Gotowa bibliografia na temat „Eucalypt”

Eucalypt ecologists in Australia finally have a text that is a comprehensive review of the current state of knowledge on eucalypt ecology. This book incorporates and expands on ideas found in Eucalyptus, the Universal Australian by Pryor and Johnson (1981) and Pryor's (1976) The Biology of Eucalypts.

The eucalypt group includes seven genera: Eucalyptus, Corymbia, Angophora, Eucalyptopsis, Stockwellia, Allosyncarpia and Arillastrum. Knowledge of eucalypt phylogeny underpins classification of the group, and facilitates understanding of their ecology, conservation and economic use, as well as providing insight into the history of Australia’s flora. Studies of fossils and phylogenetic analyses of morphological and molecular data have made substantial contributions to understanding of eucalypt relationships and biogeography, but relationships among some genera are still uncertain, and there is controversy about generic circumscription of the bloodwood eucalypts (genus Corymbia). Relationships at lower taxonomic levels, e.g. among sections and series of Eucalyptus, are also not well resolved. Recent advances in DNA sequencing methods offer the ability to obtain large genomic datasets that will enable improved understanding of eucalypt evolution.

Some eucalyptus species can be associated to the production of zones where vegetation is absent, sparse and/or less diverse and vigorous than surrounding zones away from eucalypts. These zones have been documented with eucalypts growing as native or introduced species. Yield reduction and poor plant performance is frequent when some crops, annual or perennial, are planted within or around eucalypt stands. Although competition for water, light and nutrients can explain some of these inhibition patterns, it is insufficient to explain others. Field evidence suggests that allelopathy explains, at least partially, the aforementioned inhibition areas. Inhibition zones are absent where the soil does not accumulate allelochemicals and the watering or rainy regime leaches them out, or the plants surronding eucalypts are unaffected by the chemicals. Phenolic acids, tannins, flavonoids and/or terpenoids have been isolated from eucalypt bark, litter and leaves; leaf hates or extracts from these parts have been shown to be phytotoxic in vitro and in greenhouse experiments for most target speciestested. Allelochemicals are normally released, from intact, dead or alive, eucalypt tissues and accumulated in water or soil in concentrations high enough to produce allelopathic effects. Milled or chopped eucalypt parts release more allelochemicals and faster than intact parts. Although no published work contains a li the undisputed evidence required to demonstrate eucalypts allelopathy, the body of evidence in the published works suggests that some eucalypt species do produce allelopathic effects in natural conditions.

Most eucalypts are endemic to Australia but they have been introduced into more than 100 countries and there are now over 20 million hectares of eucalypt plantations globally. These plantations are grown mainly for pulpwood but there is expanding interest in their use as a renewable source of solid wood products and energy. In Australia, the eucalypt plantation estate is nearing one million hectares, located mainly in temperate regions and dominated by Eucalyptus globulus and E. nitens (subgenus Symphyomyrtus), which are grown mainly outside their natural ranges. While eucalypt species from different major subgenera do not hybridise, hybrids within subgenera are often reported, including hybrids with plantation species. Concerns were raised in the late 1990s that pollen-mediated gene flow from locally exotic plantation eucalypts may affect the integrity of adjacent native eucalypt gene pools. As Australia is the centre-of-origin of most eucalypt species used in plantations around the world, exotic gene flow is one of the many issues that require management for industry sustainability and certification purposes. We here summarise over a decade of research aimed at providing the framework and biological data to help assess and manage the risk of gene flow from these plantations into native gene pools in Australia.

Eucalyptus plantations have been used as a source of short fiber for papermaking for more than 40 years. The development in genetic improvement and clonal programs has produced improved density plantations that have resulted in fast growing, increased fiber volume eucalypts becoming the most widely used source of short fibers in the world. High productivity and short rotation times, along with the uniformity and improved wood quality of clonal plantations have attracted private industry investment in eucalypt plantations. Currently, only a handful of species or hybrids are used in plantation efforts. Many more species are being evaluated to either enhance fiber properties or expand the range of eucalypt plantations. Eucalyptus plantations are frequently planted on nonforested land and may be used, in part, as a means of conserving native forests while allowing the production of high quality fiber for economic uses. Finally, eucalypt plantations can provide significant carbon sinks, which may be used to help offset the carbon released from burning fossil fuels. The development and expansion of eucalypt plantations represents a substantial revolution in pulp and paper manufacturing.

O potencial produtivo de plantios florestais é reduzido, dentre outros fatores, pela ocorrência de pragas. No Brasil, as formigas-cortadeiras são os principais insetos daninhos à cultura do eucalipto. Dentre as espécies dessas formigas, Acromyrmex disciger (Mayr) se destaca na região Sudeste do Brasil. Entretanto, poucas são as informações a respeito de seu potencial de dano às plantações de eucalipto. Este trabalho teve por objetivo quantificar o consumo foliar de eucalipto por A. disciger, em condições de laboratório. Para isto, folhas frescas de Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex Maiden, Eucalyptus urophylla ST Blake e do híbrido E. urophylla x E. grandis foram oferecidas, com chance de escolha, à duas colônias de A. disciger, durante 24 horas, num total de oito repetições. O consumo foliar foi determinado pela diferença entre as massas de folhas e de suas sobras, após serem disponibilizadas às formigas. As operárias das duas colônias consumiram, respectivamente, 38,8 ± 3,2 g e 22,0 ± 2,3 g de folhas de eucalipto, por dia. Estes elevados valores podem sugerir estado de alerta para os danos que A. disciger pode causar nos plantios de eucalipto, merecendo, esta formiga-cortadeira, maior atenção. Eucalypt leaf-consumption by Acromyrmex disciger (Mayr) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Abstract. The productive potential of forest stands is reduced by pest occurrence among other factors. In Brazil, leaf-cutting ants are the most severe eucalypt pests. Acromyrmex disciger (Mayr) is prevalent in the south east Brazil. However, scarce information about its potential damage for Eucalyptus forests is available. This work deals to quantifying the eucalypt leaf-consumption by such specie of leaf-cutting ant. Fresh leaves were taken from trees of Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex Maiden, Eucalyptus urophylla ST Blake, and hybrid E. urophylla x E. grandis and served to different colonies of A. disciger, during 24 hours period, over eight different times. Leaf-consumption was calculated throughout fresh weights of leaves, before and after ants foraging. Each colony of A. disciger consumed 38.8 ± 3.2 g e 22.0 ± 2.3 g of eucalypt leaves, per day.

