Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Ecosystemin India”

Hydropower is often termed "green energy" and proffered as an alternative to polluting coal-generated electricity for burgeoning cities and energy-insecure rural areas. India is the third largest coal producer in the world; it is projected to be the largest coal consumer by 2050. In the Himalayan state of Uttarakhand, India, over 450 hydroelectric power schemes are proposed or are under development. Hydropower projects ranging from micro hydro (run-of-the-river systems with generating capacity up to 100 kW) to large reservoirs (storage systems up to 2000 MW) such as the Tehri Dam are in various stages of planning, construction or implementation. Run-of-the-river hydropower projects are being developed in Uttarakhand in order to avoid some of the costs to local communities created by large dams. Stakeholders in this rapid hydropower expansion include multiple actors with often diverging sets of interests. The resulting governance challenges are centered on tradeoffs between local electricity and revenue from the sale of hydropower, on the one hand, and the impacts on small-scale irrigation systems, riparian-corridor ecosystem services, and other natural resource-based livelihoods, on the other. We focus on the Bhilangana river basin, where water dependent livelihoods differentiated by gender include farming, fishing, livestock rearing and fodder collection. We examine the contradictions inherent in hydropower governance based on the interests of local residents and other stakeholders including hydropower developers, urban and other regional electricity users, and state-level policymakers. We use a social justice approach applied to hydropower projects to examine some of the negative impacts, especially by location and gender, of these projects on local communities and then identify strategies that can safeguard or enhance livelihoods of women, youth, and men in areas with hydropower projects, while also maintaining critical ecosystem services. By assessing the Bhilangana basin case, we also offer hydropower-livelihoods-irrigation nexus lessons for headwater regions across the Himalayas and globally.

An ambitious multinational programme, with generous funding for an initial five years, aims to provide understanding of marine resources for the benefit of impoverished island and coastal populations in a much-neglected ocean region.

This research investigates the application of an adaptive ecosystem approach to the problem of the Cooum River and environs in Chennai (formerly Madras), India. The Cooum River is an extremely polluted urban stream that flows into the Bay of Bengal through the heart of Chennai, India's fourth largest metropolis. During the dry (non-monsoon) season, the upper reaches of the river are dry and flow in the river may be attributed primarily to the production of sewage by the city's population. The river is essentially a foul-smelling open sewer. Complexity of the problem is due as much to human factors (population growth, poverty, uncontrolled urban development, jurisdictional conflicts, modes of behaviour of the citizenry, and institutional culture) as to physical characteristics of the system (flat topography, tidal action, blockage of the river mouth by sand bar formation, and monsoon flooding). Uncertainty in the situation is both structural (regarding main processes and activities in the system and the nature of relationships among the various actors and elements), and parametric (having to do with scarcity, poor quality and restricted access to data). This work has drawn upon methods and techniques of Adaptive Environmental Management and Soft Systems Methodology to operate the ecosystem approach and address the problem. Specifically, this has involved a series of workshops which have brought together planners, researchers, NGOs, and other stakeholders in a participatory process oriented toward problem definition, system identification and conceptualization, determination of objectives for management, and the generation and exploration of management interventions. In addition, a central component of the program has been the development of a loosely-coupled GIS, environmental simulation model, and a decision support module. This is based upon a framework provided by participants in the first workshop in the series, and operationalizes a common understanding of the system. In addition to generating new insight into the nature of the problem situation, the research has provided a potentially useful tool to planners, managers and researchers in Chennai in the form of a GIS database and decision support system (DSS). Aside from the tool itself, it was found that the process of developing a conceptual model, and attempting to represent this in the DSS has made a significant contribution to understanding of the Cooum system. In particular, this process forced assumptions to be stated explicitly and publically, highlighted areas of uncertainty and led to new understanding in participants' conception of the problem situation. The program of research also provided a much needed forum for open debate and exchange of information which was removed from the restrictive institutional culture of government departments.

Biodiversity rich regions worldwide face threats from various global change agents. This research quantifies environmental influences on vegetation, and the impacts of exotic woody plant invasion and anthropogenic nitrogen (N) deposition in a global biodiversity hotspot. The study was conducted in the montane grasslands of the Nilgiris, Western Ghats, and outlines potential management options for this region. Specifically, I examined (1) the role of environmental factors in influencing native plant distribution and ecosystem properties, (2) the status and impact of exotic shrub (Scotch broom, henceforth broom) invasion, (3) the role of disturbances in the success of broom, (4) the role of fire in restoring invaded grasslands, and (5) the impacts of terrestrial N loading on the grassland ecosystem. I used experiments and surveys to assess these. Distributions of several key species were explained by a few complex environmental gradients. In invaded-grasslands, broom populations consisted mainly of intermediate size and age classes, with no clear indication of population decline. Invasion negatively impacted plant community structure and drastically changed composition, favoring shade-tolerant and weedy species. However, invasion did not greatly alter ecosystem function. Fire successfully eliminated mature broom stands, but resulted in a short-term increase in broom seedling recruitment. At the end of 18 months, the fire effects on uninvaded-grasslands were not apparent, but there was no conclusive evidence of the formerly invaded patches attaining the composition of uninvaded-grasslands following burning. N fertilization strongly influenced soil N dynamics, and shoot N concentrations, but effects on aboveground production were weak. Surprisingly, N enrichment had positive effects on diversity in the short-term. It is clear that these grasslands need immediate management intervention to forestall degradation from invasion. Fire could be used to eliminate mature broom stands and deplete persistent seedbanks, which will facilitate colonization by shade-intolerant grassland plants. Active restoration should be mindful of environmental preferences of framework species. Long-term studies of the impacts of N deposition in the context of disturbances will help determine realistic critical thresholds and utilize disturbances to buffer the potential adverse effects of increasing N loading.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are root and soil inhabiting symbionts with higher plants. The fungi are especially nutrient-function efficient in nutrient deficient soils. There have been innumerable studies of AM fungal facilitation of plant nutrient uptake in controlled environments. Comparatively little similar investigation has been undertaken in natural soils, including investigation of taxon specific nutrient-function efficiency in the phylum. Plant diversity and frequency, soil chemistry statuses, and AM spore diversity and abundance were sampled in an interrupted-belt transect in an aggrading dune sytem on west-coast India, followed by foredunes and transect nutrient amendment experiments in selected plant species. The transect extends 175 m inland from mean high-water mark (MH-WM). Examination showed nutrients were consistently deficient. A plant zonation pattern and increasing frequency over the transect were indicated, as well as decreasing pH and increasing organic matter (OM)-amendment AM species diversity gradients. Plant zonation does not correlate with soil chemistry. There was a distinct soil transition at the 175 m point and evidence of further system partition between foredune and behind-foredune regions. Plant and AM demographies bore no resemblance suggesting neither is driven by the other. Four AM genera were recovered, Acaulospora, Gigaspora and Scutellospora in high abundance, Glomus in comparatively low abundance. The two co-dominant species, A. spinosa and Gi. margarita, displayed divergent strategies in OM amendment. Certain AM taxa may be functionally associated with particular soil nutrients. There was no evidence of taxon-specific nutrient-function efficiency.

