Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Environmental damage”

This paper looks at environmental damage definition stipulated by Peruvian General Environmental Law as well as its implications for the environmental policy development. It also outlines complexities involved identifying environmental damage as much as designing and implementing public policies according to Peruvian legislation processing.
El presente ensayo analiza la definición de daño ambiental querecoge la Ley General del Ambiente, así como sus implicancias para el desarrollo de la política ambiental. Describe las complejidades presentes en la identificación del daño ambiental así como en el diseño y aplicación de las políticas públicas relacionadas a su tratamiento en la legislación peruana.

Les estimacions de danys ambientals en cadenes de processos necessiten l'avaluació d'impactes ambientals en dues perspectives: orientades cap a cadenes de processos i orientades localment. Per a ambdues perspectives s'han desenvolupat eines específiques d'avaluació: l'Avaluació del Cicle de Vida (ACV o LCA) i l'Avaluació del Risc Ambiental (ERA). L'ACV és una eina, bastant nova, orientada cap a cadenes de processos, per avaluar el perfil ambiental dels productes, enfocada cap al cicle de vida complet d'aquests. A la fase de l'Avaluació de l'Impacte del Cicle de Vida (LCIA) s'avaluen els resultats del Inventari del Cicle de Vida (LCI) d'un sistema de producte, per entendre millor el seu significat ambiental. L'ERA és una eina per avaluar el risc de substàncies químiques específiques. A l'anàlisi d'exposició, s'avalua el risc d'un procés en un lloc concret. L'Anàlisi de Vies d'Impacte (IPA) és un mètode semblant que s'ha desenvolupat per a l'avaluació dels danys ambientals en termes de paràmetres d'impactes físics, com per exemple els casos de càncer. A l'IPA normalment aquests paràmetres es converteixen en costs externs. No obstant això, els individus podrien preferir altres esquemes de valoració.
Els productes es fabriquen en una cadena ramificada de processos. Existeixen mètodes específics per a l'avaluació ambiental de productes que no s'haurien d'emprar directement per a l'avaluació d'un número de processos industrials amb una unitat funcional comuna, ja que el nivell de sofisticació en l'avaluació pot ser més elevat per a cadenes de processos industrials amb un número limitat de processos inclosos que per a productes complexos. S'han realitzat pocs esforços, per explorar sistemàticament les incerteses inherents, interfases i tipus de possibilitats d'integració i comunicació dels mètodes d'avaluació ambientals citats, orientats per un costat a cadenes de processos i per l'altre els orientats localment, en el cas de cadenes de processos industrials. Per això l'objectiu d'aquesta tesi, és trobar un compromís adequat entre els mètodes d'avaluació d'impacte ambiental, orientats a cadenes de processos i els orientats localment i, convertir les estimacions de danys ambientals en resultats significatius, com els costs ambientals.
La tesi ofereix un algoritme matemàtic i un esquema que permet la diferenciació espaial a diferents nivells de detall i proposa una integració de l'ACV, l'IPA i els costs ambientals. La metodologia establerta "Estimacions de Danys Ambientals per a Cadenes de Processos Industrials" posa els punts mitjos i els punts finals en un marc comú. S'aplica i se segueix desenvolupant un mètode per a l'avaluació d'impactes depenents del lloc com una manera per aconseguir un compromís entre les avaluacions del dany específic de lloc i els indicadors potencials del cicle de vida. El mètode utilitza classes genèriques d'impacte que corresponen a diverses distribucions de receptors i condicions de dispersió basades en un raonament estadístic. Una part del desenvolupament de la metodologia consisteix en l'anàlisi de les incerteses en el LCI i l'IPA per la simulació de Monte Carlo. Aquesta aplicació paral.lela permet mostrar que les incerteses de l'inventari són menys importants que les dels danys.
Els mètodes presentats i la metodologia desenvolupada s'han aplicat amb èxit per diferents camins al cas pràctic d'incineració de residus i, especialment, al seu impacte sobre la salut humana. La comparació dels resultats derivats, mitjançant indicadors d'impacte de punt final, amb els obtinguts per a l'indicador de punt mitjà, indica que per la situació del cas pràctic l'indicador de punt mitjà desestima l'impacte ambiental dels processos de transport. S'ha establert la base per a la creació d'una nova generació de models de gestió integrada de residus que inclou l'optimització de la ubicació de plantes de tractament de residus i de la difusió de les rutes de transports corresponents.
Las estimaciones de daños ambientales en cadenas de procesos necesitan la evaluación de impactos ambientales en dos perspectivas: orientadas hacia cadenas de procesos y orientadas localmente. Para las dos perspectivas se han desarrollado herramientas específicas de evaluación: el Análisis del Ciclo de Vida (ACV o LCA) y la Evaluación del Riesgo Ambiental (ERA). El ACV es una herramienta, bastante nueva, orientada hacia cadenas de procesos, para evaluar el perfil ambiental de los productos, enfocada hacia el ciclo de vida completo de éstos. En la fase de la Evaluación del Impacto del Ciclo de Vida (LCIA) se evalúan los resultados del Inventario del Ciclo de Vida (LCI) de un sistema de producto, para entender mejor su significado ambiental. La ERA es una herramienta para evaluar el riesgo de substancias químicas específicas. En el análisis de exposición, se evalúa el riesgo de un proceso en un lugar concreto. El Análisis de Vías de Impacto (IPA) es un método similar que se ha desarrollado para la evaluación de los daños ambientales en forma de parámetros de impactos físicos, como casos de cáncer. En el IPA normalmente estos parámetros están convertidos en costes externos.
Los productos se fabrican en una cadena ramificada de procesos. Existen métodos específicos para la evaluación ambiental de productos que no se deberían aplicar directamente para la evaluación de un número de procesos industriales con una unidad funcional comuna, ya que el nivel de sofisticación en la evaluación puede ser más elevado para cadenas de procesos industriales con un número limitado de procesos incluidos que para productos complejos. Se han realizado pocos esfuerzos, para explorar sistemáticamente las incertidumbres inherentes y los tipos de posibilidades de integración y comunicación de los métodos de evaluación ambiental citados, orientados de un lado a cadenas de procesos y del otro lado orientados localmente, en el caso de cadenas de procesos industriales. Por eso el objetivo de esta tesis, es: encontrar un compromiso adecuado entre los métodos de evaluación de impacto ambiental, orientados a cadenas de procesos y los orientados localmente y, convertir las estimaciones de daños ambientales en resultados significativos, como los costes ambientales.
La tesis ofrece un algoritmo matemático y un esquema que permite la diferenciación espacial a diferentes niveles de detalle y propone una integración del ACV, IPA y costes ambientales. La metodología establecida "Estimaciones de Daños Ambientales para Cadenas de Procesos Industriales" pone los puntos medios y los puntos finales en un marco común. Se continúa el desarrollo de un método para la evaluación de impactos dependientes del lugar como una manera para conseguir un compromiso entre les evaluaciones del daño específico de lugar y los indicadores potenciales del ciclo de vida. El método utiliza clases genéricas de impacto que corresponden a diversas distribuciones de receptores y condiciones de dispersión basadas en un razonamiento estadístico. Como parte del desarrollo de metodología, se analizan las incertidumbres en el LCI y IPA mediante la simulación de Monte Carlo.
Los métodos presentados y la metodología desarrollada se han aplicado con éxito por diferentes caminos al caso práctico de incineración de residuos y especialmente a su impacto sobre la salud humana. La comparación de los resultados derivados mediante indicadores de impacto de punto final con los obtenidos para el indicador de punto medio, indica que para la situación del caso práctico el indicador de punto medio desestima el impacto ambiental de los procesos de transporte. Se ha establecido la base para la creación de una nueva generación de modelos de gestión integrada de residuos que incluye la optimización de la ubicación de plantas de tratamiento y de las rutas de transportes correspondientes.
Environmental damage estimations in industrial process chains need the assessment of environmental impacts in two perspectives: process chain-orientated and site-orientated. For both perspectives environmental assessment tools exist: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA). LCA is a fairly new chain-orientated tool to evaluate the environmental performance of products focussing on its entire life cycle. In the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) phase a product system's Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) results are evaluated to better understand their environmental relevance. ERA is a tool to assess the risk of chemicals. In the exposure analysis the risk of a process at one location is evaluated. The Impact Pathway Analysis (IPA) is a method related to ERA that has been developed for the assessment of environmental damages by the terms of physical impact parameters like cancer cases. Usually in the IPA the physical impact parameters are converted into external environmental costs, but depending on personal values individuals may prefer other existing weighting schemes to express different types of environmental damages.
Products are manufactured in a ramified chain of processes. While specific tools exist for the environmental assessment of products and processes, this is not the case for the assessment of a number of industrial processes with a common functional unit such as end-of-life cycles. However, the level of sophistication in the assessment can be much higher for industrial process chains with a quite limited number of processes involved than for the life cycles of complex products. Only little efforts have been made so far to systematically explore the inherent uncertainties, interfaces and possibilities for integration and communication of the chain-orientated and site-orientated environmental assessment methods in the case of such industrial process chains. Therefore, the objective of this thesis is to find an adequate trade-off between process chain-orientated and site-orientated environmental impact assessment and to convert environmental damage estimates in meaningful results like environmental costs.
The thesis proposes a mathematical framework and a flowchart that allows spatial differentiation at different levels of detail based on the integration of LCA, ERA and IPA with environmental costs. This methodology called "Environmental Damage Estimations in Industrial Process Chains" puts the conventional potential midpoint LCIA indicators in a common framework with damage endpoint IPA indicators. As a trade-off between site-specific damage assessments and potential life cycle indicators a currently existing site-dependent impact assessment is further developed and integrated in the methodology proposed. The site-dependent impact assessment method is based on statistical reasoning and uses representative generic impact classes corresponding to receptor distribution and dispersion conditions. As part of the methodology development, uncertainties in the LCI and IPA are analysed using Monte Carlo Simulation. This parallel analysis permits to show that the uncertainties in the inventory analysis are less important than those in the damage assessment.
The presented methods and the developed methodology were successfully applied in several ways to a case study on waste incineration with a special focus on human health. In a comparison of the results obtained by endpoint indicators with midpoint indicators it was found that for the situation of the case study apparently the midpoint indicators underestimate the environmental impact of the transport processes. A new generation of integrated waste management tools seems to be feasible that takes into account the setting of the waste treatment installations and the sites affected by the transport routes, allowing in this way an overall environmental optimisation

