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1
Salvarani, Renata. The Body, the Liturgy and the City. Venice: Edizioni Ca' Foscari, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.30687/978-88-6969-364-9.
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The body and the space are the fulcrums of dynamic relationships creating cultures, identities, societies. In the game of interactions between individuals, groups and space, religions play a crucial role. During a ritual performance takes place a true genesis of a sacred space. This work analyzes the theme from a historical point of view, with a focus on Christian medieval Latin liturgies. Indeed, for Christian theology, related with the dogma of the Incarnation, the chair is itself the place of the manifestation of the sacred. Liturgy makes present and gives with life a new body. Together it generates a space, that interacts with the entire urban society, inside the eschatological dialectic between earthly and heavenly city.
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Faheem, Shaykh. Beginning of the End: An Eschatological Endeavour to Unravel the Mysteries of the Modern Age. Independently Published, 2016.
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Hoover, Jesse A. The Donatist Church in an Apocalyptic Age. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198825517.001.0001.
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This book explores how a schismatic ecclesiastical movement in Roman North Africa known as Donatism incorporated apocalyptic motifs into its literature. In contrast to previous assessments, it will argue that such eschatological expectations are not out of sync with the wider world of Latin Christianity in late antiquity, and that they functioned as an effective polemical strategy designed to counter their opponents’ claim to be the true church in North Africa. After examining how eschatological passages were interpreted by earlier North African Christians prior to the schism, the book will explore appeals to the apocalyptic chronologically during the first two centuries of its existence (roughly 300–500 CE). Two competing trajectories in particular will be noted: a “mainstream” hermeneutic which defined the dissident communion as a prophesied “remnant” which had remained faithful in the face of widespread apostasy, and the radical alternative proposed by the Donatist theologian Tyconius, who interpreted the schism as a symbolic foreshadowing of a still-future “separation” between the true church and the false brothers who currently reside within it. By exploring these and other instances of apocalyptic imagery within the dissident movement’s surviving literary corpus, it is possible to reveal a significant aspect of Donatist self-perception which has so far gone unexamined.
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Fielding, David Elbert. The Lord's prayer: Its interpretation and a reassessment of an eschatological orientation, favoring the prayer's primary application as being for the present gospel age. 1995.
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Hoover, Jesse A. The Apocalypse that Never Was. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198825517.003.0002.
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Chapter 1 focuses on the ways in which Donatist appeals to the apocalyptic have been understood by those outside the dissident communion. Four patterns in particular are discussed. In the militant rhetoric of its early opponents, Donatist eschatological claims were dismissed as evidence of “madness.” By the nineteenth century, Donatists were no longer seen as madmen, but their apparent preoccupation with the end of the world caused many to brand them as anachronistic in an age of Christian emperors. Later reassessments would attempt to link apocalyptic rhetoric with socioeconomic protest against Roman oppression or attempt to downplay apocalyptic motifs altogether.
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Hoover, Jesse A. “God Will Come from the Afric”. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198825517.003.0005.
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Chapter 4 examines the first of two competing Donatist apocalyptic trajectories which evolved between the cessation of the Macarian repression and the 411 Conference at Carthage: a tendency within mainstream Donatism to identify itself as a prophesied eschatological “remnant.” After first establishing the viability of such an interpretation within the dissident communion, the chapter uses the Epistula ad Catholicos and related texts to uncover three interlocking presuppositions shared by its proponents. First, they argued that the Gospel had already been preached to all nations. Second, that the world had entered into an age of apostasy: the prophesied “falling away.” Finally, that the scriptures had foretold the location of those who would remain faithful until the end: in the South of the world, i.e., North Africa.
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Reeves, John C., i Annette Yoshiko Reed. Enoch’s Escape from Death. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198718413.003.0006.