The tropical seascape is herein defined as a landscape made up of five ecosystems: coastal terrestrial forests, mangrove forests, seagrass beds, coral reefs and the deep sea. Previous studies have shown that men and women use the tropical seascape in different ways. If the seascape was to change as a result of anthropogenic climate change, then men and women could potentially be affected differently by those changes. The seascape is particularly vulnerable to the predicted rise in sea-level and ocean warming, but the coastal terrestrial forests and mangrove forests are in addition vulnerable to the increased storms and hurricanes a warmer climate is predicted to lead to. While men and women utilizes these ecosystems in many different ways, this study found, based on the literature reviewed, that in a worst-case scenario all parts of the seascape could potentially be destroyed and none of the activities performed there today could be performed in the future. The deep sea would not be destroyed, but the fish living there would move to higher latitudes and deeper waters, effectively ending the fishing practices in the tropical waters. To save the tropical seascape anthropogenic climate change would have to stop on a global scale, since the problem cannot be solved on a local or regional level.

Dans le cadre de l’Approche Ecosystémique des Pêches (AEP), il est nécessaire d’évaluer l’impact de la pêche thonière tropicale à la senne sur les espèces ciblées et sur les espèces accessoires. Parmi ces dernières, les espèces de la mégafaune, telles que des requins, raies, cétacés, tortues, oiseaux marins, sont souvent emblématiques et vulnérables. Les thoniers senneurs tropicaux recherchent activement à la surface de l’eau tout indice de la présence de bancs de thon (e.g. oiseaux, objets flottants, baleines, dauphins ou requins baleines). Dans l’est de l’océan Atlantique et l’ouest de l’océan Indien, les deux modes de pêches principaux sont les captures de thons en bancs libres et celles sur bancs associés à un objet flottant, naturel ou artificiel, rassemblés ici sur sous le terme de dispositif de concentration de poisson (DCP). Les calées associées aux requins baleines et aux cétacés sont toutefois peu étudiées. L’objectif de cette thèse est donc d’analyser les co-occurrences et/ou interactions spatio-temporelles entre requins baleines, cétacés et pêche thonière à la senne, dans une perspective de conservation de l’écosystème. Ce travail, basé sur des données de livres de bord et d’observateurs scientifiques embarqués, a montré que la co-occurrence pêche thonière/ mégafaune se localise dans des strates spatio-temporelles relativement précises: i) du Gabon à l’Angola (avril–septembre), ii) dans le Canal du Mozambique (juin–septembre) et iii) à l’est des Seychelles (avril–septembre). Les baleines et requins baleines étant planctivores, la co-occurrence avec la pêche à la senne est principalement liée à une forte productivité primaire (appréhendée à travers des proxys tels que la concentration en chlorophylle-a). De plus, les calées sur ces deux groupes étaient assez élevées avant 2000 (jusqu’à 20% des calées), et qu’elles sont moins fréquentes aujourd’hui (AC3 et 1,5% des calées associées à des baleines et des requins baleines, respectivement). L’impact de la pêche à la senne sur ces espèces semble relativement faible au regard du taux de mortalité apparente de 1,4% pour les requins baleines et 5,6% pour les cétacés. Des marquages satellites réalisés sur les requins baleines, confirment ces observations sur le plus long terme, mais la taille de l’échantillon limite la formulation de conclusions définitives. Concernant les dauphins, bien que présents sur les zones de pêche, ils interagissent très peu avec celle-ci, soulignant ainsi une différence majeure avec l’océan Pacifique est où ce mode de pêche est majoritaire. La diversité spécifique des espèces cible et accessoire associées aux calées sur mégafaune a également été étudiée. Les requins baleines sont associés aux listaos et à l’albacore (dans une large gamme de tailles), alors que les baleines le sont principalement à de gros albacores. De plus, la capture accessoire associée à ces deux groupes de mégafaune est relativement faible et dominée par le requin soyeux et la diversité spécifique est proche de celle trouvée sous les bancs libres de thons. Enfin les effets de mesures de conservation vis-à-vis de la mégafaune encerclée ou de mesures de gestion de l’effort de pêche, notamment les moratoires sur DCP réelles ou simulées (e.g. moratoires élargis), ont été analysés. Les premières ont eu un effet limité en terme de captures cibles et accessoires, alors que les moratoires impactent peu le nombre de calées associés à la mégafaune, ceci en raison du décalage spatio-temporel des co-occurrences. Cependant des moratoires élargis pourraient être bénéfiques pour les thons juvéniles et certaines espèces associées. Par l’analyse quantitative des interactions entre la pêche thonière à la senne et la mégafaune, cette thèse apporte des connaissances essentielles sur les espèces étudiées dans le cadre de la mise en place d’une AEP, applicable à la pêche thonière tropicale
In the frame of the Ecosystem Approach to Fishery (EAF) management, impact of the tropical tuna purse-seine fishery on targeted and incidentally captured species should be investigated. They may include megafauna species, such as sharks, rays, cetaceans, turtles or sea birds, which often are emblematic and vulnerable species. Tropical tuna purse-seiners actively search, at the surface of the sea, for clues indicating the presence of tuna schools (e.g. birds, floating objects, whales, dolphins or whale sharks). In the eastern Atlantic and western Indian Oceans, the main two fishing modes are sets on free swimming tuna schools and schools associated to natural or artificial floating objects, thereafter called Fish Aggregating Device (FAD). However dedicated studies on fishing sets associated to whale sharks and cetaceans are still lacking. The aim of this thesis is therefore, using logbook and scientific onboard observer data, to investigate the spatio-temporal co-occurrences and/or interactions between whale sharks, cetaceans and the tuna purse-seine fishery within an ecosystem conservation perspective. This work underlines that the megafauna/ fishery co-occurrence occurs in specific spatio-temporal strata: i) Gabon to Angola (April–September), ii) the Mozambique Channel (June–September), and iii) East of Seychelles (April–September). As baleen whales and whale sharks are filter feeders, the co-occurrence with the purse-seine fishery was mostly linked to highly productive environments (i.e. using proxys including chlorophyll-a concentration). In addition fishing sets involving megafauna were relatively high before 2000 (up to 20% of the sets), but are nowadays less frequent (AC3 and 1.5% of the sets associated to baleen whales and whale sharks). The purse-seine fishery appears to have a relatively low impact on megafauna species with mortality rates of 1.4% for whale sharks and 5.6% for cetaceans. Whale shark satellite tagging also confirms these results on the longer term, but the low sample size precludes any final conclusion. While dolphins are present in fishing areas, very few interactions with the fishery was detected, which highlights the striking difference with the eastern Pacific Ocean where half the sets are associated to dolphin herds. In addition, the diversity of targeted and bycatch species captured under whale shark and baleen whale sets was also investigated. Whale sharks are principally associated to skipjack and yellowfin (of various sizes) tunas and baleen whales mostly to large yellowfin tuna. In addition, bycatch species associated to these two megafauna groups was relatively low and dominated by the silky shark, and bycatch diversity was close to the one found for free swimming tuna schools. Finally, real and/or simulated encircled megafauna conservation measures or fishing effort management measures (especially FAD moratoria including larger ones) were investigated. The first ones were found to have limited consequences on tuna catch and bycatch. Conversely FAD moratoria had limited impacts on the number of megafauna associated fishing sets, due to the fact that the main spatio-temporal strata of megafauna and FAD sets differ. However larger and longer moratoria could be beneficial for juvenile tuna and some bycatch species. Overall, this thesis has lead to increase the knowledge on megafauna/ fishery interactions, essential in the general framework of setting up an EAF in the tropical tune purse-seine fishery