The main purpose of this thesis is the evaluation of the financial and economic instruments to support the management of environmental damage. The thesis explores the insurance and market opportunities to limit the environmental risks and to restore natural resources after a damage occurs. This work analyzes the topic through its contextualization within the regulations relating to environmental liability on a general level (Environmental Liability) and a bibliography research about the tools and techniques currently used by the insurance companies in terms of potential environmental damage. It will use a top-down approach, starting with a general analysis up to the examination of specific case studies. It is presented a survey of some insurance companies and instruments to analyze the current level and setting of insurance guarantees related to environmental risks. The insurance analysis is focused on specific cases of study in the Venice area, examining the present situation of financial guarantees instruments related to the waste treatment risks.

Environmental footprints are increasingly used to quantify and compare environmental impacts of for example products, technologies, households, or nations. This has resulted in a multitude of footprint indicators, ranging from relatively simple measures of resource use (water, energy, materials) to integrated measures of eventual damage (for example, extinction of species). Yet, the possible redundancies among these different footprints have not yet been quantified. This paper analyzes the relationships between two comprehensive damage footprints and four resource footprints associated with 976 products. The resource footprints accounted for >90% of the variation in the damage footprints. Human health damage was primarily associated with the energy footprint, via emissions resulting from fossil fuel combustion. Biodiversity damage was mainly related to the energy and land footprints, the latter being mainly determined by agriculture and forestry. Our results indicate that relatively simple resource footprints are highly representative of damage to human health and biodiversity.

Thesis (S.M. in Atmospheric Science)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, 2012.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 47-53).
Hurricane activity between 1979 and 2011 was studied to determine damage statistics under different environmental conditions. Hurricanes cause billions of dollars of damage every year in the United States, but damage locations and magnitudes vary from year to year. Seasonal hurricane forecasts predicting the strength of the upcoming hurricane season have the potential to be used by many industries and sectors to reduce and mitigate the effects of hurricanes. However, damage itself is not predicted by these forecasts. This work analyzed trends in hurricane damage due to atmospheric and oceanic conditions, and the results could be applied to and included in seasonal hurricane forecasts, thus increasing forecast applicability and value. This work used synthetic hurricane tracks generated from background climate conditions, a U.S. property portfolio, and a damage function based on wind speed to determine 1979-2011 hurricane damage. Damage was split into La Niña/El Niño and pre-/post- 1995 year sets to determine spatial and temporal trends in U.S. hurricane damage. This work concluded that different regions of the country experienced more or less hurricane damage under different environmental conditions. Knowledge of these trends can be applied to seasonal hurricane forecasts and can influence property owner, regulator, and insurer behavior across the nation.
by Anastasia Francis Maheras.
S.M.in Atmospheric Science

This thesis investigates whether liability regimes for purposes of claiming for damage caused to the environment in South Africa are effective, and provides a general view of the relevant concepts, and identifies the challenges in succeeding in bringing a successful statutory or civil liability claim. It examines the current environmental legislative framework and identifies its inadequacy in facilitating common law compensation claims to remediate environmental damage, as well as to compensate victims who personally suffer loss, harm or damage caused by a polluter. This study evaluates the complications and possibility of success in enforcing these damage claims. The thesis commences with an overview of the definitions of what the concepts “environment”, “ecology” and “natural resources” mean. In this context, it aims to provide clarity on what damage to the environment, as a common good, entails. Thereafter the fundamental right of persons to the environment, for purposes of determining locus standi and the scope and merits of a liability claim are discussed. It is also evaluates and determines the importance of protecting the environment with specific reference to its impact on social and economic development, and the way in which liability regimes, by acting as a deterrent, can further this aim. . The current legislative framework in South Africa lacks comprehensive liability rules to allow for a claim for damages to be lodged directly by an individual against the polluter. As stated an effective liability regime also acts as a deterrent to combat the problem of environmental damage, and could be facilitated in improved environmental governance structures. The possibility of taking successful recourse by ways of a civil delictual liability claim is critically discussed to determine whether the current flexible principles of delict can be applied effectively in cases where environmental damage claims are instituted. Criminal liability forms only a limited part of the study as utilising criminal law principles can merely serve as deterrent for environmental crimes in South Africa, yet does not provide compensation as reparation. The issue of the economic consequences relating to the various environmental liability regimes is also included in the study. Sound environmental liability regimes can serve the purpose of attracting and encouraging foreign direct investment, which is critical for economic and social development. The study further contains a brief capita selecta from the laws of other countries in order to tap from the experience of the other jurisdictions that have developed legal regimes for environmental governance. It aims to provide justifiable recommendations for future developments in this area of South Africa’s national laws.
Thesis (LLD)--University of Pretoria, 2019.
Private Law
LLD
Unrestricted

Male factor infertility is a contributing factor in up to 50% of infertile couples. Increasing numbers of couples undergoing assisted reproductive technology (ART) treatment and reports of a possible decline in male fertility suggest that lifestyle, occupational and environmental exposures might impair semen quality. Sperm DNA contains both DNA strand breaks and base damage that has been associated with poor semen quality but few studies have examined the role of double strand breaks (DSBs), a toxic lesion, or DNA damage such as N7-methyldeoxyguanosine (N7-MedG) arising from alkylating agents that can be toxic and mutagenic. The aim of this research was to examine the relationships between exposures, DNA damage and male fertility. Men were recruited from couples attending for ART treatment and they provided information on lifestyle, occupational and environmental exposures as well as a sperm sample. Semen concentration and motility was determined by standard techniques in the neat sample and the prepared sample that underwent density gradient centrifugation for ART treatment. DSBs were measured in individual sperm cells by the neutral Comet assay and N7-MedG levels in sperm DNA by an immunoslot blot assay. Information on ART outcomes (% fertilisation, % cleavage and clinical pregnancy) was collected and associations between DNA damage, exposures, semen quality and ART outcomes were determined. Expression of individual DNA repair proteins was also examined in individual oocytes. Men in manual work had significantly lower semen volumes and higher % immotile sperm. Exposure to dry cleaning fluids and having a fever were associated with a decrease in sperm number and while non-ionizing radiation was associated with an increase in % immotile sperm, X-ray exposure was correlated to a decrease in % progressively motile sperm. Semen parameters were significantly and negatively correlated with DSBs in neat and prepared sperm, and N7-MedG levels in neat sperm. Density gradient centrifugation improved sperm sample quality and decreased DSBs and N7-MedG levels significantly. Successful fertilization of oocytes was negatively associated with DSB levels in neat and prepared sperm and with N7-MedG levels in neat sperm. Lower DSB levels in men were associated with an increased chance of an achieving clinical pregnancy especially in ICSI couples. N7-MedG levels were significantly correlated with driving a car and exposure to detergent or printing inks and dyestuffs. DSBs were correlated negatively with exercise and positively with eating nuts and almonds or exposure to non-ionizing radiation. DNA repair gene expression in individual oocytes showed significant intra and inter-individual variability. Sperm DNA damage can reduce male fertility, but the causes of such damage remain to be identified. The variable ability of individual oocytes to repair this damage may well affect the chance for a successful pregnancy.

Thesis (S.M.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2001.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 145-149).
Large earthquakes have the potential of causing extensive damage and enormous economic losses. These losses are primarily attributable to the reduction in functionality of various facilities in the affected region and the rebuilding costs, and can be reduced through strategic pre- and post-earthquake decisions. This thesis describes an integrated methodology to estimate losses due to scenario earthquakes, with emphasis on the reduced functionality of the transportation infrastructure. The methodology integrates variables that were previously considered exogenous to the transportation system, through models for reduced industrial production capacity, and damage to lifelines, residential clusters and other structural components in an integrated framework. By modifying input parameters, one can evaluate the effect on the losses of various mitigating actions. The methodology is thus useful for prioritizing retrofitting efforts and in general for developing pre and post- earthquake strategies for lowering economic losses. A case study of a New Madrid scenario earthquake is presented. Future efforts needed to improve the loss estimation capability of this methodology are identified.
by Umang Gupta.
S.M.