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This chapter brings together a number of textual traditions about the ultimate fate of the figure of Enoch, a theme that the Bible already complicates when it notes that he suddenly disappears from human society “because God took him” (Genesis 5:24). Did Enoch escape the common human destiny of death? If so, where was he taken? Some texts imagine Enoch as now living in a special place somewhere at the ends of the earth, whereas other texts posit his permanent ascension from the terrestrial worlds into the heavenly realm where he now performs certain tasks in God’s throne-room, such as administering certain celestial treasuries or serving as a scribe who records divine decisions or even assuming a position as leader of the angelic hosts. Particular heavenly levels—the fourth, sixth, or seventh—are popularly specified as his new home. Since most of these traditions assume he never experienced death, there are also some intriguing texts which portray Enoch as making a return to earth (together with Elijah) at the end of days as part of the eschatological consummation of the present age.
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Parkhouse, Sarah. Matter and the Soul. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198814801.003.0011.
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The theme of eschatology is not usually identified by exegetes as particularly emphasized in the Gospel of Mary, though it should be. The two primary teachings, the dialogue between the Saviour and his disciples and Mary’s recollection of her vision, are predominantly eschatological in nature, the former being concerned with the earthly realm and the latter the heavenly. The earthly realm is the created cosmos made of ‘matter’, destined for dissolution owing to its inherent instability, whereas the heavenly is the home of the ‘Soul’, the goal of its perilous post-mortem journey past hostile spiritual powers that seek to bar its way. Despite obvious differences with the Olivet Discourse of Matthew 24 and parallels, there are multiple points of convergence with the eschatological teachings within the canonical gospels. Starting from the Gospel of Mary, this chapter explores connections between eschatological thinking on both sides of the canonical boundary.
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Džalto, Davor. Anarchy and the Kingdom of God. Fordham University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.5422/fordham/9780823294381.001.0001.
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Anarchy and the Kingdom of God presents the reader with a unique critique of both traditional and contemporary political theologies that have rationalized and justified power structures and oppression of various kinds. The book advances an “anarchist” theological approach to the socio-political sphere, which is based on some of the basic presuppositions of Orthodox Christian anthropology and metaphysics. Developing a coherent critique of power structures and oppression, as one of the most prominent forces in human history, Davor Džalto advances human freedom as a foundational theological principle. Building on insights and arguments ranging from New Testament texts and Church Fathers, to modern religious and political thinkers such as Nikolai Berdyaev, Jacques Ellul, and Sheldon Wolin, Džalto contextualizes the political realm as primarily the realm of power, which is rooted in a specific logic of being. This logic, based on self-affirmation and the power dynamics of domination/submission, is confronted here with a different (eschatological) mode of existence based on freedom and love. Developing an “anarchist” political theology, the book offers a method for dealing with a variety of contemporary social and political issues. With a genuine theological approach to the issues of human freedom and power dynamics, the book enables a fresh re-examination of the problem of democracy and justice in the age of global (neoliberal) capitalism.
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Elledge, C. D. Josephus. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199640416.003.0009.
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The only early Jewish author to have written a surviving description of what his contemporaries believed about the afterlife was Josephus, yet his testimonies about the afterlife are complex historical, literary, and apologetic descriptions. They cannot be immediately corroborated by contemporary writings; nor should they be exclusively categorized as a purely Hellenizing literary construction that had no relationship to actual Jewish eschatological beliefs. To understand his testimonies to the afterlife, it is ultimately necessary to address how Josephus wrote about the afterlife. This chapter argues that his treatment of the afterlife can be reasonably explained as an apologetic cultural translation that made use of established doxographic and ethnographic techniques. His descriptions of the afterlife are, thus, an important window into his own compositional methods. In translating Jewish eschatological hopes into the categories of Hellenistic philosophy, Josephus also anticipates the strategies of later Christian apologists.
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Stewart-Kroeker, Sarah. Pilgrimage as Moral and Aesthetic Formation in Augustine’s Thought. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198804994.001.0001.
