Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Digital Human Models (DHM)”

Digitale Menschmodelle (DMM) werden aktuell in Unternehmen vorwiegend zur ergonomischen Planung und Überprüfung der Ausführbarkeit und Erträglichkeit von Arbeitsprozessen eingesetzt. Im Rahmen der Nachwuchsforschergruppe „The Smart Virtual Worker“, welche im Interdisziplinären Kompetenzzentrum Virtual Humans der TU Chemnitz angesiedelt ist, entstand ein Framework zur Simulation komplexer Arbeitsabläufe im Kontext der virtuellen Fabrik. Ziel war die Entwicklung eines digitalen Menschmodells für den Einsatz in klein- und mittelständischen Unternehmen. Hierbei standen die autonome Steuerung, eine realistische Animation sowie die Einbeziehung physischer und psychischer Faktoren in die ergonomische Bewertung eines Arbeitsablaufes im Mittelpunkt. Darauf aufbauend wurde eine haptische Nutzerschnittstelle zur interaktiven Fabrik- und Aufgabenplanung entwickelt. Neben der Positionierung von statischen Objekten ist mit diesem Interface auch die Integration und Anpassung von Arbeitsaufgaben möglich.

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior
The present research presents the problem related to the aging population of the world and the necessary improvement on product development to better serve these users considering their limitations that come with the aging process; one of the possible improvements is the inclusion of these user on usability testing. This inclusion can be made with low cost and without exposing the user through virtual testing, which is where the problem of this research focuses, if is possible to to perform these usability tests entirely in SolidWorks® platform. The objective of this research is to develop a procedure for virtual usability testing in SolidWorks® software, with focus on elderly users. To achive the corroboration of the hypothesis (is possible to do virtual usability testing through the software plataform), was reproduced the traditional usability test of a remote control conducted with elder users in a virtual usability test on the SolidWorks® plataform, the modeled user presented limitations based on the users participants of the traditional testing, enabling the comparison of the found results of the tests. On the usability tests were evaluated the performance metrics of task success and number of positioning of the remote control were necessary to complete the task. By the test results we were able to realize that the variable of number of positions necessary to complete the task is more appropriate to evaluate the similarity between the results of real and virtual tests. The result of the statistic test for this metric indicated that there are significant differences between the results of the traditional test and the results of the virtual test, but when evaluated only the results of females elders the results showed no significant differences. It was concluded that further research is necessary to achieve corroboration of the hypothesis, considering that the results indicated significant differences between the results. The fact that the group of female older users have shown similar results, indicating that with improvements in usability testing procedure in SolidWorks® platform can achieve similar results for older users of both genders.
O presente trabalho apresenta problemática relacionada ao cenário mundial do envelhecimento da população e as melhorias necessárias no desenvolvimento dos produtos para melhor atender esses usuários considerando as limitações que são desenvolvidas no envelhecimento; uma dessas melhorias é a inclusão desse usuário nos testes de usabilidade. Essa inclusão pode ser feita com custo baixo e sem expor o usuário por meio de testes virtuais, que é onde se apresenta o problema dessa pesquisa: se é possível realizar esses testes de usabilidade inteiramente na plataforma do SolidWorks®? O objetivo desta pesquisa é desenvolver um procedimento para testes de usabilidade virtuais realizados no software SolidWorks®, com foco nos usuários idosos. Para procurar a corroboração da hipótese (de que seria possível realizar testes de usabilidade digitalmente nesta plataforma), foi reproduzido o teste de usabilidade tradicional de um controle remoto realizado com usuários idosos em um teste de usabilidade virtual na plataforma do SolidWorks®, em que o usuário modelado apresentou limitações baseadas nas dos usuários participantes do teste tradicional, podendo assim, comparar os resultados encontrados nos testes. No teste de usabilidade foram avaliadas as medidas de desempenho, sucesso de realização da tarefa e número de reposicionamentos do controle remoto necessários para realizar a tarefa. Pelos resultados dos testes pode se perceber que a variável de número de reposicionamentos para realizar a tarefa é a mais adequada para avaliar a similaridade entre os resultados dos testes real e virtual. O resultado do teste estatístico dessa variável indicou que existem diferenças significativas entre os resultados encontrados do teste tradicional e os resultados do teste virtual, mas quando avaliado apenas os resultados dos indivíduos idosos do sexo feminino os resultados não apresentaram diferenças significativas. Foi concluído que ainda são necessárias pesquisas para se atingir a corroboração da hipótese, considerando que os resultados indicaram para diferenças significativas entre os resultados. O fato do grupo de usuárias idosas ter apresentado resultados similares, indica que com melhorias no procedimento de testes de usabilidade na plataforma do SolidWorks® pode-se conseguir resultados similares para usuários de idosos de ambos os gêneros.

The growing implementation of ergonomics in the automotive sector sets high demands on Digital Human Modelling (DHM) functionalities towards the simulation of more realistic environments and the reduction of physical model dependency. During the current degree project a leading element that smartly assembles DHM usage (implementation of high-level commanding languages) was designed, revolving around the industries’ needs which were gathered and interpreted in order to organize current functions in this language and suggest new complementary functions that would create a language environment suitable for non-expert users. This was achieved by focusing in an intuitive word-function structure, the proposal of defaults and other tools that aid users with different kinds of expertise. The need for realism of simulations was assessed by the language design especially by designing means to coordinate synchronic manikin-actions.
Virtual Driver

PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO
A presente pesquisa tem como objetivo explorar as diferentes possibilidades de aplicação de Digital Human Models em projetos para as áreas do Design, Arquitetura, Arte e Engenharia. A partir da construção de um panorama temporal das culturas antigas, com a redescoberta de valores o período do Renascimento e culminando na Revolução Industrial, seguindo com o fator humano sendo agregado aos requisitos de projeto na Revolução Industrial. Do contexto histórico da curiosidade humana por replicar sua imagem até a implementação da representação da forma humana como parâmetro projetual para o setor produtivo. Espera-se com a pesquisa um melhor entendimento dos Digital Human Models como ferramenta para o desenvolvimento de projetos, sua aplicabilidade e perspectivas futuras, possibilitando assim a consequente disseminação de seu uso e maior acessibilidade ao usuário final, bem como um mapeamento das etapas e tecnologias de criação dos modelos.
The present research intends to explore the different possibilities on the application of Digital Human Models on projects for Design, Architecture, Arts and Engineering. Building a panorama over the time starting on ancient cultures, rediscovering values from the antiquity on the period of Renascence, and culminating on the Industrial Revolution, following with the human factor been adopted as a project requirement during the Industrial Revolution. From a historical panorama of the human curiosity for replicating its own image until the implementation of human representation as project parameters into the productive sector. The main goal of this research is to obtain a better understanding of Digital Human Models as a tool to be used on projects development, its applicability and future perspectives, allowing with it a consequent dissemination of its use and a bigger accessibility to the final user, as well as a mapping of the stages and technologies on creating those models.

The objective of this project is to develop a driving test using a Digital Human Modeling tool (DHM), specifically IPS IMMA, which will allow the evaluation of the ergonomics of the interior of vehicles as currently demanded by the automotive companies. Thus, improving both the design and the design process. This will involve a study of the driving and the tasks carried out by a real person to end up programming them in the DHM software. Based on this study an interface is suggested that guides engineers or ergonomists to design their own driving tests and enable them to evaluate their own designs without a high specialization in DHM tools and software. Taking into account the already present autonomous cars and their future development, the conceptual design of a two positions steering wheel (autonomous/manual driving) will be introduced as an example to be added in the driving test. This example is intended to show how DHM tools can be used to evaluate different designs solutions in early stages of the product development process. This project will be a contribution to one of the sections of the ADOPTIVE project carried out at the University of Skövde and in collaboration with Swedish automotive companies.

In the last decade digital devices and services have permeated many aspects of everyday life. They generate massive amounts of data that provide insightful information about how people move across geographic areas and how they interact with others. By analysing this detailed information, it is possible to investigate aspects of human mobility and interaction. Therefore, the thesis of this dissertation is that the analysis of mobility and interaction traces generated by digital devices and services, at different timescales and spatial granularity, can be used to gain a better understanding of human behaviour, build new applications and improve existing services. In order to substantiate this statement I develop analytical models and applications supported by three sources of mobility and interaction data: online social networks, mobile phone networks and GPS traces. First, I present three applications related to data gathered from online social networks, namely the analysis of a global rumour spreading in Twitter, the definition of spatial dissemination measures in a social graph and the analysis of collaboration between developers in GitHub. Then I describe two applications of the analysis of country-wide data of cellular phone networks: the modelling of epidemic containment strategies, with the goal of assessing their efficacy in curbing infectious diseases; the definition of a mobility-based measure of individual risk, which can be used to identify who needs targeted treatment. Finally, I present two applications based on GPS traces: the estimation of trajectories from spatially-coarse temporally-sparse location traces and the analysis of routing behaviour in urban settings.

Digitale Menschmodelle (DMM) werden aktuell in Unternehmen vorwiegend zur ergonomischen Planung und Überprüfung der Ausführbarkeit und Erträglichkeit von Arbeitsprozessen eingesetzt. Im Rahmen der Nachwuchsforschergruppe „The Smart Virtual Worker“, welche im Interdisziplinären Kompetenzzentrum Virtual Humans der TU Chemnitz angesiedelt ist, entstand ein Framework zur Simulation komplexer Arbeitsabläufe im Kontext der virtuellen Fabrik. Ziel war die Entwicklung eines digitalen Menschmodells für den Einsatz in klein- und mittelständischen Unternehmen. Hierbei standen die autonome Steuerung, eine realistische Animation sowie die Einbeziehung physischer und psychischer Faktoren in die ergonomische Bewertung eines Arbeitsablaufes im Mittelpunkt. Darauf aufbauend wurde eine haptische Nutzerschnittstelle zur interaktiven Fabrik- und Aufgabenplanung entwickelt. Neben der Positionierung von statischen Objekten ist mit diesem Interface auch die Integration und Anpassung von Arbeitsaufgaben möglich.

Hospital and clinical environments are rapidly moving toward the digital capture, processing, storage, and transmission of medical images. X-ray cardio-angiograms are used to observe coronary blood flow, diagnose arterial disease and perform coronary angioplasty or bypass surgery. The digital storage and transmission of these cardiovascular images has significant potential to improve patient care. For example, digital images enable electronic archiving, network transmission and useful manipulation of diagnostic information such as image enhancement. The efficient compression of medical images is tremendously important for economical storage and fast transmission, since digitised medical images must be of high-quality, requiring high-resolution and having a large volume in general. The use of lossily compressed images has created a need for the development of objective quality assessment metrics I measuring perceived subjective opinions by viewers for optimal compression rate/distortion trade-off. Quality assessment metrics, based on models of the human visual system, have more accurately predicted perceived quality than traditional error-based objective quality metrics. This thesis presents a proposed Multi-stage Perceptual Quality Assessment (MPQA) model for compressed images. The motivation for the development of a perceptual quality assessment is to measure (in)visible physical differences between original and processed images. MPQA produces visible distortion maps and quantitative error measured informed by considerations of the human visual system. Original and decompressed images are decomposed into different spatial frequency bands and orientations modelling the human cortex. Contrast errors are calculated for each frequency and orientation, and masked as a function of contrast sensitivity and background uncertainty. Spatially masked contrast error measurements are made across frequency bands and orientations to produce a single Perceptual Distortion Visibility Map (PDVM). A Perceptual Quality Rating (PQR) is calculated from the PDVM and transformed into a one to five scale for direct comparison with the Mean Opinion Score (MOS), generally used in subjective rating. For medical applications, acceptable decompressed medical images might be those which are perceptually pleasing, contain no visible artefacts and have no loss in diagnostic content. To investigate this problem, clinical tests identifying diagnostically acceptable image reconstructions is performed and demonstrates that the proposed perceptual quality rating method has better agreement with observers' responses than objective error measurement methods. The vision models presented in the thesis are also implemented in the thresholding and quantisation stages of a compression algorithm. An HVS-informed perceptual thresholding and quantisation method is also shown to produce improved compression ratio performance with less visible distortions.