Thesis: M. Eng., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2014.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (page 77).
Because the ocean level keeps rising and because hurricanes and storms become increasingly destructive in terms of damage and economic loss, the built environment has become very vulnerable to floods. Every city is building a resilient plan to decrease its vulnerability. However, the studies are often reduced to case studies and if engineers manage to build smarter, to upgrade or strengthen existing systems, they do not necessarily evaluate accurately their effect on damage. This is why this thesis starts by identifying the key factors that define and impact flood damage, then defining other parameters that are more oriented towards resilience. Based on these considerations, a probabilistic evaluation of flood damage in buildings can be conducted and the sensitivity of each parameter is evaluated in order to reduce the total loss. Then a new objective becomes to find how modifying parameters, and consequently the structure, leads to less damage without losing its cost-effectiveness. The first thesis' aim was to evaluate flood damage on buildings. However, building's damage is more diverse than expected and evaluating flood damage effect turns out to be actually only the beginning in the process of resilience.
by Claire-Marine Wathier.
M. Eng.

A proper normative interpretation is undoubtedly one of the pillars of Law, all this thanks that brings a juridical security level and predictability to all the parties involved. In that sense the author submits a critique about the criteria that have been emitted by the diverse public  organisms  in  environmental  material,  specifically  with  the  juridical  concept  of«environmental damage» in the excess inside Maximum Permissible Limit. Also the article presents an objective focus through a temporal development of diverse administrative resolutions, which are established as incorrect on the basis of a wide and forced interpretation about environmental damage, concept applied not only in a case with real effects, but also potential ones. Finally, this is provided by the author as a defect, that although actually exists a remedial intention, this must begin from a clear conceptual framework in normative and resolutive topics by equal.
Una debida interpretación normativa, se constituye sin duda alguna, como uno de los pilares del Derecho, ello gracias a que otorga un nivel de seguridad jurídica y predictibilidad a todas la partes involucradas. Es en ese sentido, que el autor sostiene una crítica sobre el criterio que han venido emitiendo en instancia administrativa diversos organismos públicos en materia ambiental, específicamente con respecto al concepto jurídico de «daño ambiental» en el exceso de los Límites Máximos Permisibles (LMP). El artículo nos presenta un enfoque objetivo con un desarrollo temporal de diversas resoluciones administrativas, las cuales manifiesta, son erróneas en base a una interpretación amplia y forzada de lo que es daño ambiental, concepto que se aplica no solo para aquellos supuestos con efectos reales, sino también potenciales. Finalmente, ello es señalado por el autor como un defecto, que si bien en la actualidad existe una intención de subsanarlo, esto debe partir principalmente de un marco conceptual claro tanto en el ámbito normativo como resolutivo.

Thesis: S.M., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2014.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 101-103).
Measuring and analysing the vibration of structures using sensors can help identify and detect damage, potentially prolonging the life of structures and preventing disasters. Wireless sensor systems promise to make this technology more affordable and more widely applicable. Data driven structural health monitoring methodologies take raw signals obtained from sensor networks, and process them to obtain damage sensitive features. New measurements are then compared with baselines to detect damage. Because damage-sensitive features also exhibit variation due to environmental and operational changes, these comparisons are not always straightforward and sophisticated statistical analysis is necessary in order to detect abnormal changes in the damage sensitive features. In this thesis, an automated methodology which uses the one-class support vector machine (OCSVM) for damage detection and localisation is proposed. The OCSVM is a nonparametric machine learning method which can accurately classify new data points based only on data from the baseline condition of the structure. This methodology combines feature extraction, by means of autoregressive modeling, and wavelet analysis, with statistical pattern recognition using the OCSVM. The potential for embedding this damage detection methodology at the sensor level is also discussed. Efficacy is demonstrated using real experimental data from a steel frame laboratory structure, for various damage locations and scenarios.
by James Long.
S.M.

Thesis (M. Eng.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 1998.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 110-114).
by John Philip Laplante.
M.Eng.

Thesis: M. Eng., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2015.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (page 88).
The need for economic consideration in structural design triggered the emergence of performance-based design to minimize material waste while achieving better performance. The displacement measurements of structures are significant to structural damage evaluation, and most seismic design methods consider the effect of peak ground acceleration, while the frequency content of seismic activities remains largely unexplored. In order to better understand the impact of low magnitude seismic activities on non-structural damage, we develop an assessment method for a specific site by comparing structural response with frequency content analysis on corresponding seismic activities. A method of analyzing frequency content of seismic activities at San Francisco is presented. By computing Discrete Fourier Transforms, time history seismic data is transformed from time domain to frequency domain. We apply structural response analysis on a representative residential/office/mixed-use building to evaluate seismic performance. We scale earthquakes with respect to the natural frequency of the target structure, and structural response simulations are performed based on scaled earthquakes. We utilize linear analysis in structural response simulations with constant damping ratio. The applicability of linear analysis as well as varying damping ratio requires further justification. A comparison between frequency content analysis and structural response is presented. The frequency content analysis provides an amplitude distribution for each seismic activity, and the magnitude of structural response is influenced by the amplitude distribution for corresponding seismic activities.
by Wu Han.
M. Eng.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 1998.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 107-110).
The detection of subsurface damage is important in ensuring the safety and timely repair of structures. Existing methods for non-destructive evaluation of structural elements tend to be either expensive or unreliable for monitoring large scale systems. The novel fiber optic based technique developed in this research overcomes many of the limitations of traditional non-destructive evaluation methods by providing an interferometric sensing technique coupled with a simple mechanical test. The method is based on monitoring the phase change in an integral interferometric fiber optic sensor caused by moving a mechanical load over the damaged structure. The method has been shown to unambiguously detect both the position and size of damage. The theoretical and experimental validation of the proposed method is presented for the case of open cracks in which the faces are not allowed to come into contact. The effect of damage position and damage size on sensor performance for two typical structural elements is also presented. A closed loop fiberoptic interferometer with modulated load is shown to overcome the traditional problems of environmental drift such as material creep, temperature and ambient noise. This interferometric technique is also shown to be one of the few fiber-optic based techniques that have adequate sensitivity for integral damage detection. Many traditional non-destructive evaluation methods tend to be insensitive in detecting closed cracks. Thus the closed crack problem represents a special challenge for structural damage monitoring. A fast iterative based boundary element method has been developed to solve this problem. This method is used to show the theoretical feasibility of detecting closed cracks with the developed novel sensing method.
by Niell Elvin.
Ph.D.

The demand for natural resources and energy continues to growin the developed world and, with it, the negative impacts on the environment and the rights of the peoples directly affected by extractive activities undertaken by the largest transnational corporations. Three factors compel victims of serious environmental damage to resort simultaneously to any available avenue of legal action (whether judicial or non-judicial, national or international): (1) the link between environmental damage and human rights abuses; (2) weak legislation, combined with the inability or unwillingness of the law-enforcing institutions in many countries where such extractive activities take place; and (3) the absence of international avenues to claim direct liability from corporations. We call this phenomenon intertwined actions, as the various judicial actions undertaken by the victims end up mutually reinforcing and increasing the visibility of the problem. The aim of this paper is to show this reality on the basis of the various instances of litigation that are taking place in the specific context of Shell’s activities in the Niger delta.
La presión de la demanda de recursos naturales y de energía en el mundo desarrollado sigue creciendo y, con ello, los impactos negativos sobre el medio ambiente y los derechos de las personas vinculados en especial a las actividades extractivas llevadas a cabo por las mayores empresas transnacionales. La suma de tres factores —la vinculación entre daños al medio ambiente y vulneración de derechos humanos, la debilidad de la legislación y la incapacidad o la falta de voluntad de la institucionalidad que debe aplicarla en muchos de los países donde se desarrollan dichas actividades y la inexistencia de vías internacionales para reclamar la responsabilidad directamente a las empresas— ha llevado a las víctimas de graves daños ambientales a utilizar a la vez todo tipo de vías disponibles (judiciales y nojudiciales, nacionales e internacionales), en lo que cabe denominar acciones entrelazadas, puesto que todas ellas acaban por reforzarse mutuamente y aumentan la visibilidad del problema. El objetivo de este trabajo es mostrar esta realidad a partir del caso concreto del impacto de las actividades de la empresa petrolera Shell, una de las empresas que opera en el delta del Níger.Este artículo se basa en uno de los estudios de caso realizados en el marco de un proyecto más amplio de investigación vinculado al Proyecto Environmental Justice Organizations, Liabilities and Trade (EJOLT), VII Programa Marco de la Unión Europea, Número FP7-SCIENCE-IN-SOCIETY-2010–1, y al proyecto de investigación, financiado por el Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación de España, «La garantía jurídica de la vertiente intrageneracional de la justicia ambiental como aspecto social del desarrollo sostenible» (DER2010-19529).