Resumo As primeiras observações e recolhas de eucaliptos ocorreram nas grandes viagens inglesas e francesas ao Pacífico, em particular à Austrália, em finais do século XVIII. O género Eucalyptus L'Hér. foi estabelecido em 1788, e logo nas duas décadas seguintes seriam descritas, por botânicos franceses e ingleses, muitas espécies novas. O primeiro eucalipto cultivado em Inglaterra foi trazido, em 1774, na segunda viagem de James Cook. Em França, a introdução terá sido feita em 1804, no Jardim Botânico de Montpellier, na Alemanha em 1809, no Jardim Botânico de Berlim, e em Itália, em 1813, no Jardim Botânico de Nápoles. Em Portugal, a introdução do eucalipto foi muito posterior a estas datas. Na propriedade do duque de Palmela no Lumiar, foram plantados dois eucaliptos em 1850-1852. No Horto Botânico da Escola Médico-Cirúrgica de Lisboa, existia em 1852, pelo menos um espécimen, certamente para uso ou demonstração das suas propriedades terapêuticas. A partir da década de 1860, a expansão foi muito rápida. Em 1869, a companhia real dos caminhos-de-ferro portugueses iniciou a plantação de eucaliptos nas estações, casas de guarda e ao longo da via-férrea. As primeiras plantações em larga escala terão ocorrido na década de 1880 em propriedades perto de Abrantes arrendadas por William T. Tait. Em 1886 estavam já plantados 150 mil eucaliptos. Nesta mesma década começou a plantação, em escala apreciável, de eucaliptos nas Matas Nacionais. Em finais do século XX, tinham sido introduzidas em Portugal cerca de 250 espécies, sendo o Eucalyptus globulus Labill., a espécie largamente dominante. É interessante constatar que tendo sido um dos países europeus que mais tarde introduziu a cultura do eucalipto, Portugal é hoje, a nível mundial, um dos que apresenta maior percentagem da sua área florestal dedicada a esta cultura.Palavras-chave: eucalipto; jardins botânicos; Portugal. Abstract The earliest observations and collections of eucalypts occurred on the great English and French voyages to the Pacific, particularly Australia, in the late 18th century. The genus Eucalyptus L'Hér. was described in 1788, and soon in the following two decades, many species would be described by French and English botanists. The first eucalypt grown in England was brought in 1774 on James Cook's second voyage. In France, the introduction seems to have occurred in 1804, at the Botanical Garden of Montpellier, in Germany in 1809, at the Botanical Garden of Berlin, and in Italy, in 1813, at the Botanical Garden of Naples. In Portugal, the introduction of eucalypts was much later than these dates. In the property of the Duke of Palmela in Lumiar, two eucalypts were planted in 1850-1852. The Botanical Garden of the Medical-Surgical School of Lisbon had in 1852, at least one specimen, certainly for use or demonstration of its therapeutic properties. From the 1860s the expansion was very rapid. In 1869, the royal company of the Portuguese railways began planting eucalypts in the stations, guard houses and along the railroad. The first large-scale plantations occurred in the 1880s in properties near Abrantes leased by William T. Tait. By 1886, 150,000 eucalypts were already planted. In the same decade began the planting, on an appreciable scale, of eucalypts in “Matas Nacionais”. By the end of the 20th century about 250 species had been introduced in Portugal, being Eucalyptus globulus Labill., the species largely dominant. It is interesting to note that Portugal, one of the European countries that later introduced the eucalypt, is today, worldwide, one of the countries with the highest percentage of its forest area dedicated to this culture. Keywords: eucalypt; botanical gardens; Portugal.

Vast areas of Brazil are being planted to Eucalyptus in order to provide renewable sources of timber, charcoal and cellulose. Although the rapid growth and productivity of various Eucalyptus species undoubtedly relaxes the pressure on logging of native forests, there are ecological costs. Firstly, some eucalypt species are vulnerable to pest outbreaks. A large number of native Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and leaf-cutting ants (Atta spp.), some of which have become pests, have been found on eucalypts growing in Brazil. Probably, the diverse myrtaceous flora of South America supports a fauna that can adapt to the introduced Eucalyptus species. Secondly, the leaf litter produced under Eucalyptus plantations differs substantially from that of native forests both in terms of its physical structure and chemistry, posing a range of problems for the native decomposer fauna. If microarthropod diversity is reduced, nutrient cycling could be impeded under eucalypt plantations. Thirdly, native forest canopies support a massive diversity and biomass of arthropods on which many birds, reptiles and mammals depend for food. The evidence is that invertebrate biomass and diversity are greatly reduced in the canopies of exotic eucalypt plantations. This, in turn, reduces the food-base on which forest arthropods and other animals depend, and hence their conservation status. This paper reviews the evidence for adverse ecological effects in Brazilian eucalypt plantations and suggests ways in which Brazil might meet its forestry needs, while conserving forest invertebrates and the vertebrates that depend on them.

Molecular age estimates for the Eucalypteae (family Myrtaceae) suggest that the eucalypts, possibly associated with fire, have been present for ~65 million years. In contrast, macrofossils and fossil pollen attributable to three important eucalypt genera (Angophora, Corymbia and Eucalyptus) in the Eucalypteae date to ~51–53 million years ago (mid-Early Eocene) in Patagonia, eastern Antarctica and south-eastern Australia. At present, there is no fossil evidence to show that eucalypts had evolved before this epoch, i.e. when Australia was part of eastern Gondwana, although this seems probable on the basis of molecular-dated phylogenetic analyses. The primary reason is the absence of macrofossils, whereas the earliest fossil eucalypt-type pollen recorded (Myrtaceidites tenuis) is attributed to Angophora and Corymbia, not Eucalyptus. This pollen type is recorded in Australia and Antarctica but not in New Zealand or South America. The only Myrtaceidites morphospecies found in Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene deposits in Australia is M. parvus, whose affinity lies with multiple extant Myrtaceae groups other than the Eucalypteae. In the present paper, we review current phylogenetic and microfossil databases for the eucalypts and assess this evidence to develop a ‘consensus’ position on the origin and evolution of the eucalypts in the Australian region.

Molecular (5S rDNA spacer and chloroplast DNA RnPs) and morphological data sets are informative at different levels of the eucalypt clade. They allow separate analysis of major subclades, the results of which, when combined, give a single, phylogenetic tree for Angophora Cav. and Eucalyptus L'Hér. For taxonomic revision, the tree supports the recognition of bloodwood eucalypts as monophyletic, but shows that informal subgenus Corymbia Pryor & Johnson is paraphyletic. The tree supports recognition of three major clades within the non-bloodwood eucalypts ('eudesmids', 'symphyomyrts' and 'monocalypts') and suggests relationships for taxa within each of these. Ovule and seed characters proved to be most informative in the morphological data set. The phylogenetic hypothesis suggests interpretations for homoplasious morphological characters, including parallel evolution of sepaline and petaline opercula (and associated stemonophore) and types of conflorescence.

