the Matrix Monitoring Task. The participants had earlier carried out similar EF tasks in 2004 and 2008. The results showed that risk taking tendencies correlated negatively with performance in the EF tasks. No correlation was found between developmental trajectories of EF and risk taking. An alternative explanation for this result is presented. Our findings indicate support for the dual system perspective and we discuss some practical implications of the dual system way of looking at risk taking.

Executive control is a vital cognitive function that facilitates the focussing and shifting of attention, planning and working towards a goal, ignoring distractions, and flexibly responding to novel situations. Disruptions to executive control are seen in many psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders, as well as healthy ageing, which can be profoundly detrimental. Despite having many effective and well-validated methodologies for detecting and quantifying these deficits, there are very few treatments — pharmacological or otherwise — for ameliorating executive dysfunction. This lack of progress can partly be blamed on difficulties associated with identifying drugs that enhance cognition in preclinical research. The work in this thesis aimed to expand our understanding of executive dysfunction — as well as the tasks that measure it — in rats. In results presented in chapter three, middle-aged rats demonstrated impaired reversal learning on the standard attentional set-shifting task, but this was treatable with a novel drug targeting the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor. The age impairments seen in this experiment were similar to those previously found in young rats with orbital prefrontal cortex (OFC) lesions. The results of chapter four expanded on this similarity to show that, along with reversal deficits, young OFC-lesioned rats are impaired at forming attentional sets when tested on a modified task. In chapter five, another modified set-shifting task revealed that middle-aged rats also suffer from impaired set-formation, but their reversal learning impairments only manifest before attentional set has been formed — not after. Finally, in chapter six, the putative cognitive enhancer modafinil was found to exacerbate middle-aged rats' reversal learning deficit, but it also enhanced their subsequent ability to form attentional set. These experiments reveal that modifying the rat attentional set-shifting task can sometimes make it a more effective tool for testing cognitive enhancers in preclinical settings.

In the present study, linkages between early aggression and Executive Functions (EFs), the cognitive control processes associated with goal-directed behaviour and novel problem solving, were evaluated. Of interest was how specific EFs were related to early dimensional subtypes of aggression, specifically disaggregated into its forms (physical, relational) and functions (proactive, reactive). Kindergarten children (N = 255) were individually rated by teachers in terms of their tendencies to engage in four different subtypes of aggression -- proactive and reactive physical aggression, and proactive and reactive relational aggression. Children rated as high versus low in each of the four subtypes of aggression were compared for differences in “Cool EFs,” such as executive attention, inhibition, working memory, flexibility, planning, and the conjoint use of several EFs, and one “Hot EF” or more affectively-based cognitive control. Results of a series of 2 (high, low aggression) by 2 (male, female) analyses of variance, conducted for each of the four subtypes of aggression, indicated significant differences in Executive Functioning as a function of both levels of aggression and sex (main effects), and multiple interactions of aggression and sex. Boys were rated by their teachers as displaying higher levels of proactive and reactive physical aggression, and more attention problems than girls, whereas no significant sex differences were observed in proactive or reactive relational aggression. Differential patterns of EFs were observed across aggression subtypes and for male versus female children. Higher levels of proactive physical aggression were associated with weaknesses in several specific EFs (i.e., more attention problems; poorer visual-spatial working memory; poorer conjoint selective attention, flexibility, and working memory; and poorer delay of gratification), as were higher levels of reactive physical aggression (i.e., more attention problems; poorer inhibition; poorer visual-spatial working memory; less flexibility; and poorer conjoint selective attention, flexibility, and working memory). Boys with reactive physical aggression demonstrated additional impairments, including poorer delay of gratification and marginally poorer planning abilities. Further, girls high in proactive relational aggression demonstrated stronger verbal working memory and planning abilities, and marginally higher visual-spatial working memory abilities, whereas boys high in reactive relational aggression demonstrated poorer crystallized and planning abilities.

PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO
COORDENAÇÃO DE APERFEIÇOAMENTO DO PESSOAL DE ENSINO SUPERIOR
PROGRAMA DE SUPORTE À PÓS-GRADUAÇÃO DE INSTS. DE ENSINO
PROGRAMA DE SUPORTE À PÓS-GRADUAÇÃO DE INSTITUIÇÕES COMUNITÁRIAS DE ENSINO PARTICULARES
As funções executivas (FEs) são um conjunto de habilidades cognitivas envolvidas no controle consciente da ação e do pensamento. Seu desenvolvimento acompanha o processo prolongado de mielinização do córtex pré-frontal e, por isso, estaria exposto não só a fatores biológicos, mas também ambientais. Sendo a figura dos pais um importante fator no desenvolvimento infantil, a presente dissertação investigou as relações entre parentalidade e funções executivas de crianças em idade escolar. Para tanto, foi constituída de dois estudos. O primeiro baseia-se em uma revisão sistemática que a partir de uma seleção criteriosa elegeu 10 artigos que foram estudados no que tange a: aspectos gerais e metodológicos, parentalidade, FEs e resultados apresentados sobre influência da parentalidade nas FEs. Todos os artigos mostraram relações diretas ou indiretas entre parentalidade e o funcionamento executivo infantil. Já o segundo estudo teve como objetivo investigar as relações entre estilos parentais, práticas educativas maternas e funções executivas de crianças de 8 a 11 anos de idade. Ainda, considerou o papel da escolaridade da mãe e a renda familiar nessas relações. A amostra foi composta por 75 crianças que foram avaliadas no que tange à memória operacional, controle inibitório, fluência verbal e planejamento. Como resultados a prática educativa de disciplina relaxada foi associada ao desempenho no controle inibitório e o comportamento moral associou-se positivamente com a memória operacional. Já a escolaridade da mãe e a renda foram correlacionadas positivamente com controle inibitório, planejamento e fluência verbal. Em suma, nas duas pesquisas foram encontradas relações entre parentalidade e funções executivas, destacando a importância da consistência parental nessa dinâmica.
The executive functions (EFs) are a range of cognitive skills involved in the conscious control of action and thought. The development of these functions follows the extended myelination process of the prefrontal cortex and, because of that, it is exposed, not only to biological factors but also to environmental ones. Being the parent figure an important agent in children s environment, this academic work intended to investigate the relationships between parental behavior and executive functions in school-age children. This work is formed by two studies: the first one is based on a systematic review that, from a detailed selection, elected 10 articles that were analyzed considering general and methodological aspects, parenting, EFs and results found on the influence that prental behaviours perform on EFs. All articles presented direct or indirect relationships between parental behavior and child executive functioning. The second study aimed to investigate the relationships between parenting style, maternal practices and executive functions in 8-11-year-old children. Furthermore, it investigated the role of the mother s education and the family income in these relationships. The sample consisted of 75 children that were assessed regarding working memory, inhibitory control, verbal fluency, and planning. As results, the parenting practice of a lenient discipline by the parents was associated with inhibitory control s performance, and moral behavior was positively associated with working memory. In turn, mother s education and income were po-sitively correlated with inhibitory control, planning, and verbal fluency. In conclusion, some relationships between parenting and executive functions were found, highlighting the importance of parental consistency in this dynamics.

This thesis aimed to investigate the relationship between obsessive-compulsive symptoms (particularly obsessive intrusive thoughts) and executive functions (particularly working memory). Previous research had demonstrated executive function (EF) deficits in individuals with OCD. Executive functions are those cognitive mechanisms that help to control and regulate thoughts and behaviour. However, several questions remained unanswered: 1) do individuals with subclinical OCD also demonstrate EF deficits? 2) Are those EF deficits found in individuals with OCD trait in nature, or caused by state factors? 3) Are EFs implicated in OCD-relevant processes, such as thought control strategies? Three studies were conducted to help investigate these questions further. The study presented in chapter two found no difference between individuals with subclinical OCD and nonclinical individuals on a range of executive function tasks. The study presented in chapter three found that an increase in obsessive intrusive thoughts did not lead to impairments in working memory. The study presented in chapter four found no relationship between working memory and an individual’s ability to dismiss obsessive intrusive thoughts. The implications of the results from this thesis are discussed and future directions are suggested.