The present work introduces novel methodologies for damage detection and health monitoring of structural and mechanical systems. The new approach uses the angular velocity inside different mathematical forms, via a gyroscope, to detect, locate, and relatively quantify damage. This new approach has been shown to outperform the current state-of-the-art acceleration-based approach in detecting damage on structures. Additionally, the current approach has been shown to be less sensitive to environmental acoustic noises, which present major challenges to the acceleration-based approaches. Furthermore, the current approach has been demonstrated to work effectively on arch structures, which acceleration-based approaches have struggled to deal with. The efficacy of the new approach has been investigated through multiple forms of structural damage indices. The first methodology proposed a damage index that is based on the changes in the second spatial derivative (curvature) of the power spectral density (PSD) of the angular velocity during vibration. The proposed method is based on the output motion only and does not require information about the input forces/motions. The PSD of the angular velocity signal at different locations on structural beams was used to identify the frequencies where the beams show large magnitude of angular velocity. The curvature of the PSD of the angular velocity at these peak frequencies was then calculated. A damage index is presented that measures the differences between the PSD curvature of the angular velocity of a damaged structure and an artificial healthy baseline structure. The second methodology proposed a damage index that is used to detect and locate damage on straight and curved beams. The approach introduces the transmissibility and coherence functions of the output angular velocity between two points on a structure where damage may occur to calculate a damage index as a metric of the changes in the dynamic integrity of the structure. The damage index considers limited-frequency bands of the transmissibility function at frequencies where the coherence is high. The efficacy of the proposed angular-velocity damage-detection approach as compared to the traditional linear-acceleration damage-detection approach was tested on straight and curved beams with different chord heights. Numerical results showed the effectiveness of the angular-velocity approach in detecting damage of multiple levels. It was observed that the magnitude of the damage index increased with the magnitude of damage, indicating the sensitivity of the proposed method to damage intensity. The results on straight and curved beams showed that the proposed approach is superior to the linear-acceleration-based approach, especially when dealing with curved beams with increasing chord heights. The experimental results showed that the damage index of the angular-velocity approach outweighed that of the acceleration approach by multiple levels in terms of detecting damage. A third methodology for health-monitoring and updating of structure supports, which resemble bridges’ bearings, is introduced in this work. The proposed method models the resistance of the supports as rotational springs and uses the transmissibility and coherence functions of the output response of the angular velocity in the neighborhood of the bearings to detect changes in the support conditions. The proposed methodology generates a health-monitoring index that evaluates the level of deterioration in the support and a support-updating scheme to update the stiffness resistance of the supports. Numerical and experimental examples using beams with different support conditions are introduced to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method. The results show that the proposed method detected changes in the state of the bearings and successfully updated the changes in the stiffness of the supports.

The objective of this research was to assess the damage of various structures that were affected during Hurricane Andrew using aerial photographs. Different damage mechanisms were demonstrated. Quantitative damage assessment data was obtained by interpretation of aerial photographs. The damage data have been statistically analyzed. Various types of structures were studied and their typical damages were examined using the statistical analysis with respect to wind speed and zip codes. Illustrations of damages in different communities, damages to different roofs, and their possible failure mechanisms were also discussed. The damage data generated in this study can be used to predict damage during a hurricane after they are statistically correlated with the wind speed.

Thesis (Sc. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 1996.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 252-266).
by Chatmongkol Peetathawatchai.
Sc.D.

This study assesses the primary drivers of CO2e footprint for three types of water damage resolution methods and identifies relevant focus areas to support a reduced environmental footprint from water damage restoration. To face the global challenge of climate change, mitigation actions need to be taken on a broad level, with the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from buildings being a key part. Although the number of environmental assessments of buildings is increasing, there is a lack of scientific literature quantifying the CO2e footprint of water damages, which makes it difficult for stakeholders in the industry to make sound decisions in order to combat climate change. In particular, this relates to the various methods that can be applied to resolve water damages. Therefore, this study conducts an attributional life cycle assessment of the CO2e footprint of three actual water damages, resolved using different methods requiring various degrees of material replacement. The study finds that both the total CO2e footprint and its main drivers vary significantly depending on the selected method. It further finds that the choice of method is crucial in order to reduce the CO2e footprint from water damage restoration, more specifically that a higher degree of material reuse, enabled by drying of damaged materials, appears to be preferred where applicable.
Denna studie undersöker de huvudsakliga faktorerna som påverkar det koldioxidavtryck som kan kopplas till tre typer av hanteringsmetoder av vattenskador, samt identifierar relevanta områden att fokusera på för att minska den miljömässiga effekten från vattenskadehantering. Flertalet åtgärder behöver genomföras för att möta utmaningen med klimatförändringar, och att minska växthusgaser kopplade till byggnader är att anse som en viktig del av detta. Trots att antalet miljöstudier relaterade till byggnader ökar är antalet vetenskapliga studier kopplade till CO2e från vattenskador begränsat, vilket gör det svårt för intressenter i industrin att fatta välgrundade beslut. I synnerhet är detta relaterat till de olika metoder som kan användas för att hantera skadorna. Av den anledningen genomför denna studie en livscykelanalys med bokföringsmetodik för att undersöka koldioxidavtrycket från tre faktiska vattenskador. Dessa har åtgärdats med olika hanteringssmetoder vilket medför en variation i den mängd material som behöver bytas ut. Studien konstaterar att både det totala avtrycket samt de huvudsakliga drivarna varierar betydligt beroende på vilken metod som använts. Vidare konstateras att valet av metod är avgörande för att kunna minska mängden CO2e från vattenskadehantering, mer specifikt att en högre grad av materialåteranvädning, möjliggjort av torkning av skadade delar, förefaller vara att föredra när det är tillämpbart.

Vibration-based damage detection (VBDD) methods are used to detect damage in structural members non-evasively. This investigation began with two objectives: to prove a VBDD method could detect damage using strain gauges both analytically and experimentally, and to then use that method to determine the distance from a damaged area that strain gauges could be effective. Work began simultaneously using finite element software and physical experiments. It was determined that a VBDD method could detect damage with strain gauges in both settings. A parametric study was then completed that used probabilistic methods to identify an effective range for strain gauges over the length of the structural member.

This paper analyzes the last judgments in the case of the Aznalcóllar mines (or Boliden case). A well-known event in Spain that produced significant environmental damage, and that, having occurred before the new Law on Environmental Liability and to be resolved under the previous legislation, is causing countless problems for reimbursement of the substantial expenditures invested by the Spanish Public Administration inrepairing the damage. Posed a negative conflict of jurisdiction between civil and administrative courts, the Special Chamber of Conflicts of Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court has just returned the matter back to the former. To the author, it is, however, a false or apparent conflict, because of loopholes in that previous law, fortunately overcome for the future.
Este trabajo analiza las últimas resoluciones judiciales en el caso de las minas de Aznalcóllar (o caso Boliden). Un suceso bien conocido en España que produjo importantes daños ambientales y que, por ser previo a la nueva Ley de Responsabilidad Medioambiental y tenerse que resolver con arreglo a la legislación anterior, está causando innumerables problemas para obtener el reembolso de los cuantiosos gastos invertidos por las administraciones públicas españolas en la reparación de los daños. Planteado un conflicto negativo de competencia entre las jurisdicciones civil y contencioso-administrativa, la Sala Especial de Conflictos de Competencia del Tribunal Supremo acaba de devolver el conocimiento del asunto a la primera. A juicio del autor, se trata,sin embargo, de un falso o aparente conflicto, provocado por las lagunas de aquella legislación, afortunadamente superada de cara al futuro.Una versión ligeramente distinta de este trabajo, con el título de «Boliden: un extraño conflicto negativo de competencia», se va a publicar en el número 24 (2013) de la Revista Aranzadi de Derecho Ambiental, actualmente en prensa.