Two eucalypt clines were examined using morphological, ecophysiological and molecular analyses. The species complexes examined were an ironbark complex (Eucalyptus melanophloia x E. whitei) and a box complex (E. brownii x E. populnea). Both of these complexes demonstrate continuous morphological variation across their clines. The origin of these morphological clines has previously been interpreted as the product of secondary contact between allopatric species. In this study, an analysis of morphological variation across the clines did not identify an increase in trait variance in the intermediate populations, which suggests that previous theories concerning the origin of these clines may not be valid. Genetic structuring in nuclear and chloroplast DNA was examined across the clines to investigate whether the morphological clines were the product of secondary contact between two independent evolutionary lineages, or whether the clines represent a single evolutionary lineage that has undergone primary differentiation. The microsatellite analyses indicated that there was little genetic structuring across either cline, and that there were only low levels of population differentiation. The lack of hierarchical structuring in the distribution of nuclear genetic variation suggests that these clines are unlikely to be the product of recent gene flow between two formerly allopatric species/populations. A nested clade analysis of the JLA+ region of the cpDNA provides additional evidence to reject the null hypothesis that the morphospecies classifications represent distinct evolutionary lineages. Instead the analyses indicate that each cline represents a single cohesion species and a single evolutionary lineage. The phylogeographic distribution of cpDNA haplotypes is likely to have resulted from restricted seed mediated gene flow with isolation by distance. A more cogent explanation for the clines, based on the genetic data, is that they have arisen through the process of continuous morphological diversification that has been promoted by a directional selection gradient. Drought experiments were conducted in the glasshouse to investigate whether differences in physiological performance under water stress helps to explain the maintenance of the ironbark cline. Under increasing water stress, the morphotypes showed differences in their ability to maintain water status and photosynthetic rates, yet there was no obvious pattern to these differences across the cline. Physiological differences are therefore inadequate to explain the maintenance of the ironbark cline and highlight the compensatory role that morphological variation may play in alleviating water stress. The value of adopting the cohesion species concept and a hypothesis-testing framework to assess species status is demonstrated in this study. This framework provided a statistical approach to distinguish independent evolutionary lineages from interspecific populations and provides evidence to refute the current species status of the species complexes studied. Eucalypt classification is predominantly based on morphology, which results in taxonomic classification that may not reflect genealogical relationships. This is due to the disparity between morphological and phylogenetic relationships. I therefore suggest that current presumptions regarding the prevalence and importance of hybridisation within the genus may reflect taxonomic classification. An accurate assessment of the prevalence and importance of hybridisation requires species classification to be based on genealogical relationships.

Two eucalypt clines were examined using morphological, ecophysiological and molecular analyses. The species complexes examined were an ironbark complex (Eucalyptus melanophloia x E. whitei) and a box complex (E. brownii x E. populnea). Both of these complexes demonstrate continuous morphological variation across their clines. The origin of these morphological clines has previously been interpreted as the product of secondary contact between allopatric species. In this study, an analysis of morphological variation across the clines did not identify an increase in trait variance in the intermediate populations, which suggests that previous theories concerning the origin of these clines may not be valid. Genetic structuring in nuclear and chloroplast DNA was examined across the clines to investigate whether the morphological clines were the product of secondary contact between two independent evolutionary lineages, or whether the clines represent a single evolutionary lineage that has undergone primary differentiation. The microsatellite analyses indicated that there was little genetic structuring across either cline, and that there were only low levels of population differentiation. The lack of hierarchical structuring in the distribution of nuclear genetic variation suggests that these clines are unlikely to be the product of recent gene flow between two formerly allopatric species/populations. A nested clade analysis of the JLA+ region of the cpDNA provides additional evidence to reject the null hypothesis that the morphospecies classifications represent distinct evolutionary lineages. Instead the analyses indicate that each cline represents a single cohesion species and a single evolutionary lineage. The phylogeographic distribution of cpDNA haplotypes is likely to have resulted from restricted seed mediated gene flow with isolation by distance. A more cogent explanation for the clines, based on the genetic data, is that they have arisen through the process of continuous morphological diversification that has been promoted by a directional selection gradient. Drought experiments were conducted in the glasshouse to investigate whether differences in physiological performance under water stress helps to explain the maintenance of the ironbark cline. Under increasing water stress, the morphotypes showed differences in their ability to maintain water status and photosynthetic rates, yet there was no obvious pattern to these differences across the cline. Physiological differences are therefore inadequate to explain the maintenance of the ironbark cline and highlight the compensatory role that morphological variation may play in alleviating water stress. The value of adopting the cohesion species concept and a hypothesis-testing framework to assess species status is demonstrated in this study. This framework provided a statistical approach to distinguish independent evolutionary lineages from interspecific populations and provides evidence to refute the current species status of the species complexes studied. Eucalypt classification is predominantly based on morphology, which results in taxonomic classification that may not reflect genealogical relationships. This is due to the disparity between morphological and phylogenetic relationships. I therefore suggest that current presumptions regarding the prevalence and importance of hybridisation within the genus may reflect taxonomic classification. An accurate assessment of the prevalence and importance of hybridisation requires species classification to be based on genealogical relationships.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Australian School of Environmental Studies
Full Text