Exekutive Funktionen (EF) sind eine Gruppe von Top-Down-Prozessen, die in neuartigen Situationen eingesetzt werden, um neue Trigger-Response-Assoziationen herzustellen oder vorhandene Handlungsoptionen an neue Situationen anzupassen. Obwohl EF erschöpfend untersucht wurden, bleiben wichtige Fragen offen. Beispiele dafür sind (a) Sind Exekutivfunktionen vollständig trennbar oder beruhen sie auf einem gemeinsamen neurokognitiven System? (b) Was messen verschiedene Versionen der Stroop-Aufgabe, einer der meist-verwendeten Aufgaben zur Prüfung der Inhibitionsfunktion? (c) Muss Inhibition immer Ressourcen-fordernd sein, oder gibt es eine Form der Inhibition, die mühelos implementiert werden kann? Zur Beantwortung dieser Fragen, habe ich neurokognitive Korrelate von EF und ihrer Verbesserung mithilfe posthypnotischer Suggestionen (PHS) und Ereigniskorrelierter Hirnpotentiale (EKP) untersucht. Zusammenfassend ergaben sich folgende Antworten: (a) Psychometrische und EKP-Daten aus den Studien zur Gedächtnisaktualisierung und Inhibition sowie deren Verbesserung anhand PHS zeigten sowohl funktionsspezifische als auch gemeinsame neurokognitive Prozesse der Inhibition und Aktualisierung. (b) Obwohl sowohl die vokale als auch die manuelle Version der Stroop-Aufgabe Inhibitionsfunktionen erfordern, ist die vokale Version Ressourcen-fordernder, da sie mindestens einen zusätzlichen Lokus der Interferenz im Antwort-Produktionsprozess aufweist, der nicht mit PHS beeinflussbar ist und der in der manuellen Version fehlt. (c) Unter Verwendung PHS zur Erhöhung der Präferenzen für kalorienarme Lebensmittel untersuchte ich die Auflösung von Konflikten. Die EKP-Ergebnisse zeigten, dass auch Konflikt-Auflösung, ähnlich wie Inhibition, Ressourcen konsumiert. Insgesamt zeigt dieses Projekt, dass die Verwendung Aufgaben-bezogener PHS in Kombination mit Neuroimaging-Techniken einen fruchtbaren Ansatz für die Untersuchung ungeklärter Fragen über Exekutivfunktionen darstellt.
Executive functions (EF) are a group of top-down processes used in novel situations to develop or adapt existing responses to the task at hand. Even though EFs are studied exhaustively, several important questions remain unanswered: (a) Are EFs entirely separated, or do they rely on a common system? (b) What do different versions of the Stroop task measure? (c) Does inhibition always need to be effortful? To address these questions, I investigated neurocognitive correlates of EFs and their enhancements by means of posthypnotic suggestions (PHS) and event-related potentials (ERP). However, before one can use PHSs, it must be elucidated whether and how they affect EFs. Although PHSs are used repeatedly for improving inhibition, it is unclear whether their effects are mediated by bottom-up or top-down processes. By using an updating task, I showed that effects of PHSs can be attributed to top-down processes. Accordingly, a new theory of hypnosis was proposed and empirically tested by modeling hypnotizability scores with structural equation modeling. In short, the simulation-adaption theory suggests that several top-down processes are employed for responding to suggestions. After elucidating the driving mechanism of PHSs is mentally practicing a novel strategy, PHSs were used for addressing the questions regarding EFs. Summarizing (a) the psychometric and ERP results from several studies indicated that different EFs rely on both function-specific and shared neurocognitive processes. (b) Even though different versions of the Stroop task are tapping into inhibition, the vocal compared to the manual version has at least an extra response-production-related locus of interference. (c) Using PHSs for increasing preferences for low-calorie food items, it is shown that resolve is effortful to implement, as indicated by increased P300 amplitudes. Together, this project shows how PHSs, along with neuroimaging techniques, can provide a novel approach for investigating EFs.