Il particolato atmosferico (Particulate matter – PM) è costituito da un complesso mix di particelle molto eterogenee tra loro. È riconosciuto dalla comunità scientifica come pericoloso per l’uomo. La sua pericolosità dipende non soltanto dalla dimensione delle particelle, ma anche, e soprattutto, dalla loro composizione chimica. La deposizione del PM all’interno del polmone induce stress ossidativo e la produzione di mediatori dell’infiammazione, come risposta acuta. In seguito, l’induzione di danno al DNA e l’alterata capacità di riparare questi danni, può portare all’accumulo di mutazioni. Questo lavoro è parte del progetto PRIN 2017 RHAPS (Redox-activity and Health-effects of Atmospheric Primary and Secondary aerosol) e del progetto Horizon2020 RAPTOR (Research of Aviation PM Technologies, mOdelling and Regulation) e ha lo scopo di valutare l’effetto del PM derivante da differenti sorgenti su cellule epiteliali bronchiali (BEAS-2B) e su cellule di tessuto polmonare (Calu-3), prendendo in considerazione l’induzione di stress ossidativo, di genotossicità e infiammazione. Con la campagna RHAPS sono stati raccolti e analizzati differenti tipi di polveri e di filtri provenienti dall’area urbana (Bologna) e dall’area rurale (San Pietro Capofiume) e raccolti durante la stagione invernale ed estiva. Le polveri sono state risospese in acqua e i trattamenti sono stati effettuati a diverse concentrazioni, mentre il PM1 raccolto su filtri è stato estratto in acqua tramite agitazione meccanica e diluito in terreno per il trattamento (diluizione 1:10). Il progetto RAPTOR invece si è focalizzato sullo studio di campioni di emissioni di differenti tipi di carburanti provenienti da motori di aerei. Questi campioni sono stati testati in condizioni definite “Air-Liquid Interface” con il sistema di esposizione Cloud. Questo sistema permette la nebulizzazione del campione di particolato raccolto e la deposizione dello stesso a diretto contatto con le cellule, senza la presenza del terreno di coltura. Tutti i trattamenti sono stati effettuai per 24 ore ad eccezione del test per la valutazione della formazione di specie reattive dell’ossigeno (ROS) che ha previsto un trattamento più breve (30 minuti e 1 ora). La vitalità cellulare è stata valutata (con MTT test o test del LDH) al fine di utilizzare concentrazioni non citotossiche per i test di genotossicità. La formazione di ROS è stata valutata con il test DCFH-DA. Inoltre, il danno al DNA è stato valutato con diversi tipi di test: il comet test, il test per la fosforilazione dell’istone H2AX e il test dei micronuclei. Per verificare la presenza di danno ossidativo a livello delle basi del DNA sono state utilizzate le endonucleasi ENDOIII e FPG. La valutazione dell’infiammazione è stata effettuata tramite lo studio della citochina IL-8 sia a livello genico sia a livello di rilascio proteico. L’analisi dell’espressione genica è stata condotta anche per i geni coinvolti nel riparo del danno al DNA (ATM e GADD45α), nello stress ossidativo (HMOX e NQO1) e in altri meccanismi (ACE-2 e MUC5AC). I parametri sopra citati sono stati alterati dai campioni presi in esame. Alcuni campioni hanno portato all’incremento della formazione di ROS e basi ossidate sul DNA. La linea cellulare BEAS-2B è risultata molto sensibile alla formazione di danno al DNA, come evidenziato dal test dei micronuclei e dell’istone H2AX fosforilato. Per quanto riguarda la modulazione di IL-8, non sono state riscontrate variazioni a livello genico, tuttavia la secrezione della proteina risulta alterata. Infine, lo studio dei geni coinvolti nel riparo del DNA e stress ossidativo ha rivelato l’influenza significativa sulla loro espressione delle particelle analizzate. In conclusione, i risultati ottenuti rispecchiano le differenti caratteristiche chimiche dei campioni analizzati. In particolare, non si evidenzia una correlazione tra l’effetto tossico e la concentrazione in massa del particolato raccolto. La composizione chimica invece potrebbe meglio spiegare i risultati ottenuti.
Particulate matter (PM) is a complex and heterogeneous mixture of particles and has been recognized as a threat for human health. Hazardousness of PM is not only dependent on its dimensions, but also and in particular on its chemical composition. Initially, PM deposition in human alveoli induces oxidative stress and production of pro-inflammatory mediators. Later, the onset of DNA damages and their possible misrepair can lead to mutations. This project is part of the PRIN 2017 project RHAPS (Redox-activity and Health-effects of Atmospheric Primary and Secondary aerosol) and of the Horizon2020 project RAPTOR (Research of Aviation PM Technologies, mOdelling and Regulation). The aim of this research is to evaluate the effect of PM coming from different sources on a bronchial epithelial cell line (BEAS-2B) and lung epithelial cell line (Calu-3) considering oxidative stress, genotoxicity, and inflammation as main endpoints. RHAPS campaign allowed the collection and analysis of different dusts and filters collected in winter and in summer 2021. Winter PM was collected in Bologna (urban site) and San Pietro Capofiume (BO, rural site), while summer only in the site of Bologna. Dusts were diluted in water and used at different concentration to treat the cells, while PM1 was extracted in water with mechanic agitation and cells were treated with the extract diluted 1:10 in complete medium. RAPTOR allowed the collection of the emission of different types of aircraft engines, that were testes in air-liquid interface condition with an innovative method of exposure, the Cloud system, which allow the nebulization of the PM samples and the consequent deposition on the cells. All the analysis were performed at 24 hours, with the only exception of reactive oxygen species (ROS) detection that was analysed at 30 minutes and 1 hours. Cell viability was assessed with the MTT assay (RHAPS) and LDH assay (RAPTOR) and results were considered in order to avoid the use of cytotoxic concentration of further tests. ROS were detected with DCFH-DA assay. Moreover, comet assay modified with endonucleases ENDOIII and FPG allowed the detection of oxidative damage on the DNA bases. The alkaline version of the comet assay, the immunofluorescence for the phosphorylated histone H2AX (γ-H2AX), and the micronuclei test were used to highlight DNA damage at single and double strands as well as at chromosomal level. Inflammation was evaluated through the analysis of the release of interleukin-8 (IL-8) and CXCL-8 mRNA expression. Gene expression analysis was performed also for other genes involved in the DNA repair pathway (ATM and GADD45α), oxidative stress (HMOX and NQO1), and other mechanisms (ACE-2 and MUC5AC). Differences were detected in all the assays’ results among the samples analysed. Some samples showed increase level of ROS and oxidised DNA bases. Moreover, BEAS-2B cells resulted to be very sensitive to DNA damage as analysed by the presence of micronuclei and γ-H2AX. IL-8 secretion is stimulated in particular in some of the samples analysed, and its gene expression does not differ much from control level. Also, the other genes analysed showed different pattern of activation, depending on the samples with which they were treated. Interestingly, these results could be explained at the light of the chemical composition of the PM more than with the only analysis of PM mass concentration parameter; chemical composition seems to really drive the toxicological effect highlighted in this research.

Vibration-based damage detection methods are used in structural applications to identify the global dynamic response of the system. The purpose of the work presented is to exhibit a vibration-based damage detection algorithm that localizes the sensor arrangements such that irregularities within the structural system can be detected, located, and quantified. Damage can occur in a structure either within the material or at a connection between segments; therefore two different types of specimens, a plate specimen and a connection specimen, were analyzed with the algorithm. Numerical and experimental analyses were completed for each of the specimen types, and the results prove that damage can be detected, located and quantified in each scenario. It is noted that the quantification of the damage is based on a supervised learning method (original and damaged states are known) and that the accuracy in which the damage is quantified within the scope of this work might have difficulty in unsupervised learning methods (only current state is known). This work will extend to be applied on a highway bridge as a basis for a structural health monitoring system, as preliminary results suggest that further refinement is needed.

Latest epidemiological data suggests that 1.5 billion adults worldwide are obese or overweight. Excess weight and adipocyte hypertrophy have long been associated with contributing to low-grade systemic inflammation through elevated adipokine secretion. These increased endocrine signals further augment the metabolic dysfunction related to the presence of obesity. A chronic exposure to obesity mediated inflammation is also suggested to be responsible for progression of renal pathology and eventual end-stage organ failure. In human clinical statistics, these factors indicate a gender disparity, as males demonstrate much faster progression rates of obesity-linked renal disease than females. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to investigate the role of gender in obesity mediated inflammation in the development of renal disease using a large animal model i.e. sheep. Post-natal female and male sheep were exposed to a lean or obesogenic environment by restricting physical activity from ≈3 months to ≈17 months of age. Analysis of body composition and adipose tissue physiology, morphology and deposition identified the development of moderate obesity following chronic exposure to a low physical environment, although no differences were observed with gender. With obesity, both genders demonstrated metabolic irregularities; males showed hyperinsulinaemia and females displayed hypercortisolism. Gene expression analysis identified an up-regulation of inflammatory related genes in perirenal adipose tissue (PAT) and kidney in obese males, a finding not seen in females, although obese females exhibited an up-regulation in glucocorticoid receptor abundance in PAT. Furthermore, the males demonstrated adaptations in renal structure and function with obesity, modifications not observed in females. The main conclusion of my thesis is that after the development of obesity, males appear much more sensitive to the metabolic, inflammatory and renal adaptations associated with an obese condition. Females displayed a down-regulation of inflammatory genes with obesity which I propose acts as a protective mechanism against the progression of renal disease, perhaps mediated by an immunosuppressive glucocorticoid action in adipose tissue. It is also possible that sex hormones play a role in obesity inflammatory renal disease development, postulated to occur through HPA activation and epigenetic alterations.