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Augustine’s dominant image for the human life is peregrinatio, which signifies at once a journey to the homeland—a pilgrimage—and the condition of exile from the homeland. For Augustine, all human beings are, in the earthly life, exiles from their true homeland: heaven. Only some become pilgrims seeking a way back to the heavenly homeland, a return mediated by the incarnate Christ. Becoming a pilgrim begins with attraction to beauty. The return journey therefore involves formation, both moral and aesthetic, in loving rightly. This image has occasioned a lot of angst in ethical thought in the last century or so. Augustine’s vision of Christian life as a pilgrimage, his critics allege, casts a pall of groaning and longing over this life in favor of happiness in the next. Augustine’s eschatological orientation robs the world of beauty and ethics of urgency. In this book, Stewart-Kroeker sets out to elaborate Augustine’s understanding of moral and aesthetic formation via the pilgrimage image, which she argues reflects a Christological continuity between the earthly journey and the eschatological home that unites love of God and neighbor. From the human desire for beauty to the embodied practice of Christian sacraments, Stewart-Kroeker reveals the integrity of Augustine’s vision of moral and aesthetic formation, which is essentially the ordering of love. Along the way, Stewart-Kroeker develops an Augustinian account of the relationship between beauty and morality.
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Rex, Ahdar, i Leigh Ian. Part I, 2 Christian Perspectives. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199606474.003.0002.
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This chapter examines various theological, specifically Christian, justifications for religious freedom. For long periods Christians gave vent to their unswerving conviction that they alone heard from God, and all other faiths were demonic. However, Christian thought eventually came round to the notion that the principle of religious liberty was right. It was implied in the Scriptures. A series of overlapping convictions comprise the contemporary Christian case for the freedom of religion. These are summarized in the form of eight principles: the principle of voluntariness; the Christological injunction; the persecution injunction; the fallibility principle; the eschatological or providential confidence; the ecumenical or universal principle; the principle of the unrestricted conscience; and the dual authority principle.
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Hummer, Hans. “The Genealogical Unity of Mankind”. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198797609.003.0011.
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This chapter argues that medieval genealogies are not representations of “blood” connections per se, but functioned as eschatological maps of divine plans and promises. It derives an indigenous conception of genealogy from exegetical works on biblical genealogies, which also inspired the descending form of medieval genealogies. Biblical genealogies also structured medieval historiography, which traced the salvation of history through a lattice of genealogies connected to Jesus’s genealogy. The chapter shows that the genealogies of royal and princely figures in Carolingian Europe, Flanders, and in Lambert of St. Omer’s Liber Floridus were devised to discern the divinely ordained direction of history as Frankish Europe drifted into a conglomerate of kingdoms and principalities between the tenth and the twelfth centuries.
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Macaskill, Grant. Intellectual Humility and the Community of the Sacraments. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198799856.003.0008.
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This chapter considers the role that the sacraments of baptism and Eucharist play in fostering a proper attitude of intellectual humility within Christian community. The sacraments dramatically enact the union with Christ that we have argued in previous chapters to define Christian intellectual humility, embodying the truth that our intellectual identities are not autonomous, but are dependent upon the constitutive identity of Jesus Christ and are located within the community of the church. Both baptism and Eucharist are understood within the New Testament to communicate the eschatological identity of the church, and therefore the distinctive character of our relationship to the reality of evil. The chapter will pay particular attention to the way that Paul directs his readers to think differently in response to the significance of the sacraments. It will also consider the close connection of the command to ‘love one another’ to the sacraments.
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Shimahara, Sumi. Evil Lords and the Devil. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199394852.003.0008.
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Perceptions of tyranny are also the subject of this chapter, which discusses the ways in which terms deriving from the root ‘tyran-’ were employed in biblical commentaries and other sources of the Carolingian era. The chapter shows that eighth- and ninth-century authors developed a distinct discourse on tyranny by blending pagan and patristic views with their own ethical-political principles. Carolingian conceptions of tyranny were grounded in considerations pertaining both to legality and to morality, with vice, eschatological concerns, and the association with the devil playing as important a role as issues of illegitimacy, usurpation, or malfeasance. These conceptions were moreover fairly elastic, as related terms not only had a wide connotative range but were also used to describe a variety of abusive behaviors of a royal, secular, or ecclesiastical origin.
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Belser, Julia Watts. Romans Before the Rabbis’ God. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190600471.003.0006.