Executive Functioning (EF) such as planning, organization, attention, and self-control, has a high impact on quality of life, but is vulnerable to aging.  One factor that may help to maintain and strengthen EF is Occupational Complexity (OC), the degree of complexity in one’s primary occupation in life.  Higher OC has been associated with higher EF performance in old age.  However, few of these findings were based on the latest occupational taxonomy (Occupational Network Information; O*NET) that may best reflect todays jobs.  The current study adds to this scarce body of knowledge by examining EF, as conceptualized by Miyake, et al. (2000), and OC, using O*NET.  Data from the Umeå Healthy Aging longitudinal study database was analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling to test the relationship between EF, OC, and their component constructs.  Results from 227 participants showed that individuals with higher OC had higher EF in late life, but this association was not statistically significant (nearly all p values <.05), suggesting that there was no such association in the current sample.
Executive Functioning (EF) som planering, organisation, uppmärksamhet och självkontroll har stor inverkan på livskvaliteten, men är sårbara för åldrande. En faktor som kan bidra till att upprätthålla och stärka EF är Occupational Complexity (OC), graden av komplexitet i ens främsta yrke i livet. Högre OC har förknippats med högre EF-prestanda i ålderdom. Emellertid var få av dessa resultat baserade på den senaste yrkes taxonomin (Occupational Network Information; O*NET) som bäst kan återspegla dagens jobb. Den nuvarande studien ökar denna knappa kunskapskomponent genom att undersöka EF, som konceptualiserats av Miyake, et al. (2000) och OC med O*NET. Data från Umeå Healthy Aging longitudinell studiedatabas analyserades med hjälp av strukturell ekvationsmodellering för att testa förhållandet mellan EF, OC och deras komponentkonstruktioner. Resultat från 227 deltagare visade att individer med högre OC hade högre EF under sent liv, men denna förening var inte statistiskt signifikant (nästan alla p-värden <0,05), vilket tyder på att det inte fanns någon sådan associering i det aktuella urvalet.

Due to the Coronavirus crisis, in-person meetings were replaced with video conferences, via a computer program called Zoom.

Resilience implies the ability to quickly recover from a negative life event and adapt to changing situations. The goal of the current study was to explore the mechanisms underlying resilience, including the roles of cognitive emotion regulation (reappraisal) and cognitive flexibility. Although all aforementioned mechanisms were investigated, there was a particular focus on the relationship between resilience and "affective flexibility," a term used to describe cognitive flexibility in processing affective stimuli. In the current study, participants completed several self-report personality and behavioral scales, including measures of trait-resilience and cognitive reappraisal, a cognitive flexibility task, a working memory task and two novel affective flexibility tasks. Results showed that one of the two affective flexibility tasks was a valid measure of the affective flexibility construct; affective flexibility significantly predicted level of resilience above and beyond cognitive flexibility and working memory. Cognitive flexibility was also a unique predictor of resilience when controlling for affective flexibility and working memory. Cognitive reappraisal was positively correlated with resilience but it did not appear to mediate the relationship between affective flexibility and resilience. This study was the first to demonstrate that resilience is related to specific cognitive abilities rather than general executive functioning. It is also the first to introduce and operationalize the construct of affective flexibility and show that it is a distinct process from cognitive flexibility. Research limitations and future directions are discussed.

The purpose of the present dissertation was to shed light on the neurophysiological effect of regular consumption of low amounts of alcohol on two important aspects of executive functions, cognitive interference and response inhibition, using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in a sample of young adults. Participants were recruited from the Ottawa Prenatal Prospective Study (OPPS), a longitudinal study that has collected data from participants from infancy to young adulthood, which permitted control of a number of potentially confounding drug and lifestyle variables. This allowed for investigation of the unique effect of alcohol use on executive functions. The dissertation itself is comprised of two original manuscripts: the first study compared low-level alcohol users to controls on performance of the Counting Stroop, a task of cognitive interference; and the second study compared users to controls on performance of the Go/No-Go, a task of response inhibition.Although the results of both studies found no performance differences between groups, low-level alcohol users had significantly more brain activation in several regions, including areas not typically associated with task processing, compared to irregular or non-drinker controls. This difference in neurophysiology may be reflective of compensatory strategies within the brain, whereby the recruitment of additional regions may be attempting to compensate for potential underlying deficits that occur with increasing cognitive demand. While further research is needed to validate this hypothesis, the present findings highlight the vulnerability of the developing brain.