Oil-fouled beaches, dying seabirds and severe economic loss from the closure of fishing grounds and holiday resorts is the picture painted by oil spills, and these consequences often arouse public outrage. Oil spills cause extensive damage to the marine environment and to human society. Indeed, the economic consequences are often extensive, and it is for this reason that the internationalisation of a civil liability regime for oil pollution damage was initially proposed. The first move towards an international civil liability regime came when states which were affected by an unprecedented oil spill made it clear that individual states could not cope alone with these negative effects. The tanker held responsible for the oil spill which has been described as ‘the greatest peace-time menace ever to have confronted Britain’s shores’ was Liberian-registered tanker, the Torrey Canyon About 6 000 nautical miles south of Pollard rock, which was struck by the Torrey Canyon in 1967, lays the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa (SA). The route that runs through the Cape of Good Hope is one of the busiest oil tanker routes in the world and this contributes to the large volume of oil traffic in this route. The Cape of Good Hope is also known as the ‘Cape of Storms’ and many vessels have faltered off this hazardous coastline of SA. The 1973 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78) to address pollution prevention, the 1969 Intervention Convention to deal with emergency response, the 1969 International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (1969 CLC), and the 1971 International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (1971 Fund convention) were enacted after the Torrey Canyon disaster, once it was clear that the international regime was not sufficient to deal with such an immense oil spill. 8 In addition, and of paramount importance, is the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) which is known as the “framework” or ”umbrella” convention in the international law of the sea. The purpose of this dissertation is to analyse and compare the International and the South African civil liability regimes on oil pollution damage caused by ships. This comparative analogy will be done with the view of ascertaining whether the legal regime of South Africa (SA) is in line with the international civil liability regime and to ascertain what improvements can be made to SA’s civil liability regime. During this analysis, any inadequacies identified in these regimes will be addressed briefly. South Africa gave effect to the 1969 CLC and the 1971 Fund convention by enacting the Marine Pollution (Control and Civil Liability) Act 6 of 1981 (MPA)(own emphasis). SA, however, only acceded to the 1992 protocols of amendment on 1 October 2005 (own emphasis) and, subsequently, did not implement these amendments domestically. Eight years later, the government finally updated the domestic law by providing for the domestic enactment of the provisions as contained in the 1992 protocols. In December 2013 (own emphasis), the Merchant Shipping (Civil Liability Convention) Act 25 of 2013 (“MSCLC act”), the Merchant Shipping (International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund) Act 24 of 2013 (“the IOPC act”), the Merchant Shipping (International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund) Administrations Act 35 of 2013 (“Administrations act”), and the Merchant Shipping (International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund) Contributions Act 36 of 2013 (“Contributions act”) was enacted by Parliament. This dissertation serves to explore these laws of SA against the backdrop of the relevant international conventions including the UNCLos which provides a general framework. Prior to these amendment laws, SA’s regime was outdated and provided insufficient compensation for a major oil spill. The primary research question of this dissertation is: Is SA’s civil liability regime consistent with, aligned with and adequate in light of, the international civil liability regime? In order to answer the abovementioned research question, this dissertation adopts the following structure: It is divided into five chapters which will follow one another as the civil liability regime is being unpacked and analysed. Chapter 1 contains an introduction, background, and sets out the scope and limits of this topic; It furthermore provides a brief literature review on civil liability to aid in understanding the main topic of this dissertation. In Chapter 2 it will be beneficial to look at the brief history behind the international regulation of marine oil pollution in order to grasp the reasoning behind the existing international regime. Therefore, the international history will first be addressed, and thereafter a comprehensive analysis of the various conventions that make up the international regime will be done. There will also be an indication of certain inadequacies which may be contained therein, before concluding and moving the focus to SA in the next chapter. It will then be of importance to address SA’s liability regime critically. In Chapter 3 the new marine pollution acts are dissected whilst keeping in mind the broad themes that originate in the international conventions. This third chapter also addresses whether the MSCLC act has strengthened the South African regime and whether SA will have access to the compensation funds after the enactment of the IOPC Fund Act. Chapter 4 will accordingly look at the laws of general application in SA with a view of ascertaining how these laws complement the civil liability regime and how reliance on them could improve the South African regime. Furthermore, recommendations will be made with regards to improving SA’s regime. Finally, this dissertation will come to a conclusion in Chapter 5 which will also briefly summarise the findings of the previous chapters.

There are destroyed materials of underground communications; swampy areas, inundation of underground facilities of industrial and residential buildings as a result of flooding process. This leads to emergence of mosquito, development of fungi, toxic fumes in the air that adversely affects the health of the population and leads to significant material losses. Moreover, accidents of the sewer systems and increased infiltration from the surface have led to significant contamination of the upper horizons of groundwater, reduction of drinking and household water reserves. When you are citing the document, use the following link http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/31729

Thesis (M.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 1995, and Thesis (M.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1995.
Includes bibliographical references.
by Niell Glen Elvin.
M.S.

Increasing productivity, reducing cost, reducing soil damage, reducing the impact of harvesting on standing tree and regeneration are all very important objectives in ground skidding system in the management of the Hyrcanian forest. The research carried out to obtain these objectives included four logging methods, tree length method (TLM), long length method (LLM), short length method (SLM), and wood extraction by mule (mule) in northern Iran. In order to determine the cost per unit, time study techniques were used for each harvesting method, time study data are shifted to logarithmic data based on 10. On the basis of the developed models simulated, 11 skidding turns are simulated and the unit cost are estimated depending on the diameter of the log (DL), skidding distance (SD), and the winching distance (WD) for 11 different cycles with TLM, LLM and SLM. The results showed that on average, the net costs per extraction of one cubic meter of wood were 3.06, 5.69, 6.81 and 34.36 €/m3 in TLM, LLM, SLM and mule. The costs depending on diameter of log (DL), skidding distance (SD) and winching distance (WD) showed that the most economical alternative for Northern Iran is TLM. In the cut-to-length system, the costs of both alternatives LLM, SLM were significantly dependent on DL. , thus the result of this study suggests that as long as the diameter of the felled trees is less than 40 cm, the cut-to-length system is not an economical alternative, whilst the cut-to-length method can be applied for trees with a diameter more than 40 cm. Where diameters are more than 40 cm TLM it is more economical than SLM, however it was not significantly different. Depending on SD in short skidding distance SLM is preferable to LLM but in cases of long skidding distance LLM is more economical than SLM. The winching distance affect was not a factor on cost. To assess the damage on seedlings and standing trees a 100% inventory method was employed in pre-hauling and post-hauling, alongside of skidding trails, winching strips and mule hauling with a 12m width. To chose the best alternative depending on standing damage the Analysis of multiple criterial approval (MA) was applied. The amount of trees damaged by winching operation were 11.89% in TLM, 14.44% in LLM 27.59%, SLM and 0 stem and by skidding operation were 16.73%, 3.13% and 8.78% of total trees in TLM, LLM and SLM. In the winching area about 14%, 20%, 21% and 6 % of the total regeneration was damaged by TLM, LLM, SLM and mule and the skidding operation damaged 7.5% in TLM, 7.4 % LLM and 9.4% in SLM. The friendliest alternative to residual standing was mule but in manual method (where the wood extraction is done by skidder) MA showed that the best alternative depending on residual damage is LLM. To determine the degree of soil compaction a core sampling technique of bulk density was used. Soil samples collected from the horizontal face of a soil pit at 10 cm depth soil core, at 50m intervals on skid trials, in winching strips and control are (no vehicles pass) a soil sample was taken at 10m intervals in the hauling direction of the mule. In order to determine the post-harvesting extent of disturbance on skidding trails by skidding operations, the disturbed widths were measured at 50 m intervals along the skid trails. In the winching area, where the winched logs created a streak of displaced soil, the width of the displaced streak was measured at 5 m interval along the winching strip. In mule hauling operations the width of a streak created by a mule foot track was measured at 10 m intervals. To compare increased average bulk density between alternatives one way The ANOVA, Duncan test and Dunnett t-test with a 95 % confidence level were used. A General linear model was applied to relate the increasing bulk density and the slope gradient. To realize the correlation between the increment of soil bulk density and the slope gradient and the correlation between the soil compaction and soil moisture content (%) The Pearson correlation test was applied. To choose the best alternative (in manual method) a MA test was applied again. The bulk density on the skidding trail increased 51 % for 30 skidding turn, 35 % for 31 skidding turn (one unloaded and one loaded pass) and 46% for 41 skidding turn. Results of ANOVA (p < 0.05) show significant differences of bulk density between alternatives. Duncan test and the Dunnett t-test indicated that the increasing soil bulk density was not significant between control samples and winching strip of TLM and extraction by mule samples. The general linear modeling and Pearson correlation test results indicated that the slope gradient had an insignificant effect on soil compaction, whilst the Pearson test indicates a medium negative correlation between soil compaction and percentage of soil moisture. By ground-based winching operation 0.07%, 0.03%, 0.05% and 0.002% of the total area and by ground based skidding operation 1.21%, 1.67%, 0.81% and 0.00% of total area was disturbed and compacted in TLM, LLM, SLM and mule. The Pearson correlation results show that the width of disturbed area was significantly influenced by the diameter of logs and length of logs (p ˂ 0.05), but there is no significant correlation between soil disturbance width and slope. The results of analysis of MA showed that soil compaction was not related to logging method but sensitivity analysis of MA shows that LLM and TLM are both preferable to SLM.

As environmental degradation continues to grow and presents fatal misfortunes to humankind and nature, efforts have been made to prevent and restore environmental damage as well as compensate its victims. A considerable debate was launched to discuss and figure out how this problem could be best handled. In the centre of this debate was the role of the law and its potential application to protect the environment and compensate victims of environmental damage. A critical question in this context was the role of civil liability. This thesis attempts to investigate the role and application of civil liability rules in environmental damage cases both in the UK and Jordan. The significance of this study lies in the fact that the UK is considered to be the mother of the common law system where courts play a crucial role in forming and revising the law, whereas Jordan follow the Latin or civil law system where the role of courts assimilates in applying the applicable law to cases brought before it. This thesis consists of six chapters through which, the issue of civil liability has been examined where environmental damage is in question. This analysis is made in the hope that it will reveal the different aspects of efficiency and deficiency attached to tort law when used to remediate environmental damage and compensate its victims. The thesis reveals that, civil liability as it stands now does not fit in an environmental context, and there will be an urgent need for reform whether in adapting traditional rules of civil liability to cope with the complications involved in environmental damage cases, or to abandon traditional civil liability rules, and introduce a liability regime to handle the issue of restoration and compensation in environmental damage cases.