Depuis le milieu des années 1990, l’utilisation de Dispositifs de Concentration de Poissons (DCP), des objets artificiels spécifiquement mis à l’eau pour agréger des bancs de poissons, est devenue de plus en plus importante pour la pêche au thon tropical à la senne. Cette utilisation massive des DCP, qui s’accompagne d’une utilisation massive de dispositifs de suivi comme les balises GPS et les balises échosondeurs, est aujourd’hui source d’inquiétude pour les stocks de thons, les prises accessoires mais aussi pour le fonctionnement des écosystèmes pélagiques. Cependant, les modalités d’utilisation des DCP et des balises GPS qui servent à les suivre restent mal connues, ce qui complique considérablement l’évaluation et la gestion des impacts de ces pratiques de pêche. Afin d’améliorer les connaissances actuelles de la pêcherie, les positions des balises GPS utilisées par les 3 armements français dans les océans Atlantique et Indien, constituant une part significative des DCP utilisés dans ces deux océans, ont été analysées. Ces données ont été combinées avec des multiples sources d’information : les livres de bord, les trajectoires VMS des senneurs français ainsi que des entretiens avec les patrons français. Elles nous permettent de mieux comprendre les stratégies de mise à l’eau des DCP et des balises, d’estimer le nombre d’objets flottants utilisés par les flottes de senneurs dans les océans Atlantique et Indien, de mesurer la contribution des DCP et des navires auxiliaires à l’efficacité de pêche des senneurs, d’identifier des destructions potentielles d’habitats par les DCP échoués and pour finir de proposer des solutions de gestion pour la pêcherie. Les résultats montrent une grande saisonnalité dans les mises à l’eau des deux océans, une croissance rapide du nombre de balises GPS au cours des 7 dernières années puisqu’elle est multipliée par 4.2 dans l’Océan Indien et 7 dans l’Océan Atlantique, des dommages possibles causés à des écosystèmes côtiers fragiles avec une probabilité d’échouage de l’ordre de 10% et finalement une augmentation de l’efficacité de pêche entre 2003 et 2014 de l’ordre de 3.8-18.8% dans l’Océan Atlantique et 10.7%-26.3% dans l’Océan Indien. Les entretiens avec les capitaines des senneurs soulignent la nécessité d’une gestion plus efficace de la pêcherie, avec entre autres l’instauration de quotas, une régulation de la capacité de la flotte de senneurs et un meilleur suivi des navires auxiliaires. Les résultats obtenus constituent les premières étapes nécessaires à une meilleure gestion de la pêche sous objet flottant
Since the mid 1990s, the use of drifting Fish Aggregating Devices (dFADs) by purse seiners, artificial objects specifically designed to aggregate fish, has become an important mean of catching tropical tunas. In recent years, the massive deployments of dFADs, as well as the massive use of tracking devices on dFADs and natural floating objects, such as GPS buoys, have raised serious concerns for tropical tuna stocks, bycatch species and pelagic ecosystem functioning. Despite these concerns, relatively little is known about the modalities of GPS buoy tracked objects use, making it difficult to assess and manage of the impacts of this fishing practice. To fill these knowledge gaps, we have analyzed GPS buoy tracks provided by the three French fishing companies operating in the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans, representing a large proportion of the floating objects monitored by the French fleet. These data were combined with multiple sources of information: logbook data, Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) tracks of French purse seiners, information on support vessels and Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) of purse seine skippers to describe GPS buoy deployment strategies, estimate the total number of GPS buoy equipped dFADs used in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, measure the contribution of strategies with FOBs and support vessels to the fishing efficiency of tropical tuna purse seiners, identify potential damages caused by lost dFADs and finally to propose management options for tropical tuna purse seine FOB fisheries. Results indicate clear seasonal patterns of GPS buoy deployment in the two oceans, a rapid expansion in the use of dFADs over the last 7 years with an increase of 4.2 times in the Indian Ocean and 7.0 times in the Atlantic Ocean, possible damages to fragile coastal ecosystems with 10% of GPS buoy tracks ending with a beaching event and an increased efficiency of tropical tuna purse seine fleets from 3.9% to 18.8% in the Atlantic Ocean over 2003-2014 and from 10.7% to 26.3% in the Indian Ocean. Interviews with purse seine skippers underlined the need for a more efficient management of the fishery, including the implementation of catch quotas, a limitation of the capacity of purse seine fleets and a regulation of the use of support vessels. These results represent a first step towards better assessment and management of purse seine FOB fisheries