In this study, the relative influences of selection, gene flow, and other evolutionary forces on the spatial structure of genetic variation within a eucalypt species complex (the spotted gums: genus Corymbia, section Politaria) were assessed. The study investigated the spatial genetic structure among four putative species of spotted gum (broad-scale), as well as within a single population (fine-scale)of one species, using both molecular and quantitative markers. The spotted gum complex occurs naturally across a range of 2500 km in eastern Australia. Spatial genetic variation within and between the four putative spotted gum species was examined using both chloroplast and nuclear markers. No significant differentiation was found between the three northern species of the complex, C. citriodora, C. variegata and C. henryi. The southern species, C. maculata, shared no haplotypes with any of the three northern species. These results disagree in part with those reported in a previous allozyme based study in which C. henryi was found to be significantly divergent from C. variegata (with which it is sympatric) and more closely aligned with C. maculata. Re-analysis of the allozyme data provided evidence of selection acting at the PGM2 locus within populations of C. variegata and C. henryi. The exclusion of this locus from the data set led to concordance between the cpDNA and nDNA analyses. Restricted gene flow and evidence of isolation by distance were identified as the dominant processes influencing the contemporary distribution of the cpDNA haplotypes. No geographic structure of haplotypes was found and complex genealogical relationships between haplotypes indicated the combined effects of past fragmentation, range expansion and possible long distance dispersal events. The variation and spatial structure in both neutral molecular markers and quantitative genetic traits were compared to explore the relative influences of dispersal and selection within a single eucalypt population. Both mature trees (n=130) from a natural population of C. variegata and their progeny (n=127) were sampled. A very high outcrossing rate (98%) was estimated for the population based on data from seven microsatellite loci. This suggested regular pollen–mediated gene flow into the population, further supported by the observed high levels of genetic diversity and polymorphism. Significant positive spatial structure was found between parent trees occurring up to 150 m apart in the natural forest, although genetic distance between these individuals suggested limited relatedness (i.e. less than half-sib relatedness). The effect of pollen-mediated gene flow appears, therefore, to swamp any effect of nearest neighbour inbreeding which has been reported in other studies of eucalypt populations and has been attributed to limited seed dispersal. Resistance to the fungal disease Sporothrix pitereka (Ramularia Shoot Blight) was measured on progeny from each of the population study trees. Substantial resistance variability was found, along with a high estimate in heritability of resistance (0.44 ± 0.06), indicating significant additive genetic variation within the population. Spatial analysis showed no significant spatial structure with resistant and susceptible genotypes apparently distributed randomly throughout the population. The lack of concordance between the molecular and quantitative markers suggests that there may be a cost to resistance. Temporal variation in the severity of disease outbreaks may have then led to differential selection of seedlings across many generations, maintaining variability in disease resistance and facilitating the apparent random distribution of disease resistant and susceptible genotypes throughout the population. C. variegata is an important commercial forestry species. The identification of strong genetic control in the disease resistance trait, as well as significant adverse genetic and phenotypic correlations between susceptibility and growth traits, will aid future breeding programs. Controlled crosses between resistant genotypes from this population should result in strong genetic gains in both resistance and growth, with little costs associated with inbreeding depression due to the highly outcrossed nature of the population.

In this study, the relative influences of selection, gene flow, and other evolutionary forces on the spatial structure of genetic variation within a eucalypt species complex (the spotted gums: genus Corymbia, section Politaria) were assessed. The study investigated the spatial genetic structure among four putative species of spotted gum (broad-scale), as well as within a single population (fine-scale)of one species, using both molecular and quantitative markers. The spotted gum complex occurs naturally across a range of 2500 km in eastern Australia. Spatial genetic variation within and between the four putative spotted gum species was examined using both chloroplast and nuclear markers. No significant differentiation was found between the three northern species of the complex, C. citriodora, C. variegata and C. henryi. The southern species, C. maculata, shared no haplotypes with any of the three northern species. These results disagree in part with those reported in a previous allozyme based study in which C. henryi was found to be significantly divergent from C. variegata (with which it is sympatric) and more closely aligned with C. maculata. Re-analysis of the allozyme data provided evidence of selection acting at the PGM2 locus within populations of C. variegata and C. henryi. The exclusion of this locus from the data set led to concordance between the cpDNA and nDNA analyses. Restricted gene flow and evidence of isolation by distance were identified as the dominant processes influencing the contemporary distribution of the cpDNA haplotypes. No geographic structure of haplotypes was found and complex genealogical relationships between haplotypes indicated the combined effects of past fragmentation, range expansion and possible long distance dispersal events. The variation and spatial structure in both neutral molecular markers and quantitative genetic traits were compared to explore the relative influences of dispersal and selection within a single eucalypt population. Both mature trees (n=130) from a natural population of C. variegata and their progeny (n=127) were sampled. A very high outcrossing rate (98%) was estimated for the population based on data from seven microsatellite loci. This suggested regular pollen–mediated gene flow into the population, further supported by the observed high levels of genetic diversity and polymorphism. Significant positive spatial structure was found between parent trees occurring up to 150 m apart in the natural forest, although genetic distance between these individuals suggested limited relatedness (i.e. less than half-sib relatedness). The effect of pollen-mediated gene flow appears, therefore, to swamp any effect of nearest neighbour inbreeding which has been reported in other studies of eucalypt populations and has been attributed to limited seed dispersal. Resistance to the fungal disease Sporothrix pitereka (Ramularia Shoot Blight) was measured on progeny from each of the population study trees. Substantial resistance variability was found, along with a high estimate in heritability of resistance (0.44 ± 0.06), indicating significant additive genetic variation within the population. Spatial analysis showed no significant spatial structure with resistant and susceptible genotypes apparently distributed randomly throughout the population. The lack of concordance between the molecular and quantitative markers suggests that there may be a cost to resistance. Temporal variation in the severity of disease outbreaks may have then led to differential selection of seedlings across many generations, maintaining variability in disease resistance and facilitating the apparent random distribution of disease resistant and susceptible genotypes throughout the population. C. variegata is an important commercial forestry species. The identification of strong genetic control in the disease resistance trait, as well as significant adverse genetic and phenotypic correlations between susceptibility and growth traits, will aid future breeding programs. Controlled crosses between resistant genotypes from this population should result in strong genetic gains in both resistance and growth, with little costs associated with inbreeding depression due to the highly outcrossed nature of the population.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Australian School of Environmental Studies
Full Text

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Gonipterus scutellatus, conhecido como o gorgulho do eucalipto, é de origem australiana e considerada mundialmente a principal espécie de besouro desfolhador de Eucalyptus. Este trabalho teve por objetivos estudar o desenvolvimento de G. scutellatus em diferentes espécies e híbridos de Eucalyptus (E. camaldulensis, E. grandis, E. urophylla e dois híbridos de E. grandis x E. urophylla conhecidos como urograndis) em diferentes temperaturas (18°C, 22°C, 26°C e 30°C). Os resultados demonstraram que o desenvolvimento biológico de G. scutellatus foi dependente do hospedeiro e da temperatura. E. urophylla foi o mais adequado ao desenvolvimento do gorgulho enquanto E. grandis afetou negativamente sua biologia. Para os híbridos, os resultados foram intermediários entre os obtidos nessas duas espécies. O período de desenvolvimento de G. scutellatus foi inversamente proporcional à temperatura. Foi observado que a melhor temperatura foi a 26°C enquanto 30°C foi letal ao desenvolvimento biológico desta espécie.
Gonipterus scutellatus, known as eucalyptus snout beetle, is from Australia and considered the main species of Eucalyptus defoliator beetle world-wide. This paper deals with the development of the G. scutellatus reared on different species and hybrids of Eucalyptus (E. camaldulensis, E. grandis, E. urophylla and two hybrids of E. grandis X E. urophylla, the so called urograndis) at different temperatures (18°C, 22°C, 26°C and 30°C). The results demonstrated that G. scutellatus biological development was host and temperature dependent, E. urophylla was the most suitable for the weevil development while E. grandis affected negatively its biology. As to hybrids, the results were intermediary between the obtained on these two species. The development period of G. scutellatus was inversely proportional to the temperature. It was observed that 26°C was the best temperature, while 30°C was lethal to the biological development of this species.