Facial expression recognition has become an active research topic in recent years due to its applications in human computer interfaces and data-driven animation. In this thesis, we focus on the problem of how to e?ectively use domain, temporal and categorical information of facial expressions to help computer understand human emotions. Over the past decades, many techniques (such as neural networks, Gaussian processes, support vector machines, etc.) have been applied to facial expression analysis. Recently graphical models have emerged as a general framework for applying probabilistic models. They provide a natural framework for describing the generative process of facial expressions. However, these models often su?er from too many latent variables or too complex model structures, which makes learning and inference di±cult. In this thesis, we will try to analyze the deformation of facial expression by introducing some recently developed graphical models (e.g. latent topic model) or improving the recognition ability of some already widely used models (e.g. HMM). In this thesis, we develop three di?erent graphical models with di?erent representational assumptions: categories being represented by prototypes, sets of exemplars and topics in between. Our ¯rst model incorporates exemplar-based representation into graphical models. To further improve computational e±- ciency of the proposed model, we build it in a local linear subspace constructed by principal component analysis. The second model is an extension of the recently developed topic model by introducing temporal and categorical information into Latent Dirichlet Allocation model. In our discriminative temporal topic model (DTTM), temporal information is integrated by placing an asymmetric Dirichlet prior over document-topic distributions. The discriminative ability is improved by a supervised term weighting scheme. We describe the resulting DTTM in detail and show how it can be applied to facial expression recognition. Our third model is a nonparametric discriminative variation of HMM. HMM can be viewed as a prototype model, and transition parameters act as the prototype for one category. To increase the discrimination ability of HMM at both class level and state level, we introduce linear interpolation with maximum entropy (LIME) and member- ship coe±cients to HMM. Furthermore, we present a general formula for output probability estimation, which provides a way to develop new HMM. Experimental results show that the performance of some existing HMMs can be improved by integrating the proposed nonparametric kernel method and parameters adaption formula. In conclusion, this thesis develops three di?erent graphical models by (i) combining exemplar-based model with graphical models, (ii) introducing temporal and categorical information into Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic model, and (iii) increasing the discrimination ability of HMM at both hidden state level and class level.
published_or_final_version
Computer Science
Doctoral
Doctor of Philosophy

Bad worker health leads to an unnecessary increase of absent days and loss of money, particularly the more physically demanding jobs as in industry. This can be seen in both a broader perspective and also in the suffering of the individual. In order to stop this trend and lower the work injuries connected to bad ergonomics good, reliable, and preferably digital, methods have to be generated and evaluated. The aim of this master’s thesis is to investigate how Digital Human Modelling (DHM) tools can beused to evaluate physical ergonomics by building a real-life workstation in the DHM tool IPS IMMA. The workstation used here is based on a newly installed station at a large company placed in Skövde. This station was developed in collaboration of both technical specialists but also ergonomist consulting from the company Feelgood. The goal has therefore been to examine where in the process a DHM tool could be used and if it would contribute to the process. The methods chosen to investigate the use of DHM tools were to build a final model in IPS IMMA, which is based of four different versions of the workstation. By building four different versions of the workstation the process has simultaneously been analyzed and documented in order to compare the findings made in the program to the ones made in real life. The results have also been made in combination to finding the opportunities, challenges, and disadvantages with using DHM tools. The needed improvements within the DHM field have also been noted and discussed.

The use of proactive ergonomics has become a priority for the study of the operator’s functionality in the working context, as well as in the optimization of work tasks and in the workplace design. The application of proactive ergonomics is adept to foresee and deal with changes and potential problems derived from the evolution of the industrial world. For these reasons, there is the necessity to use Digital Human Modeling (DHM) tools; they are capable to analyze postures and to perform ergonomic assessments according to international technical standards. In the first part of the thesis, a general overview of the different DHM tools is presented and some applications are shown. In particular, the study investigates the strengths and limitations of a multibody model developed in collaboration between industry and university. The postural angles of trunk bending and arm elevation of the model are defined in accordance with international regulations: ISO 11226:2000 and UNI EN 1005/4:2009. Since, the model is characterized by a limited number of degrees of freedom, it has been compared with the reference literature in order to validate it. Subsequently, the model was used for the verification of three case studies of real workstations, highlighting its usefulness in the design for different anthropometries of the operator. The postural angles, calculated in the validation study, were used to generate continuous postural maps with different interpolation methods. The postural maps were normalized with respect to main anthropometric measurements, in order to achieve results that can be generalized to different anthropometries of the operator. In the second part of the thesis, the project: “La Fabbrica si Misura”, developed in collaboration with Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (FCA) and with Istituto Nazionale Assicurazione Infortuni sul Lavoro (INAIL) is described. This project includes the measurement of a sample of 3000 male and female workers each, within the Italian production plants of FCA. This survey led to the generation of an updated anthropometric database of the Italian working population. The data were statistically analyzed in order to estimate the anthropometric models of the main percentiles that are referred to during design and to highlight significant anthropometric differences due to age and the geographical area of the sample. Among the utilities of the database, the generation of anthropometric models to update the virtual manikins of DHM tools is of particular interest. In the third and last part of the thesis, models of virtual manikins were obtained with various approaches; the different models were compared to highlight the differences and guide their choice in the assessment and design of workstations. A reliable estimate of the anthropometric measurements of the working population is particularly important in "human-centered design" and can support the design of "adaptable" workstations. Furthermore, it can correctly address the design of protective or auxiliary wearable devices such as the exoskeletons.

This study examined an existing industrial workstation at an automobile assembly plant using computer aided ergonomics and digital human models. The purpose of this evaluation was the development of a methodology useful for evaluating workstations to identify potential design issues that could result in musculoskeletal injury in a real work environment. An ergonomic risk assessment was conducted on a lifting task while being performed both manually and using an assist device. JACK digital human modeling and ergonomics software were used to conduct a computer-based ergonomic analysis. Four analysis tools in JACK (static strength analysis, rapid upper limb assessment, metabolic energy expenditure analysis and NIOSH lift analysis) were used to evaluate the potential injury risk of the current method of task performance and there is any difference between using and not using the assist device. Muscle activity was measured by electromyography (EMG) to identify physiological indicators of fatigue. Also, Borg¡¯s Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale was administered to obtain psychophysical data. Results of this study revealed that there were relative stresses on the trunk and arm areas when the task was performed manually. The results also suggest although using the assist device decreased injury risk potentially, use of the assist device had an adverse impact on the productivity of the assembly line. Based on the findings of this study, the methodology used appears to be an appropriate ergonomic analysis tool for assessing and predicting potential risks associated with the design of industrial workstations. Furthermore this methodology can be extended to designing and redesigning industrial workstations.

Future manufacturing will be characterized by the complementarity between humans and automation (human-robot collaboration). This requires new methods and tools for the design and operation of optimized manufacturing workplaces in terms of ergonomics, safety, efficiency, complexity management and work satisfaction. There have been some efforts in the recent years to propose a tool for determining optimal human-automation levels for load balancing. Although the topic is quite new, it shares some similarities with some of the existing research in the area of robotic assembly line balancing. Therefore, it is crucial to review the existing literature and find the most similar models and methods to facilitate the development of new optimization models and algorithms. One of the two contributions that this thesis gives to the research world in the RALBP context is a literature review that involves high quality articles from 1993 to beginning 2018. This literature review includes visual and comprehensive tables—and a label system— where previous research patterns and trends are highlighted. Visualization of data and results obtained by assembly line optimization tools is a very important topic that has rarely been studied. Data visualization would provide a: 1. better comprehension of patterns, trends and qualitative data 2. more constructive information absorption 3. better visualization of relationships and patterns between operations, and 4. better contribution to data manipulation and interaction. The second contribution to research found in this thesis is the use of a human modelling (DHM) tool (called IPS), which is proposed as an assessment to the ergonomic risk that a robotic assembly line may involve. This kind of studies are necessary in order to reduce one of the most frequent reasons of work absence in our today society i.e. musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). MSDs are often the result of poor work environments and they lead to reduced productivity and quality losses at companies. In view of the above, IPS was used in order to resolve the load handling problem between human and robot, depending on their skills and availability, while fulfilling essential ISO standards i.e. 15066 and 10218:1 and :2. The literature review made it possible to select highly useful documents in developing assumptions for the experiment and contributed to consider real features detected in the industry. Results show that even though IPS is not capable of calculating an entire robotic assembly with human-robot collaboration, it is able to simulate a workstation constituted of one robot and one human. Finite and assembly motions for both human and robot are expected to be implemented in future versions of the software. Finally, the main advantages of using DHM tools in assessing ergonomic risks in RALB can be extracted from the results of this thesis. This advantages include 1. ergonomic evaluation for assembly motions 2. ergonomic evaluation for a full working day (available in future version) and 3. essential ISO standard testing (available in future version).

Background: Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMSD) are a disadvantage for companies both from the health and economics view. To reduce them, workstation ergonomics need to be accounted for. Previous ergonomics assessments involved spreadsheets filled and analysed by ergonomists and were regarded as time and resource-consuming, but recent improvements in virtual reality (VR), motion capture (MoCap) and digital human modeling (DHM) tools have open new options for analyses. Workstation redesign is one of the most common ways to improve working conditions, but a proper strategy that allows recording a sequence of actions using VR and assesses ergonomics is needed. Limitations: The strategy was designed for Simumatik, software for virtual commissioning of workstations that wanted to also consolidate itself as a DHM tool. Simumatik and HTC Vive were used as MoCap system and Ergonomics in production platform (EPP) as the assessment tool. Method: Literature review – prestudies and definition of use cases to test strategy and implement in it - requirements and wishes – strategy development – validation of use cases – evaluation. Results: Compared to manual simulations performed manually in IPS IMMA where the user performs same tasks, the strategy output accuracy of 73.3%. However, there are some misinterpretations to fix within the performance of the strategy that would fairly raise it and make the study more realistic, concerning the use cases studied. These mistakes include the posture prediction of the neck and some minor issues with the performance of the use cases. The number of resources vs. development was also studied and it showed that fixing the minor mistakes would raise accuracy close to 80% in the use cases. Adding a chest tracker could make it close to 100% compared to manual simulations in IPS IMMA. Conclusions: The strategy steps were tested and concluded that worked fine, because of the accuracy reached. However, further development of all the parts concerning the strategy is needed. The aim reached was to achieve rough results that could democratize physical ergonomics assessments.