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This chapter grapples with rabbinic fantasies of revenge and recompense, focusing primarily on the lengthy rabbinic tale of Titus’s downfall after his destruction of the temple. It examines the Titus narrative through the framework of rabbinic eschatology, demonstrating how the tale critiques the arrogance and hubris of the conqueror, imagines the downfall of the wicked, and undercuts the triumphalist assertions of Roman imperial power. These rabbinic eschatological fantasies are expressed in striking corporeal terms: through images of bodily rupture and physical pain, as well as the humiliation and degradation of flesh that recount the unmaking of the imperial body. Through striking images of the body as a porous and permeable space, these narratives challenge the notion of Roman-Christian power as sealed and sovereign—imagining the imperial body as vulnerable to divine incursion, open to divine touch.
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Lievens, Matthias. Carl Schmitt’s Concept of History. Redaktorzy Jens Meierhenrich i Oliver Simons. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199916931.013.013.
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In many of his political writings, Carl Schmitt seeks to render conflict and struggle visible and recognizable. He wages a metapolitical struggle against depoliticizing types of spirit and for the political. The meaning of history, as this chapter shows, is a crucial terrain for this metapolitical struggle: friends and enemies are symbolized and rendered (in)visible through historical discourses. The analysis demonstrates that Schmitt strongly rejects representations of history that tend to obfuscate its political nature, such as ideologies of progress or the idea of repetition in history. Instead, he advocates a sober and profane image of history, acknowledging its plural and contingent nature. Paradoxically, a figure of theological provenance, the katechon, is the minimal rest of an eschatological vision that Schmitt considers necessary to keep history and theology apart and to maintain an open and profane understanding of history.
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Meyrav, Yoav. Medieval Jewish Philosophers and the Human Body. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190490447.003.0006.
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Medieval Jewish philosophers approached the human body and being in a body from various aspects: ontological, ethical, psychological, and eschatological. Thinkers from many different geographical and philosophical backgrounds nonetheless all shared a common point of reference: Judaism as an “embodied religion.” Jewish day-to-day practice (“mitzvot”) and Jewish law (“halakha”) have much to do with the regulation and moderation of the body, in this life as well as after the resurrection (if taken literally). This creates potential tension with the different philosophical and theological traditions many Jewish philosophers responded to. Passages from the writings of—among others—Saadya Gaon, Judah Halevi, Bahya ibn Paquda, Maimonides, and Abraham ibn Daud, are analyzed and assessed, exhibiting a wide scope of opinions and approaches, all of which have some affinity to the “embodiment” of the Jewish religion, which perhaps reduces the ontological distance between the realm of body and the realm of mind.
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Teubner, Jonathan D. The Augustinianism 2 of the Rule of St Benedict. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198767176.003.0011.
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Chapter 8 examines the Benedictine conversatio as a life of prayer that arises out of a constellation of Augustinian themes. Despite its many literary borrowings from monastic traditions of the East, Benedict’s use of regula and conversatio is situated within an Augustinian understanding of Christian existence that is constellated around a life of prayer grounded in hopeful patience. In Benedict’s Rule, one can detect an expansion of the form Augustine imagined redemption to take in this life. For monks, as for lay and clerical Christians, redemption is eschatologically achieved but held in hope until the age to come. Through a reading of four key chapters of the Rule (3, 7, 71–2), Benedict’s Augustinianism 2 comes into view as a theory of individual growth.
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Silva, Marcus Vinicius Segedi da. Hoje cumpriu-se esta Escritura que ouviste: o Apocalipse de João em perspectiva intertextual a partir do Antigo Testamento. Brazil Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.31012/978-65-5861-413-5.