Pour comprendre le fonctionnement d'un écosystème, il est essentiel de comprendre l'organisation du réseau trophique associé. Dans les eaux océaniques du sud-ouest de l'océan Indien (10-60°S, 35-90°E), si la répartition de la production primaire et la distribution des prédateurs supérieurs sont bien connues, un manque de connaissance demeure en ce qui concerne la distribution des différents organismes composant l'échelon trophique intermédiaire et ce, malgré leur importance écologique (pompe biologique et rôle trophique clé) et potentiellement économique (ambitions de pêche dans un futur proche). Pour combler ce manque, ce travail de thèse s'est concentré sur les distributions horizontale et verticale et la composition des organismes micronectoniques de cette région. La distribution du micronecton a donc été étudiée à méso- et large-échelle à partir d'enregistrements acoustiques (38 kHz). En termes de distribution verticale, une structuration en trois couches principales a été mise en évidence ; l'intensité et l'épaisseur de ces couches variant selon la période du jour (migrations nycthémérales) et les conditions océaniques (tourbillons océaniques à méso-échelle et fronts océaniques à large-échelle). En ce qui concerne la distribution horizontale, le sud-ouest de l'océan Indien a été caractérisé par des eaux (10 – 800 m) plus riches aux latitudes subtropicales, en été comme en hiver. Mais chaque type d'organisme ayant ses propres caractéristiques écologiques, il était important de pouvoir décrire les distributions propres à chaque groupe biologique composant ce micronecton. Une approche acoustique bifréquence (38 et 120 kHz) a permis de distinguer les crustacés micronectoniques des petits poissons mésopélagiques contenant une vessie natatoire gazeuse dans les eaux est de Kerguelen. En termes de distribution horizontale et de densité globale estimée, les crustacés micronectoniques dominaient les eaux océaniques à l'est de Kerguelen. Sur la verticale, deux types de structuration ont été mis en évidence : une structure agrégative et une structure en couches. Les crustacés micronectoniques ont été caractérisés par une structuration en couches, de jour comme de nuit, alors que les autres organismes sondés (les poissons ayant une vessie natatoire gazeuse notamment) présentaient une structuration mixte composée d'agrégats et de couches le jour et composée uniquement de couches la nuit. En résumé, l'approche acoustique utilisée dans ce travail a permis de décrire la distribution et la composition des organismes micronectoniques et fournit une base descriptive essentielle sur le micronecton du sud-ouest de l'océan Indien
To understand the functioning of an ecosystem, it is essential to understand the organization of its associated food web. While the distribution of primary production and top predators in the Southwest Indian Ocean's oceanic waters (10-60 ° S, 35-90 ° E) are well known, a lack of knowledge remains regarding the distribution of mid-trophic level organisms, despite their ecological (biological pump and key trophic role) and potentially economic (commercial fisheries in the near future) importance. To fill this gap, this work focused on the horizontal and vertical distribution and composition of micronektonic communities in this region. Micronekton comprises relatively small organisms (1 to 20 cm long) able to swim freely without being unduly affected by currents. Micronekton distributions have been studied at meso- and large-scale using acoustic recordings (38 kHz). A vertical structure in three layers has been identified ; the intensity and thickness of these layers vary depending on the considered time period (diel migration) and ocean conditions (meso-scale oceanic eddies and large-scale oceanic fronts). Horizontaly, the Southwestern Indian Ocean harbours the richest waters (10-800 m) in subtropical latitudes in summer and winter times. Since every organism has its own ecological characteristics, it was important to separatly describe the distribution of biological groups composing micronekton. A bi-frequency acoustic approach (38 and 120 kHz) allowed the distinction of micronektonic crustaceans from small mesopelagic gas-filled swimbladder fish in waters east of Kerguelen where micronektonic crustaceans where dominant in terms of overall acoustic density. Two distinct types of vertical structure were highlighted : an aggregative and a layer structure. Micronektonic crustaceans were characterized by layering, day and night, while other organisms (gas-filled swimbladder fish in particular) exhibited structure mixing aggregates and layers during the day, but only composed of layers during the night. In summary, the acoustic approach used in this work helped to describe the distribution and composition of micronektonic organisms and provides an essential knowledge base on the micronekton of the southwest Indian Ocean

碩士
國立臺灣大學
企業管理碩士專班
107
In recent years, electric vehicles have been gaining momentum globally with advances being made in policies, technology and infrastructure. While the world may be rapidly moving towards quick adoption of electric cars, the world’s largest growing market presently, India has a different take on it. In Indian context, the first wave of EV penetration will start in two-wheeler and three-wheeler industry, as they constitute around 80 percent of the vehicles. In this thesis, we analyze the electric two-wheeler industry in India, perform strategic analysis on one of the leading electric two-wheeler OEMs (Hero Electric) and highlight the opportunities for Taiwan businesses entering Indian EV industry. Furthermore, a primary survey is conducted about consumer perception and purchase intention of electric scooters. Based on the primary survey results and the secondary research, detailed recommendations are presented to the key players & startups of electric two-wheeler industry in India.