Orientadores: Romis Ribeiro de Faissol Attux, Jayme Garcia Arnal Barbedo
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Elétrica e de Computação
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Resumo: Esta tese descreve investigações sobre a aplicação de modelos computacionais para o ritmo na interatividade homem-computador. São propostos um modelo para transcrição musical semi-automática, um modelo para transcrição automática e duas interfaces para expressão musical, todos baseados em conceitos ligados a ritmo. Este estudo, inédito, evidencia a importância do uso de conhecimentos especialistas em sistemas de recuperação de informações musicais, uma vez que são possibilitados não somente sistemas mais eficazes como também novas maneiras de interagir musicalmente com o computador
Abstract: This thesis describes investigations towards the use of computational models for rhythm in the context of human-machine interactions. I propose a model for semiautomatic musical transcription, a model for automatic musical transcription and two interfaces for musical expression, all of them based in concepts related to rhythm. This novel study highlights the importance of using domain-specic knowledge in music information retrieval systems, as it allows not only more accurate systems to be built, but also the development of new ways of musically interacting with computers
Doutorado
Engenharia de Computação
Doutor em Engenharia Elétrica

Digitale Menschmodelle gelten als gut geeignete Werkzeuge zur Planung und Bewertung manueller Arbeit, insbesondere zur präventiven Ergonomieabsicherung. Bislang ist jedoch der Funktionsumfang der Softwaretools unzureichend und der Bedienaufwand zu hoch. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird daher die Entwicklung einer Methode zur Aufbereitung digital erfasster menschlicher Bewegungen für die Bewegungsgenerierung und semiautomatische Ergonomiebewertung beschrieben. Nach einer Diskussion des gegenwärtigen Wissensstandes folgt die Darstellung zweier empirischer Untersuchungen zur Bewegungserfassung und -auswertung. Anschließend wird die Implementierung eines mehrere Belastungsfaktoren umfassenden Kombinationsverfahrens zur Ergonomiebewertung erläutert. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse zur Bewegungsgenerierung und Ergonomiebewertung fließen in die Entwicklung einer Software zur Planung und Bewertung manueller Arbeit, den Editor menschlicher Arbeit (ema), ein. Schließlich erfolgt eine Evaluation anhand realer Planungsszenarien
Digital Human Models are said to be appropriate tools for planning and assessing human work; especially for preventive ergonomics risk assessment. Up to now, the functional range of established software tools is not sufficient and the operation is too complex and time consuming. Thus, in the present doctoral thesis, the development of a method for the preparation of digitally captured human motions for an algorithmic motion generation and automatic ergonomic risk assessment is described. On the summarization of the relevant current level of knowledge follows the description of two empirical studies for motion capturing and analysis. Afterwards the implementation of a method of the ergonomics risk assessment that combines several biomechanical risk factors is explained. The results of the preliminary studies flow into the development of a new software tool for planning and assessing human work – the editor for manual work activities (ema). Finally, the practical evaluation with the help of real planning scenarios is presented

In questo lavoro sono state affrontate alcune questioni inserite nel tema più generale della rappresentazione di scene e ambienti virtuali in contesti d’interazione uomo-macchina, nei quali la modalità acustica costituisca parte integrante o prevalente dell’informazione complessiva trasmessa dalla macchina all’utilizzatore attraverso un’interfaccia personale multimodale oppure monomodale acustica. Più precisamente è stato preso in esame il problema di come presentare il messaggio audio, in modo tale che lo stesso messaggio fornisca all’utilizzatore un’informazione quanto più precisa e utilizzabile relativamente al contesto rappresentato. Il fine di tutto ciò è riuscire a integrare all’interno di uno scenario virtuale almeno parte dell’informazione acustica che lo stesso utilizzatore, in un contesto stavolta reale, normalmente utilizza per trarre esperienza dal mondo circostante nel suo complesso. Ciò è importante soprattutto quando il focus dell’attenzione, che tipicamente impegna il canale visivo quasi completamente, è volto a un compito specifico.
This work deals with the simulation of virtual acoustic spaces using physics-based models. The acoustic space is what we perceive about space using our auditory system. The physical nature of the models means that they will present spatial attributes (such as, for example, shape and size) as a salient feature of their structure, in a way that space will be directly represented and manipulated by means of them.

People engage with multiple online services and carry out a range of different digital transactions with these services. Registering an account, sharing content in social networks, or requesting products or services online are a few examples of such digital transactions. With every transaction, people take decisions and make disclosures of personal data. Despite the possible benefits of collecting data about a person or a group of people, massive collection and aggregation of personal data carries a series of privacy and security implications which can ultimately result in a threat to people's dignity, their finances, and many other aspects of their lives. For this reason, privacy and transparency enhancing technologies are being developed to help people protect their privacy and personal data online. However, some of these technologies are usually hard to understand, difficult to use, and get in the way of people's momentary goals. The objective of this thesis is to explore, and iteratively improve, the usability and user experience provided by novel privacy and transparency technologies. To this end, it compiles a series of case studies that address identified issues of usable privacy and transparency at four stages of a digital transaction, namely the information, agreement, fulfilment and after-sales stages. These studies contribute with a better understanding of the human-factors and design requirements that are necessary for creating user-friendly tools that can help people to protect their privacy and to control their personal information on the Internet.
People engage with multiple online services and carry out a range of different digital transactions with these services. Registering an account, sharing content in social networks, or requesting products or services online are a few examples of such digital transactions. With every transaction, people take decisions and make disclosures of personal data. Despite the possible benefits of collecting data about a person or a group of people, massive collection and aggregation of personal data carries a series of privacy and security implications which can ultimately result in a threat to people's dignity, their finances, and many other aspects of their lives. For this reason, privacy and transparency enhancing technologies are being developed to help people protect their privacy and personal data online. However, some of these technologies are usually hard to understand, difficult to use, and get in the way of people's momentary goals. The objective of this thesis is to explore, and iteratively improve, the usability and user experience provided by novel privacy and transparency technologies. To this end, it compiles a series of case studies that address identified issues of usable privacy and transparency at four stages of a digital transaction, namely the information, agreement, fulfilment and after-sales stages. These studies contribute with a better understanding of the human-factors and design requirements that are necessary for creating user-friendly tools that can help people to protect their privacy and to control their personal information on the Internet.

Die Werkzeuge und Methoden der Digitalen Fabrik sind bereits seit vielen Jahren in den einzelnen Phasen des Produktentstehungsprozess im Einsatz. Sie werden dabei u.a. auch zur Planung und Gestaltung menschlicher Arbeit eingesetzt. Mit Hilfe digitaler Menschmodelle können Aspekte des Arbeitsablaufs, der Zeitwirtschaft und der Arbeitsplatzgestaltung bereits frühzeitig untersucht und verbessert werden. Die Entwicklung effizienter Simulationssysteme steht auf diesem Gebiet jedoch insbesondere im Vergleich mit anderen Bereichen, wie beispielsweise der Robotersimulation, noch am Anfang. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich zunächst mit der Analyse bereits existierender Menschmodell-Simulationssysteme. Aus den identifizierten Schwachstellen dieser Systeme und weiteren durch Experteninterviews sowie Literaturrecherche gewonnenen Erkenntnissen wird eine Anforderungsliste erstellt, die als Grundlage für die Konzeption und Umsetzung eines innovativen Ansatzes zur Ansteuerung und Bewegungsgenerierung für digitale Menschmodelle dient. Diese neuartige Methodik wird schließlich in ein Simulations-Softwaresystem implementiert und anschließend im Praxis-Einsatz evaluiert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass das neue System die Mängel der vorhandenen Systeme behebt und somit als Werkzeug zur effizienten Planung, Gestaltung und Bewertung menschlicher Arbeit geeignet ist
For many years the tools and methods of the Digital Factory are used in various stages of the product development process. They are also used for the planning and design of human work, which is typically done using a digital human model. Aspects of the workflow, time management and workplace design can be investigated and improved upon in the early stages of the product development process using digital human models. But in this field the development of efficient simulation systems is not matured enough compared to other fields for e.g. robot simulation. This paper starts with an analysis of existing simulation systems for digital human models. Afterwards a requirements list is created from the identified weaknesses of these systems, knowledge gained through expert interviews and literature reviews. These requirements serve as the base for the design and implementation of an innovative approach for motion generation and control of digital human models. This new methodology is then implemented as a simulation software system and evaluated in practical applications. The developed system fixed the shortcomings of existing systems and thus it is a suitable tool for efficient planning, design and evaluation of human labor

The amount of personal identifiable information that people distribute over different online services has grown rapidly and considerably over the last decades. This has led to increased probabilities for identity theft, profiling and linkability attacks, which can in turn not only result in a threat to people’s personal dignity, finances, and many other aspects of their lives, but also to societies in general. Methods and tools for securing people’s online activities and protecting their privacy on the Internet, so called Privacy Enhancing Technologies (PETs), are being designed and developed. However, these technologies are often seen by ordinary users as complicated and disruptive of their primary tasks.   In this licentiate thesis, I investigate the usability aspects of three main privacy and security enhancing mechanisms. These mechanisms have the goal of helping and encouraging users to protect their privacy on the Internet as they engage in some of the steps necessary to complete a digital transaction. The three mechanisms, which have been investigated within the scope of different research projects, comprise of (1) graphical visualizations of service providers’ privacy policies and user-friendly management and matching of users’ privacy preferences “on the fly”, (2) methods for helping users create appropriate mental models of the data minimization property of anonymous credentials, and (3) employing touch-screen biometrics as a method to authenticate users into mobile devices and verify their identities during a digital transaction.   Results from these investigations suggest that these mechanisms can make digital transactions privacy-friendly and secure while at the same time delivering convenience and usability for ordinary users.

Storytelling is one of the oldest models of cultural expression in human history. Thanks to the evolution of information technologies, the Web 2.0 paradigm has impacted in this field: some modern audiences actively participate in their favorite narrative worlds. We define Shared Narrative spaces as informative spaces concerning narratives created, developed and maintained through the collaboration of multiple authors. Our research aims to understand the perception of SNS using a HCI (human-computer interaction) lens, and to define the determinant factors affecting users’ interaction (exploration, comprehension and contribution) with them. We approach the issues of multiple authoring as an opportunity for collaboration through a storyline paradigm grounded on classic narratology, and use it to examine the users’ perception and exploration of SNS. We propose an analysis framework that suits the comparative analysis of narrative systems of very diverse nature, which allows us to study the interplay of fundamental HCI aspects. Finally, we lay out the bases of a general model to approach the design of a wide range of collaborative narrative systems.

Zur ergonomischen Analyse manueller Arbeitsprozesse wird an der Professur Arbeitswissenschaft ein Modell für dynamische Beanspruchungen entwickelt. Dazu wurden diese analytisch zerlegt und parametrisiert. In einem Laborversuchsstand werden elementare dynamische Beanspruchungen einzelner Körperteile systematisch mittels elektromyografischer Messung der beteiligten Muskeln untersucht und anschließend analysiert. Es konnten Zusammenhänge zwischen den Belastungsgrößen Bewegungsgeschwindigkeit, Bewegungswiderstand (Moment) und Bewegungsrichtung und der Beanspruchungsgröße der elektrischen Muskelaktivität gezeigt werden.