I examined how predatory damage in bivalve shells can be used to assess the trophic importance of species, how oxygen isotope ratios in shells can be used to estimate past salinity, and how Colorado River flow affects growth rates in a bivalve mollusk. I devised methods to distinguish predatory damage from mechanical breakage in Mytilus trossulus at Argyle Creek, Washington. After 100 h of tumbling, live-collected mussel shells were abraded and disarticulated but not otherwise damaged. Eight percent of the dead-collected shells were broken during tumbling. Three types of diagnostic damage were inflicted by crab predation in lab experiments: nibbles, nibbles and chips, and peels; and trampling and tumbling caused three types of chipping: crescentic, angular, and slivered. Crushed shells and shells with fractured margins were caused by both predation and trampling. The source of damage could be correctly identified in ~ 75% of the shells. I also investigated the trophic importance of Mulinia coloradoensis in the Colorado River Delta (CRD). I analyzed the frequency of predatory damage on shells from before the era of upstream water diversions (the "predambrian"). I documented that five to 50% of the shells were attacked by predatory gastropods or crabs. The clam's population decline probably decreased the population sizes of its predators. I also reconstructed the pristine pre-impact salinity regime of the CRD. I estimated predambrian salinities by using oxygen isotopes in shells of M. coloradoensis. Since the construction of upstream water diversions, average salinity in the estuary has increased to 38; in the predambrian, M. coloradoensis grew when salinity ranged between 22-38. I studied the growth of M. coloradoensis by examining the sclerochronology of its shell and comparing growth rates in predambrian and dambrian specimens. Each micro-growth increment in M. coloradoensis consists of two semidiurnal growth increments showing a strong fortnightly periodicity reflecting tidal cycles. In shells of similar height, predambrian M. coloradoensis shells recorded twice the number of fortnights than dambrian shells, suggesting that dambrian shells grew twice as fast as predambrian shells. The observed differences in growth rate between pre-and post-dam M. coloradoensis are probably regulated by density-dependent processes.

Incremental damage assessment is a tool used to assess the justification for expensive modifications of inadequate dams. The input data to incremental damage assessment are the output from the breach analysis and flood routing. For this reason, flood routing should be conducted carefully. Distorted results from the flood routing technique or unstable modeling of the problem will distort the results of an incremental damage assessment, because an error in the estimated incremental stage will cause a certain error in the estimated incremental damages. The objectives of this study were (1) to perform a comprehensive survey of the available dam break flood-routing techniques, (2) to evaluate the performance of commonly used flood-routing techniques for predicting failure and no-failure stage, incremental stage, average velocities, and travel times, and (3) to develop a set of recommendations upon which future applications of dam break models can be based. Flood-routing techniques that are evaluated cover dynamic routing as contained in DAMBRK, and kinematic, Muskingum-Cunge, and normal depth storage routing as contained in the Hydrological Engineering Center (HEC 1). These techniques were evaluated against the more accurate two-dimensional flood-routing technique contained in the diffusion hydrodynamic model (DHM). Results and errors from different techniques for different downstream conditions were calculated and conclusions were drawn. The effect of the errors on the incremental stage and the errors in the incremental stage were estimated. Overall, the performance of one-dimensional techniques in predicting peak stages, and assessing a two-feet criterion showed that DAMBRK did best, and normal depth storage and outflow did worst. This overall ranking matches the degree of simplification in representing the true flood-routing situation. However, in some circumstances DAMBRK performed worst, and normal depth storage and outflow outperformed either the Muskingum-Cunge or kinematic techniques. Thus, it is important to understand the specific performance characteristics of all the methods when selecting one for a flood-routing application.

Thesis (M. Eng.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2012.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 45).
As design has moved from strength based to performance based, there has been an effort to relate building response to damage. Because decision-makers typically consider human lives, property damage and cost, setting performance requirements in terms of the damage that a building is likely to sustain over time and its associated cost is more relevant to them. The Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center (PEER) has developed a computationally expensive methodology for estimating cumulative damage to a structure over its lifetime. This thesis shows that linear analysis produces results within an acceptable margin of error when substituted for excessively accurate non-linear, resulting in significant time savings.
by Timothy P. James.
M.Eng.

Vibration-based damage detection methods are used in structural applications to identify the global dynamic response of the system. The purpose of the work presented is to exhibit a vibration-based damage detection algorithm that calculates a damage indicator, based on limited frequency bands of the transmissibility function that have high coherence, as a metric for changes in the dynamic integrity of the structure. The methodology was tested using numerical simulation, laboratory experimentation, and field testing with success in detecting, comparatively locating, and relatively quantifying different damages while also parametrically investigating variables which have been identified as issues within similar existing methods. Throughout both the numerical and laboratory analyses, the results were used to successfully detect damage as a result of crack growth or formation of new cracks. Field results using stochastic operational traffic loading have indicated the capability of the proposed methodology in evaluating the changes in the health condition of a section of the bridge and in consistently detecting cracks of various sizes (30 to 60 mm) on a sacrificial specimen integrated with the bridge abutment and a floor beam. Fluctuations in environmental and loading conditions have been known to create some uncertainties in most damage detection processes; however, this work demonstrated that by limiting the features of transmissibility to frequency ranges of high coherence, the effect of these parameters, as compared to the effect of damage, become less significant and can be neglected for some instances. The results of additional field testing using controlled impact forces on the sacrificial specimen have reinforced the findings from the operational loading in detecting damage.

An explosion is characterized as a sudden release of large energy over a very short duration. As the blast wave travels parallel to a surface, it creates a side-on pressure and when it hits a surface perpendicularly or at an angle, it creates a reflected pressure. Side-on pressure and reflected pressure are much higher than service loads for the structure. Thus, when a blast happens near a building that is not designed to withstand blast loads, it can cause catastrophic damage. The objective of this study is to present a formulation for the design optimization of framed steel structures subjected to blast loads. Also, a formulation is presented for the design optimization of structures that can withstand some possible damage due to blast loads. To this end, an optimization procedure that includes definitions of design variables, cost function, constraints, and structural analyses is discussed. The design variables for beams and columns are the discrete values of the W-shapes selected from American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) tables. The optimization problem is to minimize the total structural weight subjected to AISC strength requirements and blast design displacement constraints. Linear static, linear dynamic, and nonlinear dynamic analyses are incorporated in the optimization process and optimum designs are compared. Due to design variables and some constraints discontinuity, gradient-based optimization algorithms cannot be used to solve the optimization problem. Therefore, metaheuristic algorithms are used that require only simulation results to solve problems with discrete variables and non-differentiable functions. Since the number of simulations and robustness to obtain good designs are important for the class of problems discussed in this research, a new hybrid optimization algorithm based on Harmony Search (HS) and Colliding Bodies Optimization (CBO) is developed and examined. The algorithm is named Hybrid Harmony Search - Colliding Bodies Optimization (HHC). Also, a novel design domain reduction technique is incorporated in HHC. Some benchmark discrete variable structural design problems are used to evaluate HHC. In comparison with some popular metaheuristic optimization algorithms, HHC is shown to be robust, effective, and needs fewer structural analyses to obtain the best designs. Depending on the size of the structure to be designed, optimization of structures that require linear or nonlinear dynamic analyses using metaheuristic algorithms can be computationally expensive because these types of algorithms need large number of simulations to reach good designs. Equivalent Static Loads (ESL) approach, which has been used for optimization of structural systems subjected to dynamic loads using gradient-based algorithms, is examined for optimization of structures that have discrete design variables using metaheuristic algorithms. The proposed approach is named global optimization with equivalent static loads (GOESL). Solution of four numerical examples shows that GOESL can drastically reduce the number of dynamic analyses needed to reach the best design compared to an algorithm without the ESL approach. However, the ESL step alone cannot converge to the best design for the current formulation, even with many ESL cycles. Therefore, after a few ESL cycles, the procedure may switch to the original algorithm without the ESL cycles to improve designs further. HHC and GOESL are used to solve three-dimensional framed steel structures subjected to blast loads with linear and nonlinear dynamic analyses as separate solution cases. The source of the blast loads is a car carrying 250 lbs of Trinitrotoluene (TNT) with 50 ft standoff distance from the front face of a 4-bay x 4-bay x 3-story building. Optimum designs of the structure to withstand blast loads show that penalty on the optimum structural weight is substantial when linear dynamic analysis is used. With nonlinear dynamic analysis, the penalty on the structural weight is substantially reduced. When the stiffness of the walls is included in the analysis model, there is very little penalty on the optimum structural weight with linear or nonlinear dynamic analysis models. The best designs obtained with the linear and nonlinear dynamic analysis models are checked for some possible damages due to a blast. Two types of damage conditions are defined: (i) complete removal of some key members from the analysis model, and (ii) reduction of stiffness of some members. It is shown that the best designs using linear or nonlinear dynamic analyses can withstand all damage conditions. Thus, resilience of the designs to withstand blast loads is observed.

Oxidation of specific cysteines in proteins by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a cellular mechanism that triggers signalling pathways, such as the antioxidant responses in microbial systems. However, H2O2 can be transformed to the more reactive radical hydroxyl OH▪ species, through the Fenton reaction, the main causative of protein carbonylations. These modifications can not be repaired, and constitute classical marks of oxidative damage. Along this thesis we were interested in studying and understand the consequences of reactive oxygen species (ROS) reactivity on proteins. Thus, we developed protocols for studying cysteine oxidations at the proteome level, upon treatment with H2O2 or in strains devoid of antioxidant systems, to characterize the more sensitive to oxidation and therefore the more prone to participate in redox events. We tried protocols for the identification of protein carbonyls, however we were unsuccessful due to the complexity of these type of modifications. Also, we studied the role of protein quality control pathways in the clearance of carbonylated proteins (protein aggregation results toxic for cells). Finally, we identified and characterized the main H2O2 scavengers in S. pombe and the identified the free methionine as a primary barrier in the defence against H2O2 stress.
La oxidación específica de cisteinas in proteinas por peróxido de hidrógeno (H2O2) es un mecanismo de activación de rutas de señalización. Sin embargo, el H2O2 puede también convertirse en radical hidroxilo (OH▪). Ésta es una especie reactiva de oxígeno (ERO) más reactiva que el H2O2, que da lugar a la formación de grupos carbonilo en proteinas. Los grupos carbonilo no pueden ser reparados y constituyen marcas de daño oxidativo. En esta tesis hemos estudiado las consecuencias de la reactividad de las ERO en proteínas. Así, hemos desarrollado protocolos para estudiar oxidaciones de cisteínas, tras tratamiento con H2O2 o en cepas manipuladas genéticamente, a nivel proteómico, caracterizando aquellas más reactivas, y por lo tanto más adecuadas para participar en señalización redox. Intentamos protocolos para identificar proteinas carboniladas, aunque sin éxito debido a la complejidad de este tipo de modificaciones. También hemos estudiado el papel de componentes que actuan en el control de calidad de proteinas en la degradación de proteinas carboniladas (la agregación y acumulación de proteinas es tóxica para la célula). Finalmente, hemos caracterizado los principales detoxificadores de H2O2 en S. pombe y hemos identificado la metionina como una barrera primera en la defensa contra el estrés por H2O2.