Research leading to this thesis aims to assess the policy relevant mitigation potential of Indian forests as well as aims to assess the impact of climate change on carbon stocks, vegetation boundary shifts, Net Primary Productivity (NPP) and the mitigation potential of Indian forests. To project the impact of climate change we chose a dynamic global vegetation model ‘Integrated Biosphere Simulator’ (IBIS V.2.6b4). We selected A2 and B2 scenarios for projecting the impacts. Mitigation potential was assessed using the ‘Generalized Comprehensive Mitigation Assessment Process’ (GCOMAP) model. We assess the mitigation potential of Indian forests in the light of India’s long-term policy objective of bringing 33% of its total geographical area under forest cover. We analyzed the mitigation potential of this policy objective under two scenarios: the first comprising of rapid afforestation scenario with the target to achieving the goal by 2020 and the second a moderate afforestation scenario in which this goal is achieved by 2030. We estimate that afforestation could offset about 9% of India’s average national emissions over the 2010-2030 period, while about 6.7% could be mitigated under the moderate afforestation scenario over the same period. We analyze the impact of climate change on the four key attributes of Indian forests, i.e. impact on vegetation distribution, impact on forest productivity (NPP), impact on soil carbon (SOC) and impact on biomass carbon. IBIS simulations suggest that approximately 39% and 34% of forest grids are projected to experience change in vegetation type under A2 and B2 climate scenarios, respectively over the period 2070¬2100. Simulations further indicate that NPP is projected to increase by an average of 66% under the A2 scenario and 49% under the B2 scenario. The increase is higher in the northeastern part of India. However, in the central and western Indian forests NPP remains stable or increases only moderately, and in some places even decreases. Our assessment of the impact of climate change on Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) suggests a trend similar to NPP distribution, which is to be expected as increased NPP is the primary driver of higher litter input to the soil. However, the quantum of increase in this case is lower, around 37% and 30%, for the A2 and B2 scenario respectively (averaged over India). The biomass carbon is also projected to increase all over India on the lines similar to NPP gains. However, projected gains in biomass, NPP and SOC should be viewed with caution as IBIS tends to simulate a fairly strong CO2 fertilization effect that may not necessarily be realized under conditions of nutrient and water limitations and under conditions of increased pest and fire outbreaks. Further we analyzed the impact of climate change on the mitigation potential of Indian forests by linking impact assessment models to mitigation potential assessment model GCOMAP. Two impact assessment models BIOME4 and IBIS are used for simulating the impact of climate change. IBIS is a dynamic vegetation model while BIOME4 is an equilibrium model. Our assessment suggests that with the BIOME4 simulations the cumulative mitigation potential increases by up to 21% under the A2 scenario over the period 2008 to 2108, whereas, under the B2 scenario the mitigation potential increases only by 14% over the same period. However cumulative mitigation potential estimates obtained from the IBIS simulations suggest much smaller gains, where mitigation potential increases by only 6% and 5% over the period 2008 to 2108, under A2 and B2 scenarios respectively. To enable effective policy analysis and to build a synergy between the mitigation and adaptation efforts in the Indian forest sector, a vulnerability index for the forested grids is constructed. The vulnerability index is based on the premise that forests in India are already subjected to multiple stresses including over extraction, insect outbreaks, live¬stock grazing, forest fires and other anthropogenic pressures -with climate change being an additional stress. The forest vulnerability index suggests that nearly 39% of the forest grids in India are projected to be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change under the A2 scenario, while 34% of the forest grids are projected to be vulnerable under the B2 scenario. The vulnerability index suggests that forests in the central part of India, a significant part of the western Himalayan forests and northern and central parts of the Western Ghats are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Forests in the northeastern part of India are seemingly resilient to the impacts of climate change. It also suggests that given the high deforestation rate in northeast, this region be prioritized for reducing deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) projects under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) mechanisms.

Research leading to this thesis aims to assess the policy relevant mitigation potential of Indian forests as well as aims to assess the impact of climate change on carbon stocks, vegetation boundary shifts, Net Primary Productivity (NPP) and the mitigation potential of Indian forests. To project the impact of climate change we chose a dynamic global vegetation model ‘Integrated Biosphere Simulator’ (IBIS V.2.6b4). We selected A2 and B2 scenarios for projecting the impacts. Mitigation potential was assessed using the ‘Generalized Comprehensive Mitigation Assessment Process’ (GCOMAP) model. We assess the mitigation potential of Indian forests in the light of India’s long-term policy objective of bringing 33% of its total geographical area under forest cover. We analyzed the mitigation potential of this policy objective under two scenarios: the first comprising of rapid afforestation scenario with the target to achieving the goal by 2020 and the second a moderate afforestation scenario in which this goal is achieved by 2030. We estimate that afforestation could offset about 9% of India’s average national emissions over the 2010-2030 period, while about 6.7% could be mitigated under the moderate afforestation scenario over the same period. We analyze the impact of climate change on the four key attributes of Indian forests, i.e. impact on vegetation distribution, impact on forest productivity (NPP), impact on soil carbon (SOC) and impact on biomass carbon. IBIS simulations suggest that approximately 39% and 34% of forest grids are projected to experience change in vegetation type under A2 and B2 climate scenarios, respectively over the period 2070¬2100. Simulations further indicate that NPP is projected to increase by an average of 66% under the A2 scenario and 49% under the B2 scenario. The increase is higher in the northeastern part of India. However, in the central and western Indian forests NPP remains stable or increases only moderately, and in some places even decreases. Our assessment of the impact of climate change on Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) suggests a trend similar to NPP distribution, which is to be expected as increased NPP is the primary driver of higher litter input to the soil. However, the quantum of increase in this case is lower, around 37% and 30%, for the A2 and B2 scenario respectively (averaged over India). The biomass carbon is also projected to increase all over India on the lines similar to NPP gains. However, projected gains in biomass, NPP and SOC should be viewed with caution as IBIS tends to simulate a fairly strong CO2 fertilization effect that may not necessarily be realized under conditions of nutrient and water limitations and under conditions of increased pest and fire outbreaks. Further we analyzed the impact of climate change on the mitigation potential of Indian forests by linking impact assessment models to mitigation potential assessment model GCOMAP. Two impact assessment models BIOME4 and IBIS are used for simulating the impact of climate change. IBIS is a dynamic vegetation model while BIOME4 is an equilibrium model. Our assessment suggests that with the BIOME4 simulations the cumulative mitigation potential increases by up to 21% under the A2 scenario over the period 2008 to 2108, whereas, under the B2 scenario the mitigation potential increases only by 14% over the same period. However cumulative mitigation potential estimates obtained from the IBIS simulations suggest much smaller gains, where mitigation potential increases by only 6% and 5% over the period 2008 to 2108, under A2 and B2 scenarios respectively. To enable effective policy analysis and to build a synergy between the mitigation and adaptation efforts in the Indian forest sector, a vulnerability index for the forested grids is constructed. The vulnerability index is based on the premise that forests in India are already subjected to multiple stresses including over extraction, insect outbreaks, live¬stock grazing, forest fires and other anthropogenic pressures -with climate change being an additional stress. The forest vulnerability index suggests that nearly 39% of the forest grids in India are projected to be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change under the A2 scenario, while 34% of the forest grids are projected to be vulnerable under the B2 scenario. The vulnerability index suggests that forests in the central part of India, a significant part of the western Himalayan forests and northern and central parts of the Western Ghats are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Forests in the northeastern part of India are seemingly resilient to the impacts of climate change. It also suggests that given the high deforestation rate in northeast, this region be prioritized for reducing deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) projects under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) mechanisms.