Algumas vezes o processo de identificação humana se depara com situações em que pouco restou do corpo humano para ser investigado, nestes casos todos os métodos identificatórios disponíveis devem ser empregados. Neste sentido, a presente pesquisa foi desenvolvida com o objetio de obter dados que facilitem o entendimento do estudo realizado por Carrea9 sobre estatura, assim como verificar a possibilidade de estimar a estatura final usando os cálculos matemáticos desenvolvidos por Carrea utilizando duas metodologias distintas. Foi realizada a mensuração da estatura em 46 brasileiros naturais da cidade de Curitiba - PR, com idade entre 22 e 37 anos divididos em três grupos: Grupo 1 formado por 24 indivíduos sem tratamento ortodôntico com os seis dentes anteriores da mandíbula em posição normal, Grupo 2A composto de 22 indivíduos com apinhamento dos dentes anteriores da mandíbula antes do tratamento ortodôntico e Grupo 2B constituído pelos mesmos 22 indivíduos do Grupo 2A, porém após o tratamento ortodôntico finalizado, e com os dentes anteriores inferiores em posição normal. A primeira metodologia avaliada, a qual foi denominada de índice de Carrea (1), utilizou as fórmulas matemáticas desenvolvidas por Carrea medindo as grandezas raio-corda e arco diretamente nos modelos ortodônticos digitalizados, já na segunda metodologia, índice de Carrea (2), foi medida a grandeza arco no modelo ortodôntico digitalizado, porém a grandeza raio-corda, foi obtida dividindo a grandeza arco por uma constante (1,0472), observada na tabela de proporção progressiva descrita por Carrea9. O índice de Carrea (2) foi aplicado em todos os indivíduos da amostra sem separá-los em grupos, uma vez que a medida raio-corda foi calculada a partir da medida arco, portanto, não importando mais a disposição dos dentes anteriores na arcada inferior. A análise descritiva da percentagem de indivíduos com altura real dentro do intervalo médio de estatura estimada aplicando-se o índice de Carrea (1), 7 apresentou se da seguinte forma: Grupo 1 - 41,7%, Grupo 2A - 72,3% e Grupo 2B - 54,5%. O estudo do tamanho do intervalo de estatura estimada mostrou o seguinte resultado: 18,9 cm para o Grupo 1, 30,6 cm para o Grupo 2A e 15,4 cm para o grupo 2B. Quando utilizado o índice de Carrea (2), verificou-se que 15,2% dos indivíduos da amostra apresentaram sua altura real dentro do intervalo de estatura estimado, 8 cm. Concluiu-se que o índice de Carrea (1) e o índice de Carrea (2), não tem aplicabilidade como método para estimar a estatura final. Não se constatou, pelo menos de maneira explícita, que o objetivo dos estudos realizados por Carrea 8,9 era o de estimar a estatura. Porém, observou-se que o mesmo teve a intenção de calcular a estatura proporcional à somatória das dimensões mésio-distais dos dentes incisivo central inferior, incisivo lateral inferior e canino inferior ipsilateral.
Sometimes the process of human identification faces situations that little of the human body remains to be investigated, in these cases all identificatory methods available must be employed. The aim of this study was to obtain data to facilitate the understanding of the Carrea`s study 9 about stature as well as check the possibility of estimating final stature using the mathematical calculations developed by Carrea using two different methodologies. Stature measurement was perfomed in 46 Brazilian from Curitiba - PR aged between 22 and 37 years and divided into three groups: Group 1 consisted of 24 subjects without orthodontic treatment and with the six mandibular anterior teeth aligned, Group 2A consists of 22 subjects with crowding of the mandibular anterior teeth before orthodontic treatment and Group 2B comprised the same 22 subjects of the Group 2A, but after orthodontic treatment and with the mandibular anterior teeth aligned. The first methodology evaluated, which was called index of Carrea (1) used the mathematical formulas developed by this author in which the radius-chord and arch measurements were obtained directly from the digitalized orthodontic models. In the second method, index of Carrea (2), the arch was measured on the digitalized orthodontic models, but the radius-chord was obtained dividing the arch measurement by a numeric constant (1.0472) observed in the table of progressive proportion described by Carrea 9. Carrea index (2) was applied in all subjects of the sample without separating them in groups, since the radius-chord was calculated from the measured arch regardless of the disposition of the lowe anterior teeth. The descriptive analysis of the percentage of subjects with real stature within the range of statures estimated applying the index Carrea (1) performed as follows: Group 1 - 41.7%, Group 2A - 72.3% and Group 2B - 54.5%. The study of the size range of the statures estimated presented the following result: 18.9 cm for the Group 1, 30.6 cm for the Group 2A and 15.4 cm for the Group 2B. Using the index Carrea (2) it was found that 15.2% of the sample had their real 9 stature within the range of the statures estimated and the size of this range was 8 cm. It was concluded that the indexes of Carrea (1) and (2) have no applicability as a method to estimate the final stature. Its not confirmed at least explicitly in the studies of Carrea that was his aim to estimate the stature. It was observed that Carrea intended to calculate the final human stature proportional to the sum of mesio-distal dimensions of lower central incisor, lower lateral incisor and lower canine ipsilateral.

Le tatouage d’images (ou watermarking) consiste à insérer de l’information de copyright, ou d’autres messages de vérification, invisible à l’oeil humain. Parmi toutes les approches possibles, le tatouage psychovisuel est le plus performant. Il consiste à utiliser les connaissances du Système Visuel Humain (SVH) pour en déduire la force du tatouage de manière optimale. Dans cette étude, nous avons proposé une nouvelle méthode de tatouage d'image psychovisuel qui combine les avantages des ondelettes à celle du domaine spatial par l’utilisation d'une représentation en ondelettes à échelle mixée (JNDEM). En considérant la densité des coefficients d'ondelettes dominants, notre système est capable de différencier les zones uniformes, celles incluant des contours, et enfin celles texturées. Nous avons sélectionné les méthodes efficaces de tatouage psychovisuel adaptée à chaque zone, à savoir celle de Chou pour les zones uniformes, de nouveau celle de Chou pour les contours, et finalement celle de Qi pour les textures. Nous avons aussi pris en compte la sensibilité du SVH qui varie avec l’orientation locale de l’image. Nous avons comparé notre JNDEM à quatre autres méthodes de tatouage de la littérature en termes de qualité visuelle et de robustesse. La méthode JNDEM conduit à une grande qualité visuelle mesurée par des tests objectifs et subjectifs. De plus elle est robuste aux attaques. Ce dernier point est d'une grande importance pour les applications réelles. En conclusion, la méthode proposée est le meilleur compromis entre la qualité visuelle et la résistance aux attaques comparée aux quatre autres méthodes testées
Watermarking consists in inserting copyright information, or other verification messages, invisible to the human eye. Among all the possible approaches, perceptual watermarking is the most efficient. Perceptual image watermarking consists in using knowledge of the Human Visual System (HVS) to choose the strength of the watermark. In this study, we propose a new perceptual image watermarking method (JNDEM ) that combines the advantages of both the wavelet domain and the spatial domain since a mixed-scale wavelet representation is applied. By considering the density of the dominant wavelet coefficients, our scheme is able to differentiate uniform, edge and texture areas. We selected effective Just Noticeable Difference (JND) models from the literature, i.e. luminance and edge masking developed by Chou, and texture masking developed by Qi. We also took into account the HVS sensitivity which varies with the orientation of the image activity. We have compared our JNDEM to four other JND models from the literature in terms of visual quality and of robustness to attacks. Results show that the proposed method yields a high visual quality and is very robust against attacks. This last point is of great importance for real applications. In conclusion, the proposed method is the best trade-off between visual quality and resistance to attacks among the four other tested methods

Die Werkzeuge und Methoden der Digitalen Fabrik sind bereits seit vielen Jahren in den einzelnen Phasen des Produktentstehungsprozess im Einsatz. Sie werden dabei u.a. auch zur Planung und Gestaltung menschlicher Arbeit eingesetzt. Mit Hilfe digitaler Menschmodelle können Aspekte des Arbeitsablaufs, der Zeitwirtschaft und der Arbeitsplatzgestaltung bereits frühzeitig untersucht und verbessert werden. Die Entwicklung effizienter Simulationssysteme steht auf diesem Gebiet jedoch insbesondere im Vergleich mit anderen Bereichen, wie beispielsweise der Robotersimulation, noch am Anfang. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich zunächst mit der Analyse bereits existierender Menschmodell-Simulationssysteme. Aus den identifizierten Schwachstellen dieser Systeme und weiteren durch Experteninterviews sowie Literaturrecherche gewonnenen Erkenntnissen wird eine Anforderungsliste erstellt, die als Grundlage für die Konzeption und Umsetzung eines innovativen Ansatzes zur Ansteuerung und Bewegungsgenerierung für digitale Menschmodelle dient. Diese neuartige Methodik wird schließlich in ein Simulations-Softwaresystem implementiert und anschließend im Praxis-Einsatz evaluiert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass das neue System die Mängel der vorhandenen Systeme behebt und somit als Werkzeug zur effizienten Planung, Gestaltung und Bewertung menschlicher Arbeit geeignet ist.
For many years the tools and methods of the Digital Factory are used in various stages of the product development process. They are also used for the planning and design of human work, which is typically done using a digital human model. Aspects of the workflow, time management and workplace design can be investigated and improved upon in the early stages of the product development process using digital human models. But in this field the development of efficient simulation systems is not matured enough compared to other fields for e.g. robot simulation. This paper starts with an analysis of existing simulation systems for digital human models. Afterwards a requirements list is created from the identified weaknesses of these systems, knowledge gained through expert interviews and literature reviews. These requirements serve as the base for the design and implementation of an innovative approach for motion generation and control of digital human models. This new methodology is then implemented as a simulation software system and evaluated in practical applications. The developed system fixed the shortcomings of existing systems and thus it is a suitable tool for efficient planning, design and evaluation of human labor.

Les modèles humains numériques sont devenus des outils indispensables à l’étude de la posture est du mouvement dans de nombreux domaines de la biomécanique visant des applications en ergonomie ou pour la clinique. Ces modèles intègrent une représentation géométrique de la surface du corps et un squelette filaire interne composé de segments rigides et d’articulations assurant leur mise en mouvement. La personnalisation des mannequins s'effectue d’abord sur les dimensions anthropométriques externes, servant ensuite de données d’entrée à l’ajustement des longueurs des segments du squelette en interne. Si les données externes sont de plus en plus facilement mesurables à l’aide des outils de scanning 3D actuels, l’enjeu scientifique est de pouvoir prédire des points caractéristiques du squelette en interne à partir de données uniquement externes. L’Institut de Biomécanique Humaine Georges Charpak (Arts et Métiers ParisTech) a développé des méthodes de reconstruction des os et de l’enveloppe externe à partir de radiographies biplanes obtenues avec le système basse dose EOS. En s’appuyant sur cette technologie, ces travaux ont permis de proposer de nouvelles relations statistiques externes-internes pour prédire des points du squelette longitudinal, en particulier l’ensemble des centres articulaires du rachis, à partir d’une base de données de 80 sujets. L'application de ce travail pourrait permettre d’améliorer le réalisme des modèles numériques actuels en vue de mener des analyses biomécaniques, principalement en ergonomie, nécessitant des informations dépendant de la position des articulations comme les mesures d’amplitude de mouvement et de charges articulaires
Digital human models have become instrumental tools in the analysis of posture and motion in many areas of biomechanics, including ergonomics and clinical settings. These models include a geometric representation of the body surface and an internal linkage composed of rigid segments and joints allowing simulation of human movement. The customization of human models first starts with the adjustment of external anthropometric dimensions, which are then used as input data to the adjustment of internal skeletal segments lengths. While the external data points are more readily measurable using current 3D scanning tools, the scientific challenge is to predict the characteristic points of the internal skeleton from external data only. The Institut de Biomécanique Humaine Georges Charpak (Arts et Métiers ParisTech) has developed 3D reconstruction methods of bone and external envelope from biplanar radiographs obtained from the EOS system (EOS Imaging, Paris), a low radiation dose technology. Using this technology, this work allowed proposing new external-internal statistical relationships to predict points of the longitudinal skeleton, particularly the complete set of spine joint centers, from a database of 80 subjects. The implementation of this work could improve the realism of current digital human models used for biomechanical analysis requiring information of joint center location, such as the estimation of range of motion and joint loading

Arbeitswissenschaftliche digitale Menschmodelle werden als Werkzeuge virtueller Ergonomie zur Gestaltung menschengerechter Produkte und Arbeitsplätze genutzt. Der bislang nur qualitativ beschriebene Praxiseinsatz wird durch theoretische Analysen und eine empirische Studie systematisiert und darauf aufbauend werden die Schwachstellen der Systeme erörtert. Ein wesentlicher Ansatzpunkt für Weiterentwicklungen ist die Erarbeitung ergonomischer Bewertungsverfahren bzw. -modelle, insbesondere für Belastungen aufgrund von Bewegungen. Digitale Menschmodelle bieten das Potenzial, aus simulierten Bewegungsdaten und den damit zusammenhängenden Belastungen eine Bewertung der Arbeitsvorgänge zu generieren. In dieser Arbeit wird daher ein neues arbeitswissenschaftliches Bewertungsmodell für muskuläre Beanspruchungen erforscht, d.h. methodisch hergeleitet und evaluiert. Dazu ist ein Versuchsstand zur Standardisierung und Belastungserzeugung notwendig. In der darauffolgenden Laborstudie werden die Belastungsparameter statischer Momentanteil, Winkelgeschwindigkeit und Momentrichtung variiert und die daraus entstehende Veränderung der muskulären Beanspruchung von Probanden erforscht. Ein dafür benötigtes, neues Verfahren zur Normalisierung wird vorgestellt. Die Laborstudie zeigt, dass der statische Momentanteil linear steigend mit der Arbeitsbeanspruchung zusammenhängt. Die durchschnittliche Winkelgeschwindigkeit beeinflusst die Arbeitsbeanspruchung je nach Muskeltyp entweder linear steigend oder ohne Zusammenhang
Digital human models for human factors are used as tools for virtual ergonomics and the design of products and workplaces. In this work the use of the systems is analysed with theoretical models and an empirical study. Therefore, disadvantages of the systems are identified. A main idea for further developments is the research on ergonomic approaches and models, especially for movements and the strain caused by movements. Digital human models are capable to assess work processes based on data from simulations. In this work a new human factors orientated rating model for muscular strains is developed and evaluated. A test stand generates and standardizes the stress. In a laboratory survey the stress parameters are analysed. The variation of the static torque part, the angular velocity and the torque direction cause changes in the muscular strains. Hence, these muscular strains are measured electromyographically. A new normalisation method, the normalized standard movement, is introduced. The survey shows the existence of a correlation of static torque part and work strain. Depending on the muscle type, the angular velocity either affects the work strain linear increasing or does not affect it

Arbeitswissenschaftliche digitale Menschmodelle werden als Werkzeuge virtueller Ergonomie zur Gestaltung menschengerechter Produkte und Arbeitsplätze genutzt. Der bislang nur qualitativ beschriebene Praxiseinsatz wird durch theoretische Analysen und eine empirische Studie systematisiert und darauf aufbauend werden die Schwachstellen der Systeme erörtert. Ein wesentlicher Ansatzpunkt für Weiterentwicklungen ist die Erarbeitung ergonomischer Bewertungsverfahren bzw. -modelle, insbesondere für Belastungen aufgrund von Bewegungen. Digitale Menschmodelle bieten das Potenzial, aus simulierten Bewegungsdaten und den damit zusammenhängenden Belastungen eine Bewertung der Arbeitsvorgänge zu generieren. In dieser Arbeit wird daher ein neues arbeitswissenschaftliches Bewertungsmodell für muskuläre Beanspruchungen erforscht, d.h. methodisch hergeleitet und evaluiert. Dazu ist ein Versuchsstand zur Standardisierung und Belastungserzeugung notwendig. In der darauffolgenden Laborstudie werden die Belastungsparameter statischer Momentanteil, Winkelgeschwindigkeit und Momentrichtung variiert und die daraus entstehende Veränderung der muskulären Beanspruchung von Probanden erforscht. Ein dafür benötigtes, neues Verfahren zur Normalisierung wird vorgestellt. Die Laborstudie zeigt, dass der statische Momentanteil linear steigend mit der Arbeitsbeanspruchung zusammenhängt. Die durchschnittliche Winkelgeschwindigkeit beeinflusst die Arbeitsbeanspruchung je nach Muskeltyp entweder linear steigend oder ohne Zusammenhang.
Digital human models for human factors are used as tools for virtual ergonomics and the design of products and workplaces. In this work the use of the systems is analysed with theoretical models and an empirical study. Therefore, disadvantages of the systems are identified. A main idea for further developments is the research on ergonomic approaches and models, especially for movements and the strain caused by movements. Digital human models are capable to assess work processes based on data from simulations. In this work a new human factors orientated rating model for muscular strains is developed and evaluated. A test stand generates and standardizes the stress. In a laboratory survey the stress parameters are analysed. The variation of the static torque part, the angular velocity and the torque direction cause changes in the muscular strains. Hence, these muscular strains are measured electromyographically. A new normalisation method, the normalized standard movement, is introduced. The survey shows the existence of a correlation of static torque part and work strain. Depending on the muscle type, the angular velocity either affects the work strain linear increasing or does not affect it.

Als Werkzeuge der virtuellen Ergonomie dienen arbeitswissenschaftliche digitale Menschmodelle zur ergonomischen Gestaltung von Produkten und Arbeitsplätzen. Hohen Weiterentwicklungsbedarf bestimmen ihre Anwender vor allem für die integrierten Kraftanalysen. Eine Möglichkeit zur gelenkwinkel- und kraftrichtungsabhängigen Berechnung statischer Aktionskräfte ohne komplexe Muskelmodellierung basiert auf Muskelmomenten, welche in Maximalmomentkörpern modelliert werden. Die Arbeit schildert und diskutiert detailliert die Berechnung solcher Maximalmomentkörper am rechten Oberarm. Zwei separate Studien ermöglichen die Erstellung und Evaluierung. Im Rahmen der ersten Studie werden maximale Muskelmomente der Hauptbewegungen von Ellenbogen und Schulter in Abhängigkeit der Gelenkwinkelstellungen erfasst und in Polynomen interpoliert. Durch diese gelenkwinkelabhängigen Momente können die Maximalmomentkörper modelliert werden. Im Rahmen der zweiten Studie werden wirkenden Muskelmomente mit den prognostizierten verglichen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Maximalmomentkörper die wirkenden Muskelmomente bei maximalen Kraftaufbringungen im Mittel auf etwa 2 % genau vorhersagen, wobei einen Streubereich von etwa 50 % zu beachten ist. Der Streubereich ist dabei durch eine kritische Diskussion erklärbar und unter anderem den psychophysischen Verfahren einer Maximalkraftmessung zurechenbar.
Digital human models as tools of virtual ergonomics serve for the design of products and workplaces. High demands for further development determine their users, for the integrated force analyzes. One way to calculate joint-angle- and force-direction-dependent static forces without complex muscle modeling is based on muscle torques, which are modeled in maximum torque bodies known as “M-Potatos”. This work describes and discusses the calculation of such maximum torque bodies for the right upper arm. Two separate studies allow the preparation and evaluation. The first study explore the maximum muscle torques within the main movement directions of the elbow and shoulder and interpolate them as polynomials of the joint angle position. With these polynomials, the maximum torque bodies can be modeled. The second study compared effective muscle torques with those predicted. The results show that the maximum torque bodies predict the effective muscle moments at maximum isometric force application on average at about 2%, with a range of about 50% to be considered. The range can be explained by a critical discussion and, among other things, attributable to the psychophysical method of a maximum force measurement.

Conventional ergonomics analysis involves building physical mockups and conducting simulated operations, such that the constraints experienced by the human subjects can be directly observed. The limitations of this approach are that, they are resource intensive, less flexible for testing design variability and difficult to involve large number of subjects to account for population variability and thus, it is a reactive approach. With the advent of computer aided techniques, efforts are on to support ergonomics analysis processes for proactive design approaches. To achieve this, real scenarios are being simulated in virtual environments which include induction of representative human subjects into such envi-ronments and are termed as Digital Human Models (DHMs). The main challenge in the simulation of humans is to obtain the naturalness that is perceived in human interaction with the environment. This naturalness can be achieved by synergetically modeling the physical performance and cognitive aspects of humans in such a way that one aspect caters the requirements posed from the other. But in current DHMs, the various elements in the physical performance aspect are not in line with the requirements of higher level behav¬ioral/cogntive aspects. Towards meeting this objective, the influence of physical performance aspects of humans on achieving naturalness when DHM interacts with the virtual environment has been studied. In this work, the task of ’reach’ has been chosen for studying the influence of kinematic structure, posture modeling and stability aspects on achieving naturalness for both discrete and statistical humans. Also, a framework has been developed to give instructions based on relations between the segments of the body and objects in the environment. Kinematic structure is modeled to simulate the humans with varied dimensions taking care of the change of link fixations necessary for various tasks. The conventional techniques used to define kinematic structures have limitations in resolving the issues that arise due to change in link fixations. In this work a new scheme is developed to effectively handle precedence relationship sand change of configuration of the existing posture whenever link fixations change. The advantage with this new approach is that complex maneuvers which involve different link fixations and multiple fixations at a time can be managed automati¬cally without the user’s intervention. Posture prediction involves estimation of the whole body posture which a human operator is likely to assume while performing a task. It involves finding a configuration satisfy¬ing the constraints like placing the body-segments in preferred locations of the task space and satisfying the relations specified between body segments. There are two main chal¬lenges in this regard; one is achieving naturalness in the predicted postures and the other is minimizing the mathematical complexity involved in finding the real time solutions. A human-specific posture prediction framework is developed which can handle a variety of constraints and realize the natural behavior. The approach is completely geometry based and unlike numerical methods, the solutions involve no matrix inversions. Digital human models (DHMs), both as avatars and agents, need to be controlled to make them manipulate the objects in the virtual world. A relations based description scheme is developed to instruct the DHM to perform the tasks. The descriptions as a set of relations and postures involve simple triplets and quadruplets. As the descriptions constitute only the relations between actors, incorporating different behavior models while executing the relations is feasible through this framework. Static balancing is one of the crucial factors influencing the posture of humans. The stim¬ulus for the static balancing is the body’s self weight and is governed by the location of its point of application, namely the center of mass (COM). The main focus is on determin¬ing suitable locations for COM to infer about the mobility of the segments which supports the human structure in slow motion scenarios. Various geometric conditions necessary for support retaining, altering are deduced and developed strategies for posture transitions for effective task performance while maintaining stability. These conditions are useful in de¬termining the posture transition required to shift the COM from one region to the other and thus the behaviors realized while accomplishing the tasks are realistic. These behaviors are simulated through statically stable walking and sit to stand posture transition. One of the advantages of employing DHMs in virtual simulations is the feasibility of creat¬ing human models with varied dimensions. A comparative study is conducted on different methods based on probabilistic and statistic theory as an alternative to the percentile based approach with a view to answer the questions like ’what percentage of people can success-fully accomplish a certain task’ and ’how well can people perform when they reach a point in the operational space’. The case study is done assuming upper and lower arms of hu¬mans as a two link planar manipulator and their link lengths as random variables. Making use of statistical DHMs, the concept of task dependent boundary manikins is introduced to geometrically characterize the extreme individuals in the given population who would ac-complish the task. Simulations with these manikins would help designers to visualize how differently the extreme individuals would perform the task. All these different aspects of DHM discussed are incorporated in our native DHM developed named ’MAYAMANAV’. Finally this thesis will end with conclusions and future work discussing how these different aspects of DHM discussed can be combined with behavioral models to simulate the human error.

Conventional ergonomics analysis involves building physical mockups and conducting simulated operations, such that the constraints experienced by the human subjects can be directly observed. The limitations of this approach are that, they are resource intensive, less flexible for testing design variability and difficult to involve large number of subjects to account for population variability and thus, it is a reactive approach. With the advent of computer aided techniques, efforts are on to support ergonomics analysis processes for proactive design approaches. To achieve this, real scenarios are being simulated in virtual environments which include induction of representative human subjects into such envi-ronments and are termed as Digital Human Models (DHMs). The main challenge in the simulation of humans is to obtain the naturalness that is perceived in human interaction with the environment. This naturalness can be achieved by synergetically modeling the physical performance and cognitive aspects of humans in such a way that one aspect caters the requirements posed from the other. But in current DHMs, the various elements in the physical performance aspect are not in line with the requirements of higher level behav¬ioral/cogntive aspects. Towards meeting this objective, the influence of physical performance aspects of humans on achieving naturalness when DHM interacts with the virtual environment has been studied. In this work, the task of ’reach’ has been chosen for studying the influence of kinematic structure, posture modeling and stability aspects on achieving naturalness for both discrete and statistical humans. Also, a framework has been developed to give instructions based on relations between the segments of the body and objects in the environment. Kinematic structure is modeled to simulate the humans with varied dimensions taking care of the change of link fixations necessary for various tasks. The conventional techniques used to define kinematic structures have limitations in resolving the issues that arise due to change in link fixations. In this work a new scheme is developed to effectively handle precedence relationship sand change of configuration of the existing posture whenever link fixations change. The advantage with this new approach is that complex maneuvers which involve different link fixations and multiple fixations at a time can be managed automati¬cally without the user’s intervention. Posture prediction involves estimation of the whole body posture which a human operator is likely to assume while performing a task. It involves finding a configuration satisfy¬ing the constraints like placing the body-segments in preferred locations of the task space and satisfying the relations specified between body segments. There are two main chal¬lenges in this regard; one is achieving naturalness in the predicted postures and the other is minimizing the mathematical complexity involved in finding the real time solutions. A human-specific posture prediction framework is developed which can handle a variety of constraints and realize the natural behavior. The approach is completely geometry based and unlike numerical methods, the solutions involve no matrix inversions. Digital human models (DHMs), both as avatars and agents, need to be controlled to make them manipulate the objects in the virtual world. A relations based description scheme is developed to instruct the DHM to perform the tasks. The descriptions as a set of relations and postures involve simple triplets and quadruplets. As the descriptions constitute only the relations between actors, incorporating different behavior models while executing the relations is feasible through this framework. Static balancing is one of the crucial factors influencing the posture of humans. The stim¬ulus for the static balancing is the body’s self weight and is governed by the location of its point of application, namely the center of mass (COM). The main focus is on determin¬ing suitable locations for COM to infer about the mobility of the segments which supports the human structure in slow motion scenarios. Various geometric conditions necessary for support retaining, altering are deduced and developed strategies for posture transitions for effective task performance while maintaining stability. These conditions are useful in de¬termining the posture transition required to shift the COM from one region to the other and thus the behaviors realized while accomplishing the tasks are realistic. These behaviors are simulated through statically stable walking and sit to stand posture transition. One of the advantages of employing DHMs in virtual simulations is the feasibility of creat¬ing human models with varied dimensions. A comparative study is conducted on different methods based on probabilistic and statistic theory as an alternative to the percentile based approach with a view to answer the questions like ’what percentage of people can success-fully accomplish a certain task’ and ’how well can people perform when they reach a point in the operational space’. The case study is done assuming upper and lower arms of hu¬mans as a two link planar manipulator and their link lengths as random variables. Making use of statistical DHMs, the concept of task dependent boundary manikins is introduced to geometrically characterize the extreme individuals in the given population who would ac-complish the task. Simulations with these manikins would help designers to visualize how differently the extreme individuals would perform the task. All these different aspects of DHM discussed are incorporated in our native DHM developed named ’MAYAMANAV’. Finally this thesis will end with conclusions and future work discussing how these different aspects of DHM discussed can be combined with behavioral models to simulate the human error.

Digital Human Models (DHM), belong to a class of human-in-the-loop simulations having primary applications in the area of virtual ergonomics, virtual prototyping, and task evaluations. These models replicate physical and mental human behaviour in a prototypical complex system. As an advantage, the potential strengths and weakness of the complete system configuration can be analysed without requiring any traditional design prototypes or system mock-ups. Recent DHMs can effectively analyse posture, seating, reach, and visibility. However, a DHM specific step-wise configuration is needed, where manual intervention is a bottleneck. It also constrains natural and human like behaviour simulation. With the advent of smart manufacturing, knowledge management, computer control, big data and artificial intelligence, DHMs can be modelled for autonomous and natural simulations. New and advanced DHM frameworks that can facilitate varied human population, work system data and perform simulations in an automated manner. To start with, DHMs must be equipped with an ability to be aware of the surrounding workspace, utilise knowledge and take human-like decisions. This work is precisely oriented towards the endowment of DHMs with such mechanisms. Following the first three phases of design research methodology, the work is di- vided into seven chapters. First, the problem understanding phase, which consists of ethnographic and human factor based field studies. The studies were performed ISRO and IISc premises. They utilise interviews, surveys and eye-trackers for understanding the role of vision on manual assembly. Second, the ideation phase, which involves developing a complex DHM framework connecting visual perception with cognition and decision-making. A functional visual perception model is first developed on the basis of human acuity and accommodation characteristics. It is capable of qualitative and quantitative analysis of workspace objects on the basis of their saliency, size and distance. Next, for representing, filtering and storing the human and visual information, a symbolic knowledge schema is developed that effectively acts as a bank of spatial information, human experience and short term memory. Further, a set of physical and mental behaviour algorithms are modelled that utilise the perception and knowledge models for the simulation of an exploratory visual search task. Third, the prototype phase, which consists of software development for the implementation of the framework. Using a prototypical system implementation, the applicability and usefulness of the framework and the underlying modules are exhibited. The reported work, therefore, has three primary contributions. First, a set of qualitative and quantitative experimental human studies that manifest the importance of vision and its behavioural influence on the manual assembly tasks. Second, an early stage functional vision model of DHM-Object perception. A method of quantifying object clarity as legibility is developed that relies on human acuity and accommodation as well as object’s saliency, size and distance, Third, a novel paradigm of perception, cognition and decision-making developed as a modular framework for DHM task simulations. In light of simulating an exploratory visual search task, natural and human like try-out manoeuvres are demonstrated in a virtual workspace.
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

The present work deals with the development of a computational geometric framework for vision modeling for performing visibility and legibility analyses in Digital Human Modeling (DHM) using the field-of-view (FoV), estimated geometrically from 3D tessellated head scans. DHM is an inter-disciplinary area of research with the prime objective of evaluating a product, job or environment for intended users through computer-based simulations. Vision modeling in the existing DHM’s has been primarily addressed through FoV modeling using right circular cones (RCC). Perimetry literature establishes that the human FoV is asymmetric due to unrestricted zygomatic vision and restrictions on the nasal side of the face. This observation is neither captured by the simplistic RCC models in DHM, nor rigorously studied in vision literature. Thus, the RCC models for FoV are inadequate for rigorous simulations and the accurate modeling of FoV is required in DHM. The computational framework developed in this work considers three broad components namely, the geometric estimation and representation of FoV, visibility and statistical visibility, and legibility of objects in a given environment. A computational geometric method for estimating FoV from 3D laser-scanned models of the human head is presented in this work. The strong one-to-one similarity between computed and clinically perimetry maps establishes that the FoV can be geometrically computed using tessellated head models, without necessarily going through the conventional interaction based clinical procedures. The algorithm for FoV computation is extended to model the effect of gaze-direction on the FoV resulting in binocular FoV. A novel unit-cube scheme is presented for robust, efficient and accurate modeling of FoV. This scheme is subsequently used to determine the visibility of 3D tessellated objects for a given FoV. In order to carry out population based visibility studies, the statistical modeling FoV and generation of percentile-based FoV curves are introduced for a given population of FoV curves. The percentile data thus generated was not available in the current ergonomics or perimetry literature. Advanced vision analysis involving character-legibility is demonstrated using the unit-cube with an improved measure to incorporate the effect of character-thickness on its legibility.

The present work deals with the development of a computational geometric framework for vision modeling for performing visibility and legibility analyses in Digital Human Modeling (DHM) using the field-of-view (FoV), estimated geometrically from 3D tessellated head scans. DHM is an inter-disciplinary area of research with the prime objective of evaluating a product, job or environment for intended users through computer-based simulations. Vision modeling in the existing DHM’s has been primarily addressed through FoV modeling using right circular cones (RCC). Perimetry literature establishes that the human FoV is asymmetric due to unrestricted zygomatic vision and restrictions on the nasal side of the face. This observation is neither captured by the simplistic RCC models in DHM, nor rigorously studied in vision literature. Thus, the RCC models for FoV are inadequate for rigorous simulations and the accurate modeling of FoV is required in DHM. The computational framework developed in this work considers three broad components namely, the geometric estimation and representation of FoV, visibility and statistical visibility, and legibility of objects in a given environment. A computational geometric method for estimating FoV from 3D laser-scanned models of the human head is presented in this work. The strong one-to-one similarity between computed and clinically perimetry maps establishes that the FoV can be geometrically computed using tessellated head models, without necessarily going through the conventional interaction based clinical procedures. The algorithm for FoV computation is extended to model the effect of gaze-direction on the FoV resulting in binocular FoV. A novel unit-cube scheme is presented for robust, efficient and accurate modeling of FoV. This scheme is subsequently used to determine the visibility of 3D tessellated objects for a given FoV. In order to carry out population based visibility studies, the statistical modeling FoV and generation of percentile-based FoV curves are introduced for a given population of FoV curves. The percentile data thus generated was not available in the current ergonomics or perimetry literature. Advanced vision analysis involving character-legibility is demonstrated using the unit-cube with an improved measure to incorporate the effect of character-thickness on its legibility.

The focus of the present work is natural human like grasping, for realistic performance simulations in digital human modelling (DHM) environment. The performance simulation for grasping in DHM is typically done through high level commands to the digital human models (DHMs). This calls for a natural and unambiguous scheme to describe a grasp which would implicitly accommodate variations due to the hand form, object form and hand kinematics. A novel relational description scheme is developed towards this purpose. The grasp is modelled as a spatio-temporal relationship between the patches (a closed region on the surface) in the hand and the object. The task dependency of the grasp affects only the choice of the relevant patches. Thus, the present scheme of grasp description enables a human like grasp description possible. Grasping can be simulated either in an interactive command mode as discussed above or in an autonomous mode. In the autonomous mode the patches have to be computed. It is done using a psychological concept, of affordance. This scheme is employed to select a tool from a set of tools. Various types of grasps a user may adopt while grasping a spanner for manipulating a nut is simulated. Grasping of objects by human evolves through distinct naturally occurring phases, such as re-oreintation, transport and preshape. Hand is taken to the object ballpark using a novel concept of virtual object. Before contact establishment hand achieves the shape similar to the global shape of the object, called preshaping. Various hand preshape strategies are simulating using an optimization scheme. Since the focus of the present work is human like grasping, the mechanism which drives the DHMs should also be anatomically pertinent. A methodology is developed wherein the hand-object contact establishment is done based on the anatomical observation of logarithmic spiral pattern during finger flexion. The effect of slip in presence of friction has been studied for 2D and 3D object grasping endeavours and a computational generation of the slip locus is done. The in-grasp slip studies are also done which simulates the finger and object response to slip. It is desirable that the grasping performance simulations be validated for diverse hands that people have. In the absence of an available database of articulated bio-fidelic digital hands, this work develops a semi-automatic methodology for developing subject specific hand models from a single pose 3D laser scan of the subject's hand. The methodology is based on the clinical evidence that creases and joint locations on human hand are strongly correlated. The hand scan is segmented into palm, wrist and phalanges, both manually and computationally. The computational segmentation is based on the crease markings in the hand scan, which is identified by explicitly painting them using a mesh processing software by the user. Joint locations are computed on this segmented hand. A 24 dof kinematic structure is automatically embedded into the hand scan. The joint axes are computed using a novel palm plane normal concept. The computed joint axes are rectified using the convergence, and intra-finger constraints. The methodology is significantly tolerant to the noise in the scan and the pose of the hand. With the proposed methodology articulated, realistic, custom hand models can be generated. Thus, the reported work presents a geometric framework for comprehensive simulation of grasping performance in a DHM environment.

The focus of the present work is natural human like grasping, for realistic performance simulations in digital human modelling (DHM) environment. The performance simulation for grasping in DHM is typically done through high level commands to the digital human models (DHMs). This calls for a natural and unambiguous scheme to describe a grasp which would implicitly accommodate variations due to the hand form, object form and hand kinematics. A novel relational description scheme is developed towards this purpose. The grasp is modelled as a spatio-temporal relationship between the patches (a closed region on the surface) in the hand and the object. The task dependency of the grasp affects only the choice of the relevant patches. Thus, the present scheme of grasp description enables a human like grasp description possible. Grasping can be simulated either in an interactive command mode as discussed above or in an autonomous mode. In the autonomous mode the patches have to be computed. It is done using a psychological concept, of affordance. This scheme is employed to select a tool from a set of tools. Various types of grasps a user may adopt while grasping a spanner for manipulating a nut is simulated. Grasping of objects by human evolves through distinct naturally occurring phases, such as re-oreintation, transport and preshape. Hand is taken to the object ballpark using a novel concept of virtual object. Before contact establishment hand achieves the shape similar to the global shape of the object, called preshaping. Various hand preshape strategies are simulating using an optimization scheme. Since the focus of the present work is human like grasping, the mechanism which drives the DHMs should also be anatomically pertinent. A methodology is developed wherein the hand-object contact establishment is done based on the anatomical observation of logarithmic spiral pattern during finger flexion. The effect of slip in presence of friction has been studied for 2D and 3D object grasping endeavours and a computational generation of the slip locus is done. The in-grasp slip studies are also done which simulates the finger and object response to slip. It is desirable that the grasping performance simulations be validated for diverse hands that people have. In the absence of an available database of articulated bio-fidelic digital hands, this work develops a semi-automatic methodology for developing subject specific hand models from a single pose 3D laser scan of the subject's hand. The methodology is based on the clinical evidence that creases and joint locations on human hand are strongly correlated. The hand scan is segmented into palm, wrist and phalanges, both manually and computationally. The computational segmentation is based on the crease markings in the hand scan, which is identified by explicitly painting them using a mesh processing software by the user. Joint locations are computed on this segmented hand. A 24 dof kinematic structure is automatically embedded into the hand scan. The joint axes are computed using a novel palm plane normal concept. The computed joint axes are rectified using the convergence, and intra-finger constraints. The methodology is significantly tolerant to the noise in the scan and the pose of the hand. With the proposed methodology articulated, realistic, custom hand models can be generated. Thus, the reported work presents a geometric framework for comprehensive simulation of grasping performance in a DHM environment.

碩士
臺灣大學
醫學工程學研究所
95
The motion analysis has been widely applied to various domains, such as research of sports medicine, ergonomics, the development of robot, and the computer animation . For the need of the motion analysis measurement, various kinds of human motion capture device have been developed. The optics type system has been most frequently adopted and, has been also applied into the development of commercialized photoelectron image system. The advantage of this kind of system is its extremely high accuracy; however, the biggest shortcoming is its high cost and its higher service expenditure for the repaired cost. Along with digital cameras being available, human motion capture system which utilizes digital cameras in accordance to be developed. The main advantage is its lower price, but its accuracy has to be improved. The purposes of this research are to develop a human motion capture software system using digital cameras in applying a global optimization method (GOM) to increase its accuracy. Two digital cameras were used to capture subject’s gait on level walking. And commercialized motion capture system were used simultaneously. Afterwards by using graphical user interface, users can easily load images captured by digital cameras to this system. After image processing, the three-dimensional coordinates reconstruction using lower extremity model and the global optimization method to reduce the artifact of markers three-dimensional motion data were obtained. These data were thus compared to those data obtained from present commercialized motion capture system. The results showed that the errors of the coordinates of the skin markers and joint angles significantly decreased after correction with GOM.

Digitale Menschmodelle gelten als gut geeignete Werkzeuge zur Planung und Bewertung manueller Arbeit, insbesondere zur präventiven Ergonomieabsicherung. Bislang ist jedoch der Funktionsumfang der Softwaretools unzureichend und der Bedienaufwand zu hoch. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird daher die Entwicklung einer Methode zur Aufbereitung digital erfasster menschlicher Bewegungen für die Bewegungsgenerierung und semiautomatische Ergonomiebewertung beschrieben. Nach einer Diskussion des gegenwärtigen Wissensstandes folgt die Darstellung zweier empirischer Untersuchungen zur Bewegungserfassung und -auswertung. Anschließend wird die Implementierung eines mehrere Belastungsfaktoren umfassenden Kombinationsverfahrens zur Ergonomiebewertung erläutert. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse zur Bewegungsgenerierung und Ergonomiebewertung fließen in die Entwicklung einer Software zur Planung und Bewertung manueller Arbeit, den Editor menschlicher Arbeit (ema), ein. Schließlich erfolgt eine Evaluation anhand realer Planungsszenarien.
Digital Human Models are said to be appropriate tools for planning and assessing human work; especially for preventive ergonomics risk assessment. Up to now, the functional range of established software tools is not sufficient and the operation is too complex and time consuming. Thus, in the present doctoral thesis, the development of a method for the preparation of digitally captured human motions for an algorithmic motion generation and automatic ergonomic risk assessment is described. On the summarization of the relevant current level of knowledge follows the description of two empirical studies for motion capturing and analysis. Afterwards the implementation of a method of the ergonomics risk assessment that combines several biomechanical risk factors is explained. The results of the preliminary studies flow into the development of a new software tool for planning and assessing human work – the editor for manual work activities (ema). Finally, the practical evaluation with the help of real planning scenarios is presented.

Nell’ultimo decennio è incrementato l’utilizzo delle tecnologie nelle attività quotidiane e negli ambienti di lavoro in cui il fabbisogno di risorse cognitive sembra aumentare mentre il livello di sforzo fisico sembra diminuire. I rapidi sviluppi della cosiddetta “Internet delle cose” (Internet of Things - IoT) e dei suoi nuovi archetipi di automazione nei sistemi cyber-fisici, nonché l'aumento dei requisiti analitici derivanti dalla necessità di analizzare una grande quantità di dati sono alcuni esempi di elementi alla base che segnano una maggiore richiesta cognitiva degli individui di svolgere compiti di controllo e ottenere una panoramica dei sistemi distribuiti che siamo tenuti a monitorare. Il motivo principale per misurare il carico di lavoro mentale o cognitivo è quantificare lo sforzo mentale nello svolgere determinate attività e valutare le sue implicazioni sulle prestazioni umane. La modellazione del carico di lavoro mentale umano (Mental Workload - MWL) può essere utilizzata per supportare la progettazione di interfacce, tecnologie e attività di elaborazione delle informazioni meglio allineate con le capacità mentali di ciascun individuo. La presente tesi di dottorato è focalizzata sullo sviluppo di modelli computazionali per la valutazione dinamica della fatica mentale dell'operatore (individuati come carico di lavoro mentale e/o carico di lavoro cognitivo) e della probabilità di errore umano nell’esecuzione di attività legate ai processi produttivi. Viene affrontata la fatica mentale, le sue misure, dimensioni, modelli, applicazioni e conseguenze. Questa tesi segue un approccio multidisciplinare, e non solo confinato al campo dell'ergonomia industriale. Vengono presentati i recenti sviluppi nel contesto dei modelli teorici di MWL e applicazioni pratiche finalizzate al supporto delle attività e alla gestione di MWL nelle operazioni. Pertanto, i contributi sono stati organizzati in sezioni dove si indagano la fatica mentale e la probabilità di errore umano nell'ambito dei processi produttivi; qui i modelli sviluppati si basano sulla teoria dell'informazione presentata da Shannon. Il lavoro di tesi è stato organizzato come segue: a) Analisi dello stato dell'arte sull’importanza crescente del fattore umano nei sistemi di produzione intelligente, prestando particolare attenzione all’importanza della fatica mentale umana nello svolgimento di attività con prevalente parte cognitiva piuttosto che fisica. b) Analisi dello stato dell'arte sulle metodologie esistenti, applicate in diversi settori e per diversi scopi, utilizzate per valutare il carico di lavoro mentale umano nell'esecuzione di un compito specifico. c) Formulazione di proposte innovative per la modellizzazione del carico di lavoro mentale dell'operatore e per la valutazione della relativa prestazione, focalizzando l'attenzione sui fattori fisiologici e sulle differenti tipologie di attività da svolgere. L'analisi dello stato dell'arte delle metodologie esistenti utilizzate per la valutazione del MWL, affrontata nel Capitolo 1, ha aiutato a comprendere le carenze nell'analisi dei fattori umani legati alla fatica mentale nei processi di produzione. Al fine di superare tali limiti, nel Capitolo 2 viene presentato il test “n-back”, uno strumento standardizzato per simulare compiti con diverse complessità cognitive. Qui vengono utilizzate metodologie sia oggettive che soggettive per valutare il carico di lavoro mentale durante le sessioni sperimentali. Il caso di studio presentato nel Capitolo 2 è utilizzato per simulare un reale contesto industriale che evidenzia come gli operatori, a causa dell'aumento dei compiti cognitivi nell’ambito della propria attività lavorativa, debbano prendere un numero sempre più elevato di decisioni. Inoltre, nel Capitolo 3, i dati del test n-back e i dati di letteratura sono utilizzati per creare una nuova formulazione per la quantificazione del carico di lavoro mentale e della prestazione degli operatori. Le formulazioni presentate tengono conto sia di parametri soggettivi degli operatori sia di parametri oggettivi; inoltre è investigato il fenomeno dell'invecchiamento della forza lavoro nelle economie di mercato avanzate e dell’impatto sulla valutazione dei fattori umani nei processi produttivi nell'era della digitalizzazione. Nel Capitolo 4 è esaminata la complessità delle attività di riconoscimento degli oggetti bidimensionali (2D). La formulazione presentata permette di modellare la difficoltà del compito e il relativo carico di lavoro mentale. Infine, nel Capitolo 5, è studiata la performance umana nei compiti ripetitivi. Qui è valutata la prestazione dell'operatore nell’eseguire un'attività di assemblaggio manuale. La modellizzazione del carico di lavoro mentale, la valutazione della difficoltà del compito e della prestazione degli operatori presentate in questa tesi possono dare al progettista un suggerimento sul miglioramento che si può ottenere se l’assegnazione dell’attività è ottimizzata considerando i diversi tipi di compiti e operatori. Il benessere dell'operatore giocherà un ruolo cruciale nell'assegnazione del compito. La valutazione del carico di lavoro mentale può essere applicata nei programmi di rotazione del lavoro (job rotation) al fine di minimizzare il carico di lavoro mentale. Come spiegato nell'Introduzione, le formulazioni dei modelli proposti possono colmare le lacune della letteratura scientifica esistente relativa ai fattori umani nella fabbrica digitale.
The past decade has seen an increase in the use of technologies in everyday activities and work environments in which the need for cognitive resources seems to increase. In contrast, the level of physical exertion seems to decrease. The rapid developments of the so-called "Internet of Things" (IoT) and its new automation archetypes in cyber-physical systems, as well as the increased analytical requirements arising from the need to analyze large amounts of data, are some examples of underlying elements that mark an increased cognitive demand of individuals to perform control tasks and get an overview of the distributed systems we are required to monitor. The main reason for measuring mental or cognitive workload is to quantify mental effort in performing specific tasks and assess its implications on human performance. Human Mental Workload (MWL) modeling can be used to support the design of interfaces, technologies and information-processing activities that are better aligned with each individual's mental capabilities. This doctoral dissertation focuses on developing computational models for the dynamic assessment of operator mental fatigue (which is identified as mental workload and/or cognitive workload) and the probability of human error in executing production process-related tasks. Mental fatigue, its measures, dimensions, models, applications and consequences are addressed. This thesis follows a multidisciplinary approach and is not only confined to the field of industrial ergonomics. Recent developments in the context of theoretical models of MWL and practical applications aimed at business support and management of MWL in operations are presented. Therefore, the contributions have been organized into sections where mental fatigue and the probability of human error in the context of production processes are investigated; here, the models developed are based on the information theory presented by Shannon. The thesis work was organized as follows: (a) State-of-the-art analysis of the increasing importance of the human factor in intelligent production systems, paying particular attention to the importance of human mental fatigue in performing tasks with predominantly cognitive rather than physical parts. (b) State-of-the-art analysis of existing methodologies, applied in different fields and for different purposes, used to assess human mental workload in performing a specific task. (c) Innovative proposals for modeling the operator's mental workload and evaluating the related performance, focusing on physiological factors and different types of tasks to be performed. The state-of-the-art analysis of existing methodologies used for MWL assessment, addressed in Chapter 1, helps to understand the shortcomings in analysing human factors related to mental fatigue in production processes. To overcome these limitations, the "n-back" test, a standardised tool for simulating tasks with different cognitive complexities, is presented in Chapter 2. Both objective and subjective methodologies are used here to assess mental workload during experimental sessions. The case study presented in Chapter 2 is used to simulate a real industrial setting that highlights how operators, due to the increase of cognitive tasks within their work activities, must make an increasing number of decisions. Chapter 3 uses the n-back test and literature data to create a new formulation for quantifying operators' mental workload and performance. The formulations presented consider both subjective and objective parameters of operators; in addition, the ageing workforce in advanced market economies and the impact on the evaluation of human factors in production processes in the era of digitalisation are investigated. Chapter 4 examines the complexity of two-dimensional (2D) object recognition tasks. The presented formulation allows modeling the difficulty of the task and the associated mental workload. Finally, in Chapter 5, human performance in repetitive tasks is studied. Here the operator's performance in performing a manual assembly task is evaluated. The modeling of mental workload, assessment of task difficulty and operator performance presented in this thesis can give the designer a hint about the improvement that can be achieved if the task assignment is optimised by considering different types of tasks and operators. Operator well-being will play a crucial role in task assignment. Mental workload assessment can be applied in job rotation programs to minimise mental workload. As explained in the Introduction, the proposed model formulations can fill the gaps in the existing scientific literature related to human factors in the digital factory.

Die steigende Anzahl leistungsgewandelter Arbeitnehmer ist eine zunehmende Herausforderung für produzierende Unternehmen. Zur Sicherstellung eines wertschöpfenden und fähigkeitsgerechten Einsatzes erlangt daher eine prospektive und korrektive Arbeitsgestaltung an Bedeutung. Insbesondere in der frühen Phase der Prozessplanung sind digitale Menschmodelle zur Absicherung ergonomisch günstiger Arbeitsplätze und -prozesse geeignet. Die Abbildung leistungsgewandelter Mitarbeiter in digitale Menschmodelle und Planungstools der digitalen Fabrik ist jedoch aktuell nicht hinreichend berücksichtigt. Zur Unterstützung einer fähigkeitsgerechten Arbeitsgestaltung mit digitalen Menschmodellen sind diese um Leistungseinschränkungen zu erweitern. Gleichzeitig bedingen neue Funktionen der Menschmodelle und Planungstools ebenfalls eine Methodik zur digitalen Planung fähigkeitsgerechter Arbeitsplätze.:1 EINLEITUNG 1.1 AUSGANGSSITUATION 1.2 AUFBAU DER ARBEIT 2 STAND DER WISSENSCHAFT UND PRAXIS 2.1 ARBEITSGESTALTUNG UND ERGONOMIE 2.1.1 DEFINITION UND ZIELE 2.1.2 ERGONOMIE IM PRODUKTENTSTEHUNGSPROZESS 2.1.3 PLANUNG UND GESTALTUNG VON ARBEITSSYSTEMEN 2.1.4 ARBEITSGESTALTUNG UND ERGONOMIE IM DIGITALEN KONTEXT 2.1.5 DIGITALE MENSCHMODELLE 2.2 LEISTUNGSGEWANDELTE MITARBEITER 2.2.1 LEISTUNG UND LEISTUNGSFÄHIGKEIT 2.2.2 BEGRIFFSBESTIMMUNG LEISTUNGSGEWANDELTER MITARBEITER 2.2.3 UNTERNEHMENSSTRATEGIEN ZUM EINSATZ LEISTUNGSGEWANDELTER MITARBEITER 2.2.4 VERFAHREN ZUR BEURTEILUNG VON ARBEITSPLÄTZEN UND MITARBEITERN 2.3 SCHLUSSFOLGERUNG 2.4 ABLEITUNG DER ZIELSTELLUNG UND TEILZIELE 3 ERARBEITUNG EINER SYSTEMATIK ZUR KLASSIFIZIERUNG LEISTUNGSGEWANDELTER MITARBEITER 3.1 ZIELSTELLUNG 3.2 DEFINITION DER KRITERIEN 3.2.1 GRUNDKÖRPERSTELLUNG 3.2.2 KÖRPERHALTUNG/BEWEGLICHKEIT 3.2.2.1 BEWEGLICHKEIT DER OBEREN EXTREMITÄTEN 3.2.2.2 RUMPFBEWEGLICHKEIT 3.2.2.3 BEWEGLICHKEIT DER UNTEREN EXTREMITÄTEN 3.2.3 LASTENHANDHABUNG 3.2.4 AKTIONSKRÄFTE 3.2.5 VIBRATIONEN/RÜCKSCHLÄGE 3.2.6 SENSORIK 3.2.7 ARBEITSORGANISATION 3.2.8 ARBEITSUMGEBUNG 3.2.9 GESAMTKATALOG 3.3 EXPERTENINTERVIEWS 3.4 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 4 BESCHREIBUNG EINES MODELLS ZUR INTEGRATION VON LEISTUNGSEINSCHRÄNKUNGEN IN DIGITALE MENSCHMODELLE 4.1 ZIEL UND VORGEHENSWEISE 4.2 PARAMETRISIERUNG DER KRITERIEN ZUR ÜBERFÜHRUNG IN MENSCHMODELLE 4.2.1 KRITERIEN IM KONTEXT DER EINGABE/VERARBEITUNG/AUSGABE 4.2.2 AUFBEREITUNG DER KRITERIEN ZUR DATENINTERPRETATION 4.2.3 (SEMI-)AUTOMATISCHE ERSTELLUNG VON ARBEITSPLATZANFORDERUNGSPROFILEN 4.2.4 BERÜCKSICHTIGUNG VON MITARBEITERFÄHIGKEITSPROFILEN 4.3 ABLEITUNG NOTWENDIGER FUNKTIONSERWEITERUNGEN UND SCHNITTSTELLEN 4.4 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 5 ENTWICKLUNG EINER METHODIK ZUR DIGITALEN FÄHIGKEITSGERECHTEN ARBEITSGESTALTUNG 5.1 ZIEL UND VORGEHENSWEISE 5.2 WORKFLOW DER DIGITALEN FÄHIGKEITSGERECHTEN ARBEITSGESTALTUNG 5.2.1 PLANUNGSPROZESS DER DIGITALEN ARBEITSGESTALTUNG 5.2.2 PROZESSBESCHREIBUNG DES WORKFLOWS ZUR DIGITALEN FÄHIGKEITSGERECHTEN ARBEITSGESTALTUNG 5.3 ANFORDERUNGEN AN DIE EINGABE, AUSGABE UND SIMULATION 5.3.1 BERÜCKSICHTIGUNG VON MITARBEITERFÄHIGKEITSPROFILEN 5.3.2 AUSGABE VON ARBEITSPLATZANFORDERUNGSPROFILEN 5.3.3 EINSATZANALYSE UND PRODUKTIVITÄTSVERGLEICH 5.3.4 GESTALTUNGSHINWEISE UND HANDLUNGSEMPFEHLUNGEN 5.3.5 AUSGABEDARSTELLUNG UNTER BERÜCKSICHTIGUNG VON LEISTUNGSEINSCHRÄNKUNGEN 5.4 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 6 ÜBERTRAGUNG DES MODELLS UND DER METHODE AUF DIGITALE MENSCHMODELLE AM BEISPIEL DES EMA 6.1 ZIEL UND VORGEHENSWEISE 6.2 IST-STAND EMA-MENSCHMODELL UND SOFTWARESYSTEM 6.3 BENUTZERZENTRIERTER GESTALTUNGSPROZESS 6.4 ABLEITUNG NOTWENDIGER SOFTWARETECHNISCHER ANPASSUNGEN 6.4.1 BERÜCKSICHTIGUNG VON KRITERIEN ZUR INTEGRATION VON LEISTUNGSEINSCHRÄNKUNGEN 6.4.2 EINGABE UND ANZEIGE VON MITARBEITERFÄHIGKEITS- UND ARBEITSPLATZANFORDERUNGSPROFILEN 6.4.3 DARSTELLUNG DER EINSATZANALYSE UND PRODUKTIVITÄTSVERGLEICH 6.4.4 BERÜCKSICHTIGUNG NICHT ANFORDERUNGSGERECHTER SIMULATIONSSITUATIONEN 6.4.5 AUSGABE VON SITUATIVEN GESTALTUNGSHINWEISEN UND OPTIMIERUNGSPOTENTIALEN 6.4.6 ASSISTENT ZUR NUTZERGEFÜHRTEN FÄHIGKEITSGERECHTEN ARBEITSGESTALTUNG 6.5 BEWERTUNG DER ERZEUGUNG VON ARBEITSPLATZANFORDERUNGSPROFILEN 6.5.1 ZIELSTELLUNG UND UNTERSUCHUNGSGEGENSTAND 6.5.2 STICHPROBE 6.5.3 UNTERSUCHUNGSABLAUF 6.5.4 ERGEBNISSE 6.5.5 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 6.6 NUTZERORIENTIERTE EVALUATION 6.6.1 ZIELSTELLUNG UND UNTERSUCHUNGSGEGENSTAND 6.6.2 STICHPROBE 6.6.3 UNTERSUCHUNGSABLAUF 6.6.4 ERGEBNISSE UND WEITERE OPTIMIERUNGSPOTENTIALE 6.6.5 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 6.7 SCHLUSSFOLGERUNG FÜR DIE SOFTWARE-IMPLEMENTIERUNG 7 PRAKTISCHE ANWENDUNG DER METHODE 7.1 BEISPIEL ZUR OPTIMIERUNG VON ARBEITSPLÄTZEN FÜR DEN EINSATZ LEISTUNGSGEWANDELTER MITARBEITER MITTELS SIMULATION 7.2 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 8 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG UND AUSBLICK 8.1 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 8.2 LIMITATIONEN DER ERARBEITETEN LÖSUNGEN 8.3 AUSBLICK LITERATURVERZEICHNIS
The increasing number of employees with restricted performance is a challenge for the industry. A prospective and corrective workplace design is important to ensure a value-adding and ability-appropriate employment. Especially in the early planning phase, digital human models are helpful for ergonomic workplace design. However, today’s digital human models usually lack functions and methods for the digital design of workplaces for employees with restricted perfomance. A further development of digital human models can support the digital planning of ability-appropriate workplaces. Due to new functions of digital human models, new planning methods with digital human models are also required.:1 EINLEITUNG 1.1 AUSGANGSSITUATION 1.2 AUFBAU DER ARBEIT 2 STAND DER WISSENSCHAFT UND PRAXIS 2.1 ARBEITSGESTALTUNG UND ERGONOMIE 2.1.1 DEFINITION UND ZIELE 2.1.2 ERGONOMIE IM PRODUKTENTSTEHUNGSPROZESS 2.1.3 PLANUNG UND GESTALTUNG VON ARBEITSSYSTEMEN 2.1.4 ARBEITSGESTALTUNG UND ERGONOMIE IM DIGITALEN KONTEXT 2.1.5 DIGITALE MENSCHMODELLE 2.2 LEISTUNGSGEWANDELTE MITARBEITER 2.2.1 LEISTUNG UND LEISTUNGSFÄHIGKEIT 2.2.2 BEGRIFFSBESTIMMUNG LEISTUNGSGEWANDELTER MITARBEITER 2.2.3 UNTERNEHMENSSTRATEGIEN ZUM EINSATZ LEISTUNGSGEWANDELTER MITARBEITER 2.2.4 VERFAHREN ZUR BEURTEILUNG VON ARBEITSPLÄTZEN UND MITARBEITERN 2.3 SCHLUSSFOLGERUNG 2.4 ABLEITUNG DER ZIELSTELLUNG UND TEILZIELE 3 ERARBEITUNG EINER SYSTEMATIK ZUR KLASSIFIZIERUNG LEISTUNGSGEWANDELTER MITARBEITER 3.1 ZIELSTELLUNG 3.2 DEFINITION DER KRITERIEN 3.2.1 GRUNDKÖRPERSTELLUNG 3.2.2 KÖRPERHALTUNG/BEWEGLICHKEIT 3.2.2.1 BEWEGLICHKEIT DER OBEREN EXTREMITÄTEN 3.2.2.2 RUMPFBEWEGLICHKEIT 3.2.2.3 BEWEGLICHKEIT DER UNTEREN EXTREMITÄTEN 3.2.3 LASTENHANDHABUNG 3.2.4 AKTIONSKRÄFTE 3.2.5 VIBRATIONEN/RÜCKSCHLÄGE 3.2.6 SENSORIK 3.2.7 ARBEITSORGANISATION 3.2.8 ARBEITSUMGEBUNG 3.2.9 GESAMTKATALOG 3.3 EXPERTENINTERVIEWS 3.4 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 4 BESCHREIBUNG EINES MODELLS ZUR INTEGRATION VON