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This paper aims to investigate the hermeneutic consequences of the relationship between Apocalypse of John and Old Testament. The author of Patmos, possibly aiming to move his listeners to perseverance on witness of Jesus Christ, not only wrote an apocalypse - which is true - but also drew on a wide range of Old Testament texts, not to support himself by arguments, but to highlight unprecedented facets of the reality. Indeed, if his time is an epoch of tribulation, even before the faithful persons raise their prayers to God, he has already heard them and, in his eternal saving plan, has provided them a complete salvation. The old promises are fulfilled, and the lost paradise is again opened to redeemed humanity. Therefore, we do not have in hand a text that aims to instill fear, but to ignite hope, since history is definitely oriented towards an eschatological completeness in which the whole world created, sanctified, will be a great object of worship to the God who wipes away all the tears.
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Smith, John Howard. A Dream of the Judgment Day. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197533741.001.0001.
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The End is near! This phrase, so well known in the contemporary United States, invokes images of manic self-proclaimed prophets of doom standing on street corners shouting their warnings and predictions to amused or indifferent passersby. However, such proclamations have long been a feature of the American cultural landscape, and were never exclusively the domain of wild-eyed fanatics. A Dream of the Judgment Day describes the origins and development of American apocalypticism and millennialism from the beginnings of English colonization of North America in the early 1600s through the formation of the United States and its travails in the nineteenth century. It explores the reasons why varieties of millennialism are an essential component of American exceptionalism, and focuses upon the nation’s early history to better establish how millennialism and apocalypticism are the keys to understanding early American history and religious identity. This sweeping history of eschatological thought in early America encompasses not just traditional and non-traditional Christian beliefs in the end of the world, but also how American Indians and African Americans have likewise been influenced by, and have expressed, those beliefs in unique ways.
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Resane, Kelebogile Thomas. South African Christian Experiences: From colonialism to democracy. SunBonani Scholar, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.18820/9781928424994.
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Theologically and historically sound, Resane’s South African Christian Experiences: From Colonialism to Democracy, envisions a robust Christianity that acknowledges itself as “a community of justified sinners” who are on an eschatological journey of conversion. This Christianity does not look away from its historical sins and participation in corruption and evils such as Apartheid. Resane argues that failing to adhere to Jesus’ teachings is not a reason for Christianity to recede from public life. Rather, doing so further pushes Christianity away from Jesus who emphatically called for the Church to engage in the liberation of society. By framing how the Christian must engage with his/her community as a component to belief – that saying must mean doing for belief to happen – Resane frames his theology as an eschatological clarion call for internal and social renewal, an interplay between the individual Christian, the communal churches of Christ, and society at large. Dr J. Sands – Northwest University “Drawing from our own wells” is a prophetic call for theologians to develop context specific liberation theologies drawn from their own contexts, history, experiences, and different types of knowledge. This book locates its loci in the historical and contemporary context in South Africa, as well as drawing from the rich legacy of liberation theologies including African, Kairos, Black, Circle and many other theologies to address contemporary issues facing South Africa. Resane’s book contributes towards enhancing the much needed local theologies of liberation based on contextual realities and knowledges. Dr Nontando Hadebe – Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians South African Christian Experiences: From Colonialism to Democracy captures the societal binaries that are part and parcel of Christianity, especially in the African context. The definition of God is also affected by these binaries, such as, is God Black or White? The book proposes both the non-binary approach, and the process of inculturation. The work also shows how not to have one theology, but different theologies, hence references and expansions on the Trinity, Pneumatology, Christology, etc. Furthermore, this work portrays Christ as seen from an African point of view, and what it means to attach African attributes to Christ, as opposed to the traditional Western understanding. Rev. Fr. Thabang Nkadimeng – History of Christianity, University of KwaZulu Natal Resane has dug deep into the history of the church in South Africa, and brought the experiences of Indigenous people and Christians, including theologians, to the attention of every reader. The author demonstrates an intense knowledge of the history of Christianity. He also portrays that there is still more to be done, both from the Christian historical perspective and the theological perspective for the church to be relevant to all the contexts in which it finds itself. Prof. Mokhele Madise – Department of Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology, University of South Africa
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Hummer, Hans. Visions of Kinship in Medieval Europe. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198797609.001.0001.