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Resumo: Gonipterus scutellatus, conhecido como o gorgulho do eucalipto, é de origem australiana e considerada mundialmente a principal espécie de besouro desfolhador de Eucalyptus. Este trabalho teve por objetivos estudar o desenvolvimento de G. scutellatus em diferentes espécies e híbridos de Eucalyptus (E. camaldulensis, E. grandis, E. urophylla e dois híbridos de E. grandis x E. urophylla conhecidos como urograndis) em diferentes temperaturas (18°C, 22°C, 26°C e 30°C). Os resultados demonstraram que o desenvolvimento biológico de G. scutellatus foi dependente do hospedeiro e da temperatura. E. urophylla foi o mais adequado ao desenvolvimento do gorgulho enquanto E. grandis afetou negativamente sua biologia. Para os híbridos, os resultados foram intermediários entre os obtidos nessas duas espécies. O período de desenvolvimento de G. scutellatus foi inversamente proporcional à temperatura. Foi observado que a melhor temperatura foi a 26°C enquanto 30°C foi letal ao desenvolvimento biológico desta espécie.
Abstract: Gonipterus scutellatus, known as eucalyptus snout beetle, is from Australia and considered the main species of Eucalyptus defoliator beetle world-wide. This paper deals with the development of the G. scutellatus reared on different species and hybrids of Eucalyptus (E. camaldulensis, E. grandis, E. urophylla and two hybrids of E. grandis X E. urophylla, the so called urograndis) at different temperatures (18°C, 22°C, 26°C and 30°C). The results demonstrated that G. scutellatus biological development was host and temperature dependent, E. urophylla was the most suitable for the weevil development while E. grandis affected negatively its biology. As to hybrids, the results were intermediary between the obtained on these two species. The development period of G. scutellatus was inversely proportional to the temperature. It was observed that 26°C was the best temperature, while 30°C was lethal to the biological development of this species.
Doutor

Objetivou-se com este estudo avaliar o efeito de preparos de solo diferenciados, aplicados em duas bacias hidrográficas experimentais reflorestadas com eucalipto, sobre o balanço hídrico, o escoamento direto, a qualidade da água, a ciclagem de nutrientes e as perdas de solo. As microbacias estão localizadas no Vale do Paraíba, Município de Santa Branca, Estado de São Paulo. Fazem parte da Fazenda Bela Vista III, que pertence à empresa FLORIN - Florestamento Integrado S.A. A microbacia A tem uma área de 7,2 ha, sendo 239 m2 (3,3% da área) de mata ciliar, com uma declividade média de 19, 6%; enquanto a área da microbacia B é de 5,5 ha, com 117 m2 (2,1% da área) de mata ciliar e a declividade média de 28,9%. As duas áreas foram plantadas com Eucalyptus saligna Smith, porém tiveram preparos de solo diferenciados: na microbacia A, o preparo de solo consistiu em roçada, queimada, e aração a 20 cm de profundidade com arado de disco; na microbacia B, o preparo de solo consistiu apenas em roçada, queimada, e coveamento manual. As microbacias tiveram as matas ciliares preservadas. A precipitação foi medida com um pluviógrafo tipo Helmann, de rotação semanal, que propiciou a tabulação dos dados de precipitacão diária, para as duas microbacias, três pluviômetros tipo Ville de Paris e um pluviômetro de acrílico marca Fretin, que contituiram a rede para a determinação, pela média aritmética, da precipitação semanal para as bacias. Para a amostragem de água das chuvas visando as análises físico-químicas foram instalados cinco coletores apropriados ao longo das duas microbacias. O deflúvio das microbacias foi obtido através da medição contínua da vazão, sendo utilizados dois linígrafos modelo Hidrologia, instalados um em cada estação fluviométrica. As amostras do deflúvio, em ambas microbacias, foram coletadas no vertedouro, com garrafas de polietileno, em intervalos semanais. As determinações dos elementos K+, Ca++ , Mg++, Fe++ e Na+, como parte da análise da água da chuva e do deflúvio, foram realizadas por meio de espectrofotômetro de absorção atômica. O N03- e P04-3 foram analisados por colorimetria, pelos métodos da brucina e do fosfomolibdato, respectivamente . O NH4+ foi determinado por titulação pelo método da destilação. Seguindo-se as normas da AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION (1976), foram realizadas as análises de turbidez, condutividade elétrica e pH. Os valores da alcalinidade foram obtidos por titulação, e os valores de cor, por colorimetria, tendo-se como escala colorimétrica uma solução de platino-cobalto. A perda de solo foi calculada a partir da concentração semanal de sedimento, mais aquelas oriundas de chuvas isoladas. O material sedimentado, por ter se mostrado em muita pequena quantidade e de difícil quantificação, não foi mensurado. No entanto, acredita-se que a sua ausência na totalização da perda de solo não interfira, de forma significativa, na análise da comparação relativa das perdas de solo entre as duas microbacias estudadas. A microbacia B apresenta condições que favorecem o escoamento superficial, possibilitando a existência de áreas passiveis de erosão e formação de voçorocas. Já a microbacia A possui condições mais permeáveis do solo, as quais favorecem o escoamento subsuperficial. A evapotranspiração para a microbacia A foi de 82,8%, enquanto a microbacia B, durante o período estudado, mostrou uma taxa de 44,4%. Os fluxos mensais de nutrientes mostraram que existe um ganho de NH4+, NO3- e PO4-3 para ambas microbacias. O Ca++, Mg++, Fe++ e o Na+ apresentaram um balanço negativo . Já o K+ revelou um ganho na microbacia A, ao contrário da microbacia B. A contribuição relativa da precipitação ocorrida na área experimental em relação ao teor de nutrientes contidos numa árvore inteira, num tronco com casca e noutro sem casca, mostrou que a entrada de nitrogênio via precipitação foi significativa, enquanto as entradas de P04-3, K+, Ca++ e Mg++ estiveram abaixo do requerido, principalmente, se a exploração da árvore inteira for considerada. A produção de sedimento em suspensão foi 2,5 vezes maior na microbacia B do que na microbacia A. Já a contribuição média devida às chuvas, nas perdas totais de solo da microbacia A atingiu apenas 4,89%; na microbacia B esta contribuição chegou a 40,56%. As medidas de preparo de solo e de cultivo mínimo, baseados na declividade média do terreno e na textura de solo; além da preservação das matas ciliares, adotadas previamente pela empresa, estão, aparentemente, sendo eficientes na conservação do solo, conforme os dados analisados no presente estudo.
The goal of this study is to estimate the effects of different managements applied to two experimental catchments with eucalypt plantations over the water balance, the nutrient cycling and the soil loss. The small catchments are located in Paraíba River Valley, in the Municipatily of Santa Branca, São Paulo State. They are part of III Bela Vista Forest Farm, from FLORIN - Integrated Forested company S. A. The A catchment has an area of 7.2 ha, with an average slope of 19.6%, while the area of the B catchment is 5.5 ha, and its average slope is 28.9%. Both areas were planted with Eucalyptus saligna Smith, but they had different site preparation: at catchment A, the plantation was preceded by a mechanical method of site preparation (plowing without harrowing); at catchment B. the plantation was established manually without soil preparation (slash burning). The small catchment the had riparian ecosystem preserved. The precipitation was measured with a Helmann type recording gage, with a week rotation, and four non-recording raingages. Average by arithmetic mean precipitation for the catchments was determined. Five adequate collectors were installed for the rainfall sampling aiming at the physical-chemical analysis. Streamflow was measured with 90° V-notch weirs containing a stage recorders installed one in each gaging station. The streamflow samples, in both small catchments, were collect weekly at the weir with polyethylene bottles. The determinations of K+, Ca++, Mg++, Fe++ and Na+ elements, as part of the rainfall and of the streamflow analysis, were made by spectrophotometry. N03- and P04-3 were analysed by colorimetry, using the brucina and phosphomolybdate methods, respectively. The NH4+ was analyzed by the distillation method. The loss of soil was calculated from the weekly sediment concentration. Additionally, the weirs were adapted with a semi-automatic sampling device to collect samples from higher stage to storm discharge. The sedimented material, being very tiny and in small quantity, was not measured. However, we believe that the absence at this part in the totalization of soil loss does not interfere in an essencial way in the comparative analysis of the soil loss between the two catchments. Catchment B presents conditions that favors surface runoff, allowing the existence of possible areas of erosion and gully formation. But catchment A has more permeable soil, which are favourable to the subsurface runoff. Evapotranspiration was 82.8% of the annual precipitation in catchment A, while for catchment B this percentage was 44.4%. The monthly flows of nutrients showed a gain of NH4+, N03- and P04-3 in both catchments. For Ca++, Mg++, Fe++ and the Na+ the balance was negative. But for K+ there was a gain in catchment A, and a loss in catchment B. The relative contribution of nutrient input in precipitation measured in this experimental area, in comparison with the nutrient contents of a whole tree, a trunk with bark, and a trunk without bark, showed that the input of nitrogen by precipitation was significant, while the inputs of P04-3, K+, Ca++ and Mg++ were below required amount, mainly if the exploration of the whole tree was considered. The production of suspended sediment was 2.5 times greater in the catchment B than in catchment A. But the average contribution due to the rain, in the total loss of the soil in catchment A reached only 4.89%; in the catchment B this contribution reached 40.56%. The method of site preparation and minimal cultivation, besides the policy of preserving riparian ecosystem, used routinely by the company are apparently being confirmed as adequate for soil and water conservation in the region.