This work is an attempt to develop a physically realistic model to understand the behavior and failure of rocks, especially under the extreme conditions of High Pressure and High Temperature (HPHT). A platform is laid in the preliminary work where 1D pure and ductile damage models are developed respectively. These models are based on an elasto-plastic model with an additional governing equation incorporated to facilitate the inclusion of damage. This additional governing equation is called the damage evolution equation. In the ductile damage model, it is assumed that the damage is driven and controlled by plasticity. The concepts developed in the preliminary work of 1D modeling are then taken into the study of 3D problems. The main problems studied are: the unconstrained uniaxial compression, the completely constrained uniaxial compression and the dynamic indentation problem. The dynamic indentation problem is the representation of an idealized rock drilling process. The results from the indentation problem are found to be in good qualitative agreement with the experimental results (Abd Al-Jalil, Y.Q 2006).

Various configurations of unidirectional carbon/epoxy composite rods were impacted radially, inspected using micro-CT scanning equipment, and tested in axial compression to measure the residual strength after impact. This data was used to correlate the relationship between impact energy, residual strength, and the peak crack area and total crack volume along the length of the specimens. These specimens represent local members of open three-dimensional composite lattice structures (e.g., based on isogrid or IsoTruss® geometries) that are continuously fabricated using advanced three-dimensional braiding techniques. The specimens were radially impacted with 2.5 J (1.9 ft-lbs), 5.0 J (3.7 ft-lbs), 7.5 J (5.6 ft-lbs), 10 J (7.4 ft-lb), 15 J (11 ft-lbs), and 20 J (15 ft-lbs) of energy, and compared to undamaged control specimens. The unidirectional core specimens were 8 mm (5/16") in diameter and were consolidated with various sleeve configurations and materials. Sleeves differed in types (bi-directional braided sleeves or unidirectional spiral wraps), nominal sleeve coverage of the core fibers (full or half), and sleeve material (Nomex Thread or Dunstone Hi-Shrink Tape). The unsupported length of the specimens used in this research was 50.8 mm (2") to ensure a strength-controlled compression failure rather than a failure due to buckling. After impact, the specimens were scanned using a micro-CT scanner at resolutions of 50 and 35 microns and subsequently tested in axial compression. The micro-CT scan images were analyzed to measure the crack areas along the specimen. From this analysis, the peak crack area and total crack volume along the length of the specimen was calculated. Similar to past research, as the impact energy increases, the residual compression-strength-after-impact decreases. As the impact energy increases, specimens with shrink tape sleeves had the largest increase in peak crack area and overall crack volume while specimens with full spiral sleeves had the lowest increase in peak crack area and overall crack volume. A bimodal increase is evident in the peak crack area and total crack volume over the length of the specimen where specimens impacted at 15 J (11 ft-lbs) showed the highest peak crack area across all sleeve types. There is a slight correlation between the increase in peak crack area and overall crack volume and the decrease in residual compression strength after impact. Shrink Tape, while yielding a higher quality specimen with greater compression strength prior to impact, did not protect the specimens against damage due to impact as well as other sleeve types. This was shown by the large decrease in residual compression strength after impact and increase in peak crack area and overall crack volume as the impact energy increased.

Kyoto University (京都大学)
0048
新制・課程博士
博士(農学)
甲第20422号
農博第2207号
新制||農||1047(附属図書館)
学位論文||H29||N5043(農学部図書室)
京都大学大学院農学研究科地域環境科学専攻
(主査)教授 天野 洋, 教授 田中 千尋, 准教授 刑部 正博
学位規則第4条第1項該当

Este trabalho apresenta considerações sobre a auditoria ambiental como instrumento na prevenção de danos ambientais: a água numa indústria de mecânica pesada da região do Vale do Paraíba (Taubaté SP). O ordenamento jurídico brasileiro tem avançado para encontrar soluções no que diz respeito à degradação do meio ambiente e vê na prevenção a ótica que orienta todo o Direito Ambiental. A investigação de questões jurídicas ambientais pode contribuir sensivelmente para evitar a perpetuação de danos contra o meio ambiente. Informar e alertar empresas e profissionais sobre a importância do conhecimento da legislação ambiental, por meio de uma auditoria, quando envolvidos em eventos que provoquem danos e impactos ao meio ambiente, pode evitar multas, apreensões e outras ações/processos cabíveis nestes casos. A pesquisa realizada demonstra que a ação preventiva do dano ambiental por parte da empresa, desde a captação até o lançamento da água utilizada do ribeirão Pinhão do município de Taubaté, no Estado de São Paulo (Brasil), proporciona uma relação custo/benefício significativa para a indústria, além de evitar processos jurídicos. O sistema de utilização da água pela indústria conta com um ponto de monitoramento periódico onde são analisados: pH, DQO, DBO, resíduos sedimentáveis, óleos e graxas, entre outros. Os resultados das amostras evidenciam que a água é devolvida ao córrego dentro dos padrões estabelecidos pela legislação ambiental em vigor. Conclui-se que são apropriadas a disseminação e implementação de auditoria ambiental na sociedade brasileira, dada à reconhecida eficácia desse instrumento gerencial como uma ferramenta preventiva ao alcance da comunidade. A auditoria é regulada no gerenciamento de suas responsabilidades ambientais, bem como uma forma de cumprimento voluntário da legislação ambiental.
This study presents considerations about environmental auditing as an instrument for the prevention of environmental damage in a heavy company in Vale do Paraiba (Taubaté SP). Brazilian forestry laws have developed in order to find solutions concerning environmental destruction and they have considered prevention as a way to guide all the environmental issues. Investigation of legal environmental matters can clearly contribute to avoid the continuation of damage to the environment. Companies and professionals involved in events that are causing damage and impact on the environment should be informed and warned about the importance of getting to know the environmental laws by means of an auditing. Such procedure may prevent them from getting fines, attachments and other applicable lawsuits. The research which has been carried out shows that pro-active actions in the prevention of environmental damage caused by a company from the collecting up to the dumping of the used water into Pinhão stream, in the city of Taubaté, São Paulo State, Brazil, provides a significant cost/benefit relation for the company, besides avoiding lawsuits against the company. The system of water utilization used by companies counts on periodic monitoring, in which the following items are analyzed: pH, chemical demand of oxygen, biochemical demand of oxygen, sedimentary residues, oil, grease, among others. The results of the samples show that the water that is dumped into the stream is in accordance with the standards established by the current environmental laws. Both diffusion and implementation of environmental auditing in the Brazilian society has been proved appropriate, taking into account its effectiveness as a preventive tool, which is reachable by all the community. This auditing is based on the management of its environmental responsibilities as well as a voluntary way to respect environmental laws.

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O presente trabalho tem como objetivo a análise do microssitema juridico que representa a responsabilidade civil ambiental. Partindo-se dos estudos realizados pela ecologia filosofia e ética que propõem seja estabelecida uma nova relação entre o homem e o meio natural busca-se interpretar esse regime jurídico de modo a assegurar e garantir o desenvolvimento sustentável bem como a segurança jurídica à sociedade, titular do direito fundamental de natureza difusa ao meio ambiente ecologicamente equilibrado. Após analisar a origem e evolução histórica da responsabilidade civil em geral e em especial da responsabilidade civil objetiva bem como das razões que levaram o legislador a reconhecer o risco de dano como uma das fontes da obrigação de indenizar identifica-se o risco criado como fundamento da responsabilidade civil ambiental de modo a desenvolver uma interpretação do instituto consentânea com os princípios do direito ambiental. Analisa-se a teoria do risco criado como a que melhor fundamentaria a responsabilidade civil ambiental e se propõe um critério jurídico para a definição do nexo de causalidade entre o risco criado pelo exercício de uma atividade. econômica e o dano ao meio ambiente de modo a não se afastar a responsabilidade ambiental caso se verifique a ocorrência das tradicionais excludentes da responsabilidade. Procura-se demonstrar que esse regime encontra fundamento na equidade e atende aos princípios constitucionais da solidariedade social e da justiça distributiva.
Salvador

Chapter One: The protection of the environment in International Law during the armed conflicts. Chapter Two: The Security Council and the environment. Chapter Three: The UN compensation commission and the environment. Chapter Four: International crimes against the environment.