The present study examined the neuropsychological relevance of poor sleep in a sample of community dwelling healthy older adults and a clinical sample of patients with untreated obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) between 40 and 90 years of age. The cognitive performance of 67 patients with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) was compared to those of 46 controls screened for OSA using a portable device called ApneaLinkTM. The current study identified common neuropsychological variables associated with poor sleep quality in general (i.e., as a result of daytime sleepiness) and neuropsychological variables unique to only OSA patients (i.e., manifesting oxygen desaturation at night in addition to daytime sleepiness). Results indicated executive functions were related to hypoxemia and sustained attention was related to sleep fragmentation in the current study. A medical sequelae model and a neuropsychological sequelae model were tested. The neuropsychological sequelae model predicted whether one was a control or an OSA patient 70% accurately based on the predictors (scores on Wisconsin Card Sorting Test perseverance error, vigilance task, WAIS III forward digit span, WAIS III Block Design, phonemic and semantic fluency, and WAIS III backward digit span). The medical sequelae model predicted OSA status 89% accurately based on the predictors (BMI, depression, subjective sleep quality, age, hypertension, diabetes, total mood disturbance, gender, and general health). The current study provides further justification for OSA screening in the general population during middle age and late adulthood especially in those most at risk (i.e., overweight, male, hypertensive, and poor subjective sleep quality).

This project examined whether the executive functions of set maintenance and switching, as assessed by neuropsychological testing, were predictors of set maintenance and switching within a more ecologically valid task that used metacognitive strategies during reading comprehension tasks as a framework for evaluation. Gaze times to key words during reading were used as an indirect measure of strategy use. A few significant relationships were found between set maintenance and set switching on the neuropsychological measures and the strategy learning and application tasks. Participants were more likely to switch to appropriate strategies in a situation in which they were given free choice of strategies to use, and in which characteristics of the text pulled for the use of a particular strategy. In contrast, participants were less consistent with expected strategy use when they had just learned a strategy and were asked explicitly to apply it to a text that did not pull for use of a particular strategy. Factors such as visual scanning, motor speed, working memory, and passage comprehension affected the relationship between executive functions and the more ecologically valid task.

Research is increasingly attempting to understand the developmental nature of depressive symptomology and its links with executive functioning (EF), repetitive negative thinking (RNT) and stress (e.g., Snyder & Hankin, 2016). Prospective studies are needed to explore the potential mechanisms underlying these associations. This study investigated whether EFs can predict changes in RNT, stress and depressive symptoms during a period of stress. One hundred and two undergraduates completed questionnaires measuring life events, trait and state RNT, depressive and anxious symptoms as well as behavioural EF tasks of cognitive switching and inhibitory control at baseline (Time 1). Follow-up questionnaires of RNT, stress, depression and anxiety were gathered approximately two months later (Time 2), during students’ formal examinations, a period of naturally elevated stress. Findings indicated no association between EF and RNT, depression or anxiety but found that the interaction between high levels of trait RNT and low levels of EF (switching) at baseline was a significant predictor of change in state RNT under stress. Findings are discussed in light of current research attempting to unpick associations between EF, RNT and depression in young adults.

Executive Functions (EF) and Emotion Regulation (ER) are essential for children´s ability to regulate and control thoughts, behavior and emotions but the developmental relations between them are unclear. The present study was performed within the project PsPATHS with the purpose to investigate the relation between EF and ER. Performance on cognitive tasks tapping inhibitory control, working memory and cognitive flexibility were combined with teacher report of ER in 55 four to five year old preschool children. Contrary to the hypothesis, no significant relations could be established between EF and ER in this sample. For the EF components, the result showed a significant association between inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility, however, no further associations could be evidenced. The study demonstrates an advantage in using multiple measures and suggests that attention along with motivational and affective aspects of EF should be considered in future research of children´s ability to regulate emotions.