A pluridade de características de espécies nativas, aliada a leis que limitam sua exploração, acarreta na necessidade de estabelecimento de novas espécies capazes de suprir a demanda madeireira brasileira. Os Eucalyptus spp. são altamente produtivos sob clima tropical, sendo extensamente plantados no país para diversas finalidades, em especial papel e celulose, energia, painéis e serraria, entretanto, pouca ênfase tem sido dada a esta última, devido ao horizonte longo de planejamento, dificuldades no processamento primário e defeitos na madeira apresentados pelas espécies mais produtivas do gênero. Visando traçar estratégias que minimizem essas dificuldades, analisamos o efeito de 2 formas de manipulação de copa - destopo e desrama -, sob diferentes regimes de luminosidade, em parâmetros da copa e do tronco em híbridos de Eucalyptus urophylla dos 11 aos 23 meses de idade. Tanto o destopo quanto a desrama afetaram negativamente o incremento diamétrico e volumétrico do híbrido, entretanto, árvores destopadas sob níveis maiores de luminosidade exibiram fatores de afilamento menores, quando comparadas ao tratamento Controle. Dentro do mesmo regime de luminosidade, árvores desramadas também apresentaram fatores de afilamento inferiores. Apesar de sua alta demanda por luz, o híbrido foi capaz de alterar sua estrutura foliar de acordo com o nível de luminosidade: árvores sob regimes de luminosidade reduzida adaptaram suas folhas à sombra (folhas de sombra), enquanto que àquelas sem limitação de luminosidade folhas adaptadas ao sol (folhas de sol). Brotações em resposta ao destopo se resumiram à brotações epicórmicas próximo à seção destopada.
The diversity of characteristics of native species, allied to laws that limit their exploration, reinforces the need of establishing news species to supply the national wood demand. The Eucalyptus spp. are highly productive under tropical whether, being extensively planted in the country to many finalities, especially paper, pulp, energy, panels and sawn wood, however, low attention is being given to the last due to the long term planning, difficulties in the primary processing and wood blemishes present in the most productive species of the gender. Aiming to trace strategies that minimize these hardships, we analyzed the effects of two forms of crown manipulation - topping and pruning -, under different light patterns, in parameters of crown and bole of Eucalytpus urophylla hybrids from 11 to 23 months of age. Both topping and pruning impacted negatively the diametric and volumetric increment, although topped trees showed smaller taper when compared to the Control treatment. Within the same light pattern pruned trees also presented smaller taper. Although the hybrid demands high amounts of light, it was capable of altering its foliage structure according to the light level: trees under reduced light adapted its leaves to shadow (\"shadow leaves\"), while those without light limitation leaves adapted to sun (\"sunleaves\"). Shoots in response to topping were resumed to epicormic shoots close to the topped section.