An ambitious multinational programme, with generous funding for an initial five years, aims to provide understanding of marine resources for the benefit of impoverished island and coastal populations in a much-neglected ocean region.

Rice is the dominant food source for more than half of the world’s population. Irrigated rice predominates in global rice production as well as in most rice producing countries. Further improvement of grain yield (GY) by combining well-proven conventional breeding methods with new techniques offered by modern molecular biology and genomics is urgently needed to feed the growing world population. The studies reported in this thesis are part of the effort led by IRRI to break the yield barrier for irrigated rice. This research provides essential phenotypic and genetic information directly relevant to future breeding for irrigated ecosystems. The specific objectives are: i) to gain a better understanding of the importance of genotype-environment interaction (GEI) on GY in irrigated rice ecosystems; ii) to test the usefulness of 39 fine-mapped or cloned genes/QTLs for GY and yield related traits in a breeding population through association analysis and iii) to identify new markers associated with GY and related traits through a genome-wide association study (GWAS). The studies were conducted using a collection of 392 genotypes including released cultivars and advanced lines from several large breeding programs worldwide. These are being used as parental lines in IRRI’s recurrent selection and variety development programs. Field trials were conducted in eight environments including Jiangxi (JX) and Sichuan (SC) in China, and six season (2) and nitrogen rate (3) combinations at IRRI headquarters (Philippines). The two seasons were the dry season (DS) and wet season (WS) of 2012. For the DS the three nitrogen rates were no nitrogen, 90 kg ha-1 and 180 kg ha-1, designed as DS1, DS2 and DS3. For the WS the three nitrogen rates were no nitrogen, 45 kg ha-1 and 90 kg ha-1, designed as WS1, WS2 and WS3. GY and the following 10 traits were measured, including grain number per panicle (GN), panicle number per plant (PN), thousand grain weight (TGW), days to flowering (DTF), primary branch per panicle (PB), plant height (PH), secondary branch per panicle (SB), Spikelet number per panicle (SN), seed setting rate (SR) and tiller number (TN). All the 11 traits were tested in DS1, DS3, WS1, WS2 and WS3, while selected traits were tested in DS2, JX and SC. A wide range of variations across genotypes and environments were observed for all traits. Genotype, environment and GEI all significantly affected GY and yield related traits. GEI was more important than the genotypic main effect for GY, SR and PN but less important for other traits. For GY, the genotype-by-season interaction and genotype-by-season-by-nitrogen interaction were more important than the genotype-by-nitrogen interaction. The genotypes were clustered into 10 groups using an agglomerative hierarchical clustering procedure. The eight environments were grouped into three groups using the biplot of the additive main effects and multiplicative interaction (AMMI) analysis. The three environments (nitrogen rates) in the WS and SC were grouped together (E1) and three environments (nitrogen rate) in the DS formed another group (E2). JX alone was the third group (E3). JX was relatively closer to the IRRI DS environments in the biplot. It indicated that IRRI breeding lines with stable and good performance in the WS could be used in SC (directly as varieties or as parental lines in breeding) and that selection is better done in the DS in IRRI for use in JX, China. Great attention should be paid to the relevance of performance at IRRI to their target production environments when IRRI breeding lines are introduced. Breeding for DS and WS separately at IRRI was recommended to exploit the repeatable GEI caused by seasonal variation. To test the usefulness of fine-mapped or cloned genes/QTLs for GY and yield related traits, 46 molecular markers tightly linked to the chosen 39 genes/QTLs were used to genotype 360 of the 392 lines. Population structure analysed with 53 SSR markers evenly distributed on all chromosomes using STRUCTURE program indicated that the whole population could be divided into two subpopulations of 205 and 155 lines. A mixed linear model incorporating genetic relatedness between genotypes was chosen by comparing four commonly used statistical models. The selected model was used to conduct association analysis for all the tested traits in each of the eight testing environments and the average environment defined as the average across the testing environments. Analyses were separately carried out for the whole population and the two subpopulations. All the 39 target genes/QTLs were associated with two or more measured traits including traits not previously reported. GW6 and Gn1a were associated with nine and eight traits, respectively. Ghd7, qSPP7, SCM2 and SPP1 were associated with seven traits, GIF1 and Ltn were with six traits, GS3, GW2, gw3.1, htd1, Nop(t), qGY2-1 and qPH6-1 with five traits, D10, d27, DEP2, DWL1, Gnp4, Gw1-1, GW3, gw5, MOC1, PAP2, qGL7, qGL7-2 and qGN4-1 with four traits, D88, Ghd8, GS5, Gw1-2, IPA1, qSH3 and RPH with three traits and ep3, gw8.1, gw9.1 and qPDS3 with two traits. A total of 16 genes/QTLs were found to be associated with GY. GS3, GW1-1 and d27 were associated with GY in two testing environments and the others were only in one. For the three yield component traits GN, PN and TGW, there were 16, six and 10 genes/QTLs identified to be associated with in one or more environments. Eleven genes/QTLs were associated with SN and SR, respectively. There were 29 and six genes/QTLs detected to be associated with PB and SB, respectively. TN had the least number of significant genes/QTLs associated, which were five. All the 39 genes/QTLs were associated with PH in one testing environment or the average environment. There were 25 genes/QTLs found to be associated with DTF in one or more environments. Significant gene- by-environment interaction was present for all the studied genes/QTLs. However, GY could not be well predicted using the markers significantly associated with measured traits or all the target markers based on stepwise multiple linear regression analysis. The adjusted coefficient of determination (R2) ranged from 0.024 to 0.191 for the final selected models considering the associated markers only and from 0.039 to 0.261 for the final selected models considering all the target markers. Nevertheless the known genes might be explicitly utilized in developing more efficient selection criteria for enhancing selection accuracy. To identify new markers associated with GY and related traits, 327 of the 392 lines were genotyped with SNPs using the genotyping-by-sequencing method. Model based population structure analysis was conducted with a subset of 1072 evenly distributed SNPs. The results indicated that the likely number of subpopulations was two, with subpopulation 1 consisting of 234 lines and subpopulation 2 consisting of 93 lines. There were 56 common lines between the two smaller subpopulations derived from the population structure analysis results using SSR and SNP. Based on comparison of multiple models for selected trait and environment combinations, the PK model implemented in TASSEL software using principle components to correct population structure and the relative kinship matrix to adjust the unequal familial relatedness between the individuals was selected to conduct the GWAS for all the traits in all the testing environments. A total of 452 marker-trait associations that were delineated into 43 QTLs were identified for all traits but PB, SB and SR with 39 QTLs being not reported before. Three QTLs were identified for GY on chromosome 6, 9 and 12 but only in DS2. The numbers of QTLs identified for PN, GN and TGW were 26, four and two. There were nine and four QTLs detected for DTF and TN, respectively. Two QTLs were identified for PH and SN, respectively. Most of the detected QTLs were found in only one environment. One of the QTL for DTF on chromosome 3 was identified in multiple environments and corresponds to Hd9 reported in previous studies. Two of the QTLs for PN on chromosome 1 were in the regions of previously fine-mapped QTLs, Gw1-1 and Gw1-2, for TGW. The effects of newly identified QTLs were relatively small with the highest percentage of variance explained by a single QTL being 9.6%. Gene-by-environment interaction, pleiotropy and small effects of the well characterized genes/QTLs and newly detected QTLs imply that selection accuracy using the identified genes/QTLs is low. Improving yield and related quantitative traits through marker-assisted selection remains a big challenge. Recently developed genomic selection that utilizes markers in linkage disequilibrium with all genes affecting trait of interest and captures interactions between genes should be exploited.