Lesions of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) alleviate the cardinal signs of idiopathic as well as MPTP-induced Parkinson's disease in primates. For this reason, the STN is a target for clinical treatment of Parkinson's disease using deep brain stimulation. Despite its small size, the STN plays a vital role in the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamic network. However, the functional features of the STN have yet to be fully uncovered. The research presented in this thesis examines the functions of the STN by measuring behavioural changes resulting from STN lesions in rats performing executive abilities. In the first experiment, a ‘signal change' reaction time task was developed and the performance of humans and rats was compared. The main findings were that although humans and rats used different strategies in the task, the task did challenge the ability to inhibit unwanted responses. In the second and third experiments, the effects of bilateral lesions of the STN on performance of two variants of the ‘signal change' task were examined. Rats with the STN lesions were able to inhibit responses when under stimulus control, but were less able to inhibit responses that were not under stimulus control. In the final experiment, the effects of lesions of the STN on inhibitory control in a nonmotor, cognitive domain were examined. Rats with STN lesions were not impaired on reversal learning, suggesting intact inhibition of previously rewarded responses. The rats with STN lesions did show impairments in selective attention which resulted in an inability to form an attentional set. Together, these findings challenge the conventional view that the STN simply plays a global inhibitory role. Rather, the contribution of the STN to inhibitory control is more complex and neither the motor nor the cognitive effects of the lesions are easily explained simply as a failure of inhibition.

Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterised by a range of behaviours that include excessive motor activity and distractibility. Motor coordination problem is often a feature. It is therefore likely that motor control mechanisms are implicated in ADHD and then executive function associated with it. After a literature review on the correlation between cognition and movement (chapter 1), the novel VSWM (chapter 2) and sequential learning (chapter 3) tasks are introduced. Based on the typical Corsi tapping task, participants were instructed to either move their hand to the stimulus presented on the computer screen or tap the keyboard when they saw it, while trying to remember the location and order of the stimuli. The results suggest that movements deteriorate VSWM in both ADHD and control groups (chapter 2) while they had a tendency to improve learning performance in healthy but not ADHD participants (chapter 3). It was posited that the results from both tasks could have been influenced by differences in the ability to concentrate on the task and difficulty in controlling movements. Two other experiments were used to test this assumption and eliminate any confounds from the memory and learning tasks. The results from chapter 4, which looks at divided attention, indicate a significantly higher response rate in the ADHD compared to the healthy participants, while showing no significant deficit in fine motor but rather on the attentional control (chapter 5) in ADHD participants. These findings are summarised in chapter 6 and discussed in terms of 1) the relationship between movement and cognitive function, 2) the causation of the VSWM deficit in ADHD, and 3) the potential use these tasks may have in a clinical setting as an assessment tool or cognitive training program for people with ADHD.

Recent studies have indicated that individual differences in Executive Functionings (EF) are independent predictors of multitasking performance and mediated by spatial ability. However, these studies lacked multiple measures of EF and their observed effects of spatial processing may have been induced by the nature of the spatial task per se. In this study, participants completed a multitasking session in which they monitored deadlines of four digital clocks running at different rates along with separate measures of EF (inhibition and updating) and spatial ability (mental rotation). Results showed that individual differences in mental rotation and EF were independent predictors of multitasking performance, even when task-specific spatial cues were eliminated. Furthermore, males showed a better multitasking performance than females, and these gender effects were fully mediated by spatial ability. These findings suggest that efficient multitasking involves EF, but that relying on spatial abilities can alleviate cognitive control demands.