Doutoramento em Engenharia Química
A indústria da pasta e do papel é um sector importante da economia mundial, particularmente a que assenta em espécies de Eucalyptus. No entanto, essas indústrias geram quantidades significativas de correntes secundárias de subprodutos e resíduos de biomassa que podem ser exploradas em aplicações de valor acrescentado em vez de serem queimadas para produção de energia. Um exemplo nobre pode ser a produção de ácidos triterpénicos com estruturas dos tipos lupano, oleanano e ursano, dada a sua abundância em alguns destes resíduos, em particular na casca, adotando o conceito de biorrefinaria integrada numa fábrica de pasta. Estes compostos são conhecidos pelas suas inúmeras actividades biológicas, por exemplo, antioxidante, anti-inflamatória e antitumoral, e podem encontrar aplicações em produtos de elevado valor, tais como cosméticos, nutracêuticos ou farmacêuticos. Neste sentido, o estudo das potencialidades das cascas das espécies de eucalipto mais exploradas enquanto fontes de compostos triterpénicos é um tópico relevante. Por conseguinte, foram analisados e comparados em pormenor os teores e composições em ácidos triterpénicos (TTAs) das cascas externas de várias espécies de eucalipto (E. globulus, E. grandis, E. urograndis, E. maidenii e E. nitens). Os teores dos principais TTAs identificados nestas espécies variaram entre 4.5 g/kg no E. urograndis e 21.6 g/kg no E. nitens. Observou-se que as cascas externas de Eucalyptus de zonas temperadas e Mediterrânicas, nomeadamente E. nitens e E. globulus, são mais ricas em TTAs que as espécies de regiões tropicais e subtropicais. Além disso, a casca externa do E. globulus é claramente a mais rica em ácidos com estruturas do tipo ursano enquanto a do E. nitens é a mais rica em ácidos do tipo oleanano e lupano. Estes resultados levaram-nos a estudar a extração dos TTAs da casca de Eucalyptus, bem como a sua posterior concentração e purificação, a qual foi efetuada por extração sólido-líquido convencional combinada com a precipitação de solutos, e por extração com fluidos supercríticos (SFE). No que diz respeito à primeira abordagem referida, foi desenvolvido neste trabalho um método patenteado que permite obter extratos enriquecidos em TTAs das cascas de eucalipto baseado em tecnologias disponíveis no imediato. Em relação à segunda abordagem, e de forma a apostar em processos de baixo impacto ambiental exigidos pelas biorrefinarias do futuro, a SFE surge como uma opção natural. Assim, foi efetuada a SFE da casca caduca do E. globulus com dióxido de carbono puro e modificado para recuperar a fração de TTAs, e os resultados foram comparados com os obtidos por extração em Soxhlet com diclorometano. Foram realizados estudos preliminares sobre a influência da pressão (100-200 bar), a adição de co-solvente (0, 5 e 8% m/m de etanol), e operação em múltiplos passos a fim de avaliar a aplicabilidade da alternativa supercrítica para a sua produção eficiente e selectiva. Os resultados destacaram a influência da pressão e o importante papel resumo (cont.) desempenhado pelo co-solvente neste processo, cujo efeito foi mais relevante do que o aumento da pressão em várias dezenas de bar. Este trabalho foi depois otimizado, usando o planeamento factorial de experiências e a metodologia de superfícies de resposta, para analisar a influência da temperatura (40-60 ºC), pressão (100-200 bar), e teor de etanol (0.0-5.0% m/m) na recuperação dos TTAs e respectiva concentração nos extractos. Nestes intervalos, as melhores condições de operação encontradas foram 200 bar, 40 °C e 5% de etanol, para as quais os modelos de regressão estatisticamente validados previram um rendimento de extração de 1.2% com 50% de concentração em TTAs, correspondendo ao rendimento em TTAs de 5.1 g/kg de casca e uma recuperação de 79.2% comparativamente ao valor do Soxhlet. Os TTAs livres e acetilados apresentaram tendências de extracção bastante distintas devido às suas diferentes afinidades para o CO2 causadas pelas diferentes polaridades: os derivados acetilados aproximam-se de um patamar máximo a cerca de 200 bar e 5% de etanol, enquanto a extração dos TTAs livres apresenta uma tendência sempre crescente no intervalo de condições estudado. Foram também medidas curvas cumulativas de SFE da casca do E. globulus de forma a analisar o comportamento cinético do processo em termos de rendimento total, rendimento em TTAs, rendimento em TTAs livres, rendimento em TTAs acetilados, e concentração dos TTAs nos extractos. Foi analisada a influência da pressão, temperatura, teor de co-solvente e caudal do dióxido de carbono sobre as respostas anteriores. Os dados experimentais foram modelados com os modelos Logístico, de Dessorção, de Placa Plana Simples, e de Difusão. Na globalidade, os resultados confirmaram que a pressão e o teor de etanol têm um efeito significativo sobre as curvas de extração, os rendimentos finais e as concentrações dos extratos, e mostraram a presença de limitações externas à transferência de massa em alguns ensaios. Mais uma vez, as famílias individuais de TTAs livres e acetilados apresentaram diferentes tendências de extracção. A modelação permitiu-nos confirmar não só o importante papel desempenhado pela difusão intraparticular na SFE, mas também a contribuição da resistência no filme em alguns ensaios. Após a análise de todos os resultados, foi efetuado um ensaio em duas etapas em série, possibilitando o enriquecimento do teor em TTAs no extracto devido às diferentes condições adotadas em cada etapa. Por último, um éster metílico de um ácido triterpénico do tipo oleanano - morolato de metilo - foi identificado pela primeira vez enquanto componente da casca de Eucalyptus na casca externa do Eucalyptus grandis x globulus, onde ocorre em teores elevados. A sua extração com CO2 supercrítico foi também realizada, visando a conceção de uma alternativa de extração ambientalmente benigna para este composto. A 200 bar e 60 ºC, a remoção do morolato de metilo atingiu um patamar às 6 h para 5.1 kg h-1 de CO2 / kg de casca. Em geral, e de forma semelhante à SFE da casca do E. globulus, os TTAs acetilados foram mais significativamente extraídos quando comparados com os seus ácidos livres, o que está diretamente relacionado com a natureza menos polar destas moléculas. O trabalho apresentado nesta tese é uma contribuição para a valorização de uma corrente de biomassa com baixo valor na indústria de pasta em duas vertentes complementares. Por um lado, aumentou o conhecimento da composição lipofílica das cascas de Eucalyptus spp. com interesse comercial para a produção de pasta, destacando o seu potencial enquanto fontes de ácidos triterpénicos. Por outro lado, foram desenvolvidos dois processos alternativos e facilmente integráveis numa fábrica de pasta para a sua exploração a partir da casca: um baseado em tecnologias convencionais bem estabelecidas a nível industrial, prevendo a sua aplicação a curto prazo, e um outro baseado na SFE, seguindo as tendências das futuras biorrefinarias.
The pulp and paper industries are an important sector in the world economy, particularly those based on Eucalyptus species. However these industries generate substantial amounts of by-products and biomass side streams which may be exploited in added value applications, rather than being burned for energy production. A noble example could be the production of triterpenic acids with lupane, oleanane, and ursane skeletons, by adopting the concept of a biorefinery integrated into a pulp mill, since they are highly abundant in some of those residues, particularly in the bark. These compounds are known by their innumerous biological properties, e.g. antioxidant, anti-inflammatory or antitumor, and can find valuable applications in products such as nutraceuticals, cosmetics or pharmaceuticals. In this sense, the study of the potentialities of the barks of the most exploited Eucalyptus species as sources of triterpenic compounds is an important issue. Accordingly, the analysis of the triterpenic acids (TTAs) composition of the outer barks of several Eucalyptus species (E. globulus, E. grandis, E. urograndis, E. maidenii and E. nitens) was carried and compared in detail. The contents of the main TTAs identified in these species varied between 4.5 g/kg in E. urograndis and 21.6 g/kg in E. nitens. It was observed that the outer barks from Eucalyptus of temperate and Mediterranean zones, namely E. nitens and E. globulus, are richer in TTAs than those species from sub-tropical and tropical regions. Furthermore, E. globulus outer bark is clearly the richest in ursane acids while E. nitens is the richest in oleanane and lupane acids. These results induced us to investigate the TTAs extraction from Eucalyptus bark and their further concentration and purification, which were accomplished by conventional solid-liquid extraction combined with solutes precipitation, and by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE). With respect to the first mentioned approach, a patented method for obtaining extracts enriched in TTAs from Eucalyptus barks based on readily available technologies was developed in this work. Concerning the second approach, in order to contribute for the low environmental impact processes required by future biorefineries, the SFE arises as a natural option. Hence, the SFE of E. globulus deciduous bark was performed with pure and modified carbon dioxide to recover the TTAs fraction, and the results were compared with those obtained by Soxhlet extraction with dichloromethane. The influence of pressure (100-200 bar), co-solvent content (0, 5 and 8 wt.% of ethanol), and multistep operation were preliminary studied in order to evaluate the applicability of the supercritical alternative for their selective and efficient production. Results pointed out the influence of pressure and the important role played by co-solvent, whose effect was more important than increasing pressure by several tens of bar. This work was further optimized using factorial design of experiments and the response surface abstract (cont.) methodology to analyze the influence of temperature (40-60 ºC), pressure (100- 200 bar), and ethanol content (0.0-5.0 wt.%) upon TTAs recovery and concentration in extracts. In these intervals, the best operating conditions found were 200 bar, 40ºC and 5% ethanol, for which the statistically validated regression models provided an extraction yield of 1.2% and TTAs concentration of 50%, which correspond to TTAs yield of 5.1 g/kg of bark and a recovery of 79.2% in comparison to the Soxhlet value. The trends of the free and acetylated TTAs were very different, due to their distinct CO2-philic character caused by dissimilar polarities: the acetyl derivatives approached a plateau near 200 bar and 5% ethanol, while the free TTAs extraction always increased in the range of the conditions studied. The cumulative curves of SFE of E. globulus bark were also measured in order to examine the kinetic behavior of this process in terms of total yield, TTAs yield, free TTAs yield, acetylated TTAs yield, and TTAs concentration in the extracts. The influence of pressure, temperature, co-solvent content, and carbon dioxide flow rate upon the previous responses was analyzed. The experimental curves were modeled with Logistic, Desorption, Simple Single Plate, and Diffusion models. In the whole, results confirmed that pressure and ethanol content imparted a significant effect upon extraction curves, final yields, and extracts concentrations, and showed that external limitations to mass transfer affected some runs. Once again, the individual families of free and acetylated TTAs exhibited distinct extraction trends. Modeling allowed us to confirm not only the major role played by intraparticle diffusion upon the SFE but also the contribution of film resistance in some assays. After analyzing all results, a two-step experiment in series has been performed, making possible to enrich the TTAs content in the extract due to the distinct conditions adopted in each stage. Finally, a highly abundant oleanane type triterpenic acid methyl ester – the methyl morolate – was identified for the first time as a component of Eucalyptus bark tissues in outer barks of Eucalyptus grandis x globulus. Its supercritical CO2 extraction was also carried out, aiming at designing an environmentally friendly extraction alternative for this compound. At 200 bar and 60 ºC, the methyl morolate removal attained a plateau at 6 h for 5.1 kg h-1 of CO2 / kg of bark. In the whole, and similarly to the SFE of E. globulus bark, the acetylated TTAs obtained were more significantly extracted when compared to their free acids, which is directly related with the less polar nature of the former molecules. The work presented in this thesis is a contribution for the upgrading of a low value biomass stream from the pulp industry from two complementary points of view. In one hand, it increased the knowledge of the lipophilic composition of the bark of Eucalyptus spp. with commercial interest for pulpwood, highlighting their potential as triterpenic acids sources. On the other hand, two alternative processes were developed for their exploitation from the bark, being easily integrated within a pulp mill: one based on well establish conventional technologies foreseeing its short term implementation, and another based on SFE, following the trends of future biorefineries.