Venture Capital (VC) is regarded as one of the most powerful financial innovations of the 20th century (Schwienbacher, 2009). Venture Capitalists are financial intermediaries focused on funding projects in emerging high – technology realms. Some of the world’s most visible companies today (Microsoft, Google, Apple, Sun Microsystems, HP, Facebook, and so on) have all been VC funded during their earlier stages. The Indian Venture Capital (VC) ecosystem has been rapidly evolving over the past decade. As of 2013, India ranks among the top five nations in terms of the deployment of global VC funds (Ernst and Young, 2014). Today, there are more than 350 VC funds operating in India (Securities and Exchange Board of India, 2012). About one-third of the top 500 companies in India today are VC funded (Bain Consulting, 2012). Thus, it can be said beyond doubt that VC has played a very important role in the promotion of entrepreneurial ventures in the Indian economy. Yet, there exists a limited understanding about the operations of the VC firms in India. The aim of this study was to fill this gap. The VC firms (fund managers or the General Partners) typically raise funds from the fund providers (Limited Partners) and invest them in fledgling companies. Such investments are highly risky, and most of them fail entirely; however, the few large winners more than compensate for the failures (Dossena and Kenney, 2002). In return for investing, the VC firms receive a major equity stake in the firm and seats as the members of the board of directors. By active intervention and assistance, VC firms act to increase the chances of success of a new firm. The VC process is complete when the company is sold through either listing on the stock market or is acquired by another firm, or when the company fails (Dossani and Kenney, 2002). The funds raised via exits therein are then returned to the respective fund providers and the investment cycle starts all over again (Gompers and Lerner, 2004). Since, nascent technologies, domains and business models and most importantly intangibility of assets are the mainstay of VC funded projects, it results in an extreme level of information asymmetry. Consequently, funding these projects warrants specialized risk assessment skills. In fact, VC firms are known to possess the forte in selecting and monitoring ventures with an extreme level of information asymmetry (Chan, 1983; Macintosh, 1994; Sahlman, 1990; Amit, et al., 1990, 1993, 1998). Information asymmetry results in two distinct kinds of risks – Adverse Selection and Agency problems. Adverse Selection risks are those resulting from hidden information (i.e. entrepreneurs possess certain information not known to the VCs). Agency risks are the ones emanating from hidden actions (i.e. entrepreneurs can take certain actions not observable by the VCs). As niche financial intermediaries, VC firms are known to be well-versed with strategies to tackle both of these. While Adverse selection is tackled by intensive proposal screening and due diligence, syndication of deals (co-investing with other VC firms) and specialization (by domain, funding size, stage of funding); agency risks are overcome by staging of investments, legal contracting and extensive monitoring of the investee firms (Gupta and Sapienza, 1992; Rosenstein et al., 1993; Barry, 1994; Lerner, 1994; Fried and Hisrich, 1994; Gompers and Lerner, 1999, Pruthi et al., 2003). Typically, the adverse selection risks are dominant during the investment phase while agency risks are prominent during the portfolio management and exit phases of the VC firm’s lifecycle