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What meaning did human kinship possess in a world regulated by biblical time, committed to the primacy of spiritual relationships, and bound by the sinews of divine love? In the process of exploring that question, this book offers a searching re-examination of kinship in Europe between late Roman times and the high Middle Ages, the period bridging Europe’s primitive past and its modern present. It critiques the modernist and Western bio-genealogical and functionalist assumptions that have shaped kinship studies since their inception in the nineteenth century, when biblical time collapsed and kinship became a signifier of the essential secularity of history and a method for conceptualizing a deeper prehistory guided by autogenous human impulses. It argues that this understanding of kinship is fundamentally antagonistic to medieval sentiments and is responsible for the frustrations researchers have encountered as they have tried to identify the famously elusive kin groups of medieval Europe. It delineates an alternative ethnographic approach inspired by recent anthropological work that privileges indigenous expressions of kinship and the interpretive potential of native ontologies. The book reveals that kinship in the Middle Ages was not biological, primitive, or a regulator of social mechanisms; nor is it traceable by bio-genealogical connections. In the Middle Ages kinship signified a sociality that flowed from convictions about the divine source of all things and wove together families, institutions, and divinities into an expansive eschatological vision animated by “the most righteous principle of love.”
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Jim, Theodora Suk Fong. Saviour Gods and Soteria in Ancient Greece. Oxford University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192894113.001.0001.
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From the Archaic to the Roman imperial period, an impressive number of gods and goddesses are attested in the Greek world under the titles of Soter and Soteira (‘Saviour’). Overseeing the protection of individuals and cities, these gods had the power to grant and withdraw an essential blessing―soteria (‘deliverance’, ‘preservation’, ‘safety’). This book investigates what it meant to be ‘saved’ and the underlying concept of soteria in ancient Greece. It challenges the prevailing assumption that soteria was a predominantly Christian concern, and demonstrates instead its centrality and significance in the relationship between the Greeks and their gods. This book focuses on the power of ‘saviour’ gods in the life of the Greeks, how worshippers searched for soteria as they confronted the unknown and unknowable, and what this can reveal about the religious beliefs, hopes, and anxieties of the Greeks. It goes beyond religious vocabulary and cult epithets to investigate worshippers’ thought world and lived experience, the different choices individuals made among the plurality of gods in the Greek pantheon, the multiple levels on which divine ‘saviours’ operated, and the values attached to the Greek notion of soteria. Building on existing paradigms in the study of Greek polytheism, and combining close analysis of epigraphic, literary, and material evidence, this book argues that soteria for the ancient Greeks entailed a very different experience from the Christian, eschatological notion of ‘salvation’, and that what was offered was ‘salvation’ on earth.
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Gaposchkin, M. Cecilia. Invisible Weapons. Cornell University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501705151.001.0001.
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In 1098, three years into the First Crusade and after a brutal eight-month siege, the Franks captured the city of Antioch. Two days later, Muslim forces arrived with a relief army, and the victors became the besieged. Exhausted and ravaged by illness and hunger, the Franks were exhorted by their religious leaders to supplicate God, and for three days they performed a series of liturgical exercises, beseeching God through ritual prayer to forgive their sins and grant them victory. The following day, the Christian army, accompanied by bishops and priests reciting psalms and hymns, marched out of the city to face the Muslim forces and won a resounding and improbable victory. From the very beginning and throughout the history of the Crusades, liturgical prayer, masses, and alms were all marshaled in the fight against the Muslim armies. During the Fifth Crusade, Pope Honorius III likened liturgy to “invisible weapons.” This book is about those invisible weapons; about the prayers and liturgical rituals that were part of the battle for the faith. The book tells the story of the greatest collective religious undertaking of the Middle Ages, putting front and center the ways in which Latin Christians communicated their ideas and aspirations for crusade to God through liturgy, how liturgy was deployed in crusading, and how liturgy absorbed ideals or priorities of crusading. Liturgy helped construct the devotional ideology of the crusading project, endowing war with religious meaning, placing crusading ideals at the heart of Christian identity, and embedding crusading warfare squarely into the eschatological economy. By connecting medieval liturgical books with the larger narrative of crusading, Gaposchkin allows us to understand a crucial facet in the culture of holy war.