Vegetation along the River Murray floodplains has been shown to be in a severe state of decline. This decline is amplified by the impositions of river regulation. In South Australia, where vegetation losses have been great, regeneration is limited and may result in not only individual tree losses but also widespread population decline. This study aimed to examine the relationship between river flows and the regeneration process in populations of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Eucalyptus largiflorens. The current structure of the populations was examined to determine if a viable number of varying age-classed trees were present. Tree surveys conducted at Banrock Station determined that while densities were low for both species, E. camaldulensis had a more sustainable population structure than E. largiflorens. Growth stages for both species illustrated highly clumped distribution, which is believed to correspond with river flooding magnitudes and frequencies. To address the potential link between tree distribution and flooding within the River Murray, a hydrological analysis was conducted for Banrock Station using river flows at the South Australian border from 1900 to 2003. The amount of time growth stages for each species were inundated was found to be greatly reduced under regulated flows compared to natural flows. This has resulted in shifted localized regeneration patterns corresponding with E. camaldulensis' greater demand for inundation than E. largiflorens. Moderate magnitude flows have been most impacted by regulation, and consequently these are the very flows needed for floodplain tree population maintenance. Flowering and seed fall for E. camaldulensis and E. largiflorens were monitored at Banrock Station for 22 months to identify losses in reproductive potential resulting from tree decline. While seed viability was not affected by vigour, trees with visually reduced vigour were found to produce less fruit and had reduced seed fall, as well as a reduced rate of fruit development. Dendrochronological techniques were applied to floodplain trees. Age and size relationships could be established, implying that such techniques can be applied in South Australia to high quality sites. Growth responses within cohorts were similar and easily matched between individuals illustrating cyclic, but not necessarily seasonal correlations. This work verified the preferential selection of younger trees for dendroecological studies, and identified a relationship between on moderate flows and measurable girth expansion in both floodplain tree species.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2004.

Essential oils obtained by hydrodistillation of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Eucalyptus grandis from Hatay (Turkey), were analyzed by GC/MS. The total ratio of twenty-three components in Eucalyptus camaldulensis volatile components with 98.15%. This ratio is seen as forty-seven components and 99.66% in Eucalyptus grandis. Eucalyptol, limonene and α-pinene were identified as the main components of the essential oils of Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Cymene, α-pinene, isoborneol, trans-pinocarveol and eucalyptol were identified as the main components of the essential oils of Eucalyptus grandis. When compare the components of E. camaldulensis and E. grandis essential oils, the main component was determined as eucalyptol with 74.11% and cymene with 31.67% respectively.