The prelude for this study was an investigation conducted by me in 1988 - '89 on the bionomics of three marine ornamental fishes from Lakshadweep which emboided results of research mainly concerning biological aspects of feeding and reproduction. Motivated by the richness of reef fishes, their fascinating relationships evident from casual observations and from the basics obtained previously, it was considered desirable to undertake investigations on a broader scale which might open up a nearly dormant field of fisheries science in India.

abstract: The Dhofar Cloud Forest is one of the most diverse ecosystems on the Arabian Peninsula. As part of the South Arabian Cloud Forest that extends from southern Oman to Yemen, the cloud forest is an important center of endemism and provides valuable ecosystem services to those living in the region. There have been various claims made about the health of the cloud forest and its surrounding region, the most prominent of which are: 1) variability of the Indian Summer Monsoon threatens long-term vegetation health, and 2) human encroachment is causing deforestation and land degradation. This dissertation uses three independent studies to test these claims and bring new insight about the biodiversity of the cloud forest. Evidence is presented that shows that the vegetation dynamics of the cloud forest are resilient to most of the variability in the monsoon. Much of the biodiversity in the cloud forest is dominated by a few species with high abundance and a moderate number of species at low abundance. The characteristic tree species include Anogeissus dhofarica and Commiphora spp. These species tend to dominate the forested regions of the study area. Grasslands are dominated by species associated with overgrazing (Calotropis procera and Solanum incanum). Analysis from a land cover study conducted between 1988 and 2013 shows that deforestation has occurred to approximately 8% of the study area and decreased vegetation fractions are found throughout the region. Areas around the city of Salalah, located close to the cloud forest, show widespread degradation in the 21st century based on an NDVI time series analysis. It is concluded that humans are the primary driver of environmental change. Much of this change is tied to national policies and development priorities implemented after the Dhofar War in the 1970’s.
Dissertation/Thesis
Doctoral Dissertation Geography 2015

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (31 ° 49'N, 70 ° 55'E bis 35 ° 50'N, 71 ° 47'E) liegt im Nordwesten Pakistans im Süden Asiens. Das Hindukusch-Gebirge in Afghanistan liegt im Westen, dem indischen Himalaya im Nordosten und die Karakorum Berge südlich vom tibetischen Hochland auf der Nordseite. Diese Arbeit besteht überwiegend aus drei separaten Studien entlang eines 200 km langen Transekts mit einem Höhengradienten ausgehend von den Sedimentbecken im Peshawar Tal (275 m ü.M.) bis hinauf zu den Malam Jabba Hills im Swat-Tal (2600 m ü.M.). Die erste Studie, die auf einer Datengrundlage von 160 Poaceae Arten beruht, zeigt Trends, dass polyploide C3- und C4-Poaceae-Arten größere Pollenkkörner als die jeweiligen diploiden Arten haben. In diesem Datensatz haben alle C4-Arten größere Pollenkörner als die C3-Arten. Ob Grassländer von C3 oder C4 Arten dominiert werden kann in verschiedenen Regionen und Lebensräumen durch die Untersuchung der Muster des Trends von zu- oder abnehmenden Pollenkorngrößen ermittelt werden. In unserem Datensatz ist Polyploidie bei C4-Gräsern häufiger als bei den C3 Arten. Die verwendete Methode kann auf Poaceae-Pollenkörner in Umweltarchiven angewendet werden, um das Klima der Vergangenheit zu rekonstruieren und die Dynamik der früheren Graslandökosysteme zu bewerten. Dieser Ansatz wird nicht nur bei laufenden paläoökologischen Studien helfen aufzuklären, wie die Änderungen der Vegetations-zusammensetzung und die Veränderungen in Biomen vergangener Graslandökosysteme zu entschlüsseln sind, sondern auch nützliche Erkenntnisse für die Vorhersage zukünftiger Entwicklungen ermöglichen. Die zweite Studie befasst sich mit modernen Pollenspektren aus Oberflächenproben und ihre Beziehung zu der umgebenden Vegetation, die nützliche Daten für die Interpretation von holozänen Pollenprofilen bietet. Dabei konnten entlang eines 200 km langen Höhengradienten vier verschiedene Höhenstufen unterschieden werden, wo die dominierenden Pflanzenfamilien, Poaceae, Asteraceae, Cyperaceae, Verbenaceae, Acanthaceae und Euphorbiaceae eine signifikante Korrelation mit dem gefunden Pollenniederschlag hatten, während sich bei anderen Familien, den Boraginaceae, Saxifragaceae, Apiaceae, Balsaminaceae und Rubiaceae große Unterschiede zu der zugehörigen Vegetationszusammensetzung ergaben. Für die Kalibrierung und Interpretation fossiler Pollendaten sollte also immer auch die aktuellen Beziehungen von Pollenniederschlag und Vegetationsdaten zumindest auf der Familienebene berücksichtigt werden. Die dritte Studie befasst sich mit einem Pollenprofil aus der Kabal Swat-Region, welches eine detaillierte Geschichte der Vegetation und des Klimas des Hindukuschs der letzten 3300 Jahre, also dem späten Holozäns enthält. Von 3300 bis 2400 cal BP, war eine subtropische semiaride krautige Vegetation hauptsächlich durch Cyperaceae- und Poaceae-Arten vertreten. Sie wurde ersetzt von gemischten Nadelwäldern mit Taxus, Pinus, sowie Juglans, Poaceae und Cyperaceae während der Zeit von 2400 bis 900 cal BP, was auf eine vergleichsweise moderate Klimaschwankung während des späten Holozäns weist. Der Rückgang der Poaceae von 2400 bis1500 cal BP und eine erneute Zunahme von 1500 bis 1200 cal BP Jahre zeigen, dass das Kabal Swat nass-kühlere und trocken-wärmere Phasen durchmachte. Nadelbäume in den gemischten Nadelwäldern treten heute bei größeren Höhe im alpinen Bereich auf. Weitere hochauflösende holozäne Pollenprofile des Hindukusch sind notwendig, um einen ausführlicheren Vergleich zu anderen süd- und zentralasiatischen Paläo-Archiven zu ermöglichen, die auch ein detaillierteres und anwendbares Wissen für Management und Naturschutzfragen ergeben.