Autobiographical memory is considered the most durable memory component in the human memory system. This thesis aimed to examine the characteristics of autobiographical memory performance and its relationship with executive functioning in normal and pathological ageing. The particular focus was on two aspects of autobiographical memory - recall specificity and fluency - that have been little investigated in cognitive ageing research to date. The literature reviewed included the domains of cognitive and clinical psychology, neuropsychology, and gerontology. It is clear from the review of the literature that considerable uncertainty exists regarding the status of autobiographical memory in healthy ageing and dementia. Moreover, little is known about the involvement of executive processes in the retrieval of personal remote memories in old age. A series of cross-sectional quasi-experimental studies is reported. The autobiographical memory and executive functioning of 136 participants were assessed by utilising a variety of neuropsychological instruments, and a range of statistical techniques were used in the analysis of the interactions between these two cognitive systems. The findings are discussed in terms of theoretical and practical implications for cognitive, ageing, and clinical research. To the author's knowledge, no research to date has attempted to investigate the specificity of autobiographical recall in a sample of Alzheimer's patients - an aspect this study addressed, thus providing an original contribution to knowledge. In addition, it has been established that the autobiographical memory overgenerality identified in Alzheimer's Disease was expressed through an excess of categoric memories. These findings were followed by an attempt to establish whether autobiographical memory performance is influenced by age-associated changes in executive functions in healthy ageing. The thesis adopted as its main theoretical framework the executive decline hypothesis, the proposal that a subtle decline in executive functions could account for age-related decreases in memory (Troyer, Graves & CulIum, 1994; Crawford, Bryan, Luszcz, Obonsawin & Stewart, 2000). For the first time, the investigation of this hypothesis has been extended to autobiographical memory recall. The results indicated that the executive functions, when indexed by a composite score, failed to mediate ageassociated retrieval of personal memories in older adults. However, a specific executive function - verbal fluency - predicted a significant amount of age-related variance of autobiographical memory recall. These findings were interpreted in terms of the mediator-specificity requirements in mediational models. Further, the thesis examined the impact of verbal fluency strategic mechanisms, clustering and switching, on autobiographical memory retrieval. The results indicated that the strategic mechanisms employed in verbal fluency failed to predict autobiographical memory recall in older adults, as opposed to the original measure of total words generated across the verbal fluency tasks. This finding supported previous research questioning the sensitivity of the new verbal fluency scoring methodology (Troyer, Moscovitch & Winocur, 1997). An additional factor that has not been fully explored in previous research is the possibility that certain aspects of executive function could be important for different components of autobiographical memory. By analysing the existence of different subcomponents within the two cognitive systems and their association, this thesis provided additional evidence for the debate over the unity and diversity of executive functions. To summarise, it has been established that verbal fluency mediates age-related autobiographical memory recall in older adults, manifested through autobiographical fluency. This finding is explained in terms of the common source proposal, referring to the processes of strategic search underlying performance on both tasks. Further investigation is needed to clarify these issues and examine the age effects on intra-individual variability in executive functioning and autobiographical memory.

School Psychology
Ph.D.
The relationship between Executive Functions and Peer Rejection was explored. Thirty-Five students in an urban elementary school, (mean 10.7 years of age (sd=2.8), 34% male, and 88% African American) completed measures of executive functions: KABC-II Rover, The Wisconsin Card Sort and NEPSY-II Statue (below age 9) or The Iowa Gambling Task (age 9 and up). Classmates reported who was not a preferred play mate: a measure of rejection. Executive Functions were not significantly related to Rejection across the sample, but among the children with the lowest Executive Functions, The Wisconsin Card Sort was significantly negatively related to Rejection (-0.61, p = .04) suggesting poor Cognitive Flexibility may be a risk factor for Rejection. Performance on the Iowa Gambling Task was found to be positively correlated with Rejection (0.4, p = .008) suggesting that high impulse control may also be a risk factor for rejection among adolescents. This was consistent with a finding of a positive correlation between Office Discipline Referrals and popularity (.4, p = .008) among the sample. Implications for practice are also discussed including the difficulty of managing behavior when bad behavior is related to popularity. Keywords: Iowa Gambling Task, Wisconsin Card Sort, Peer Rejection, Executive Functions, Urban children.
Temple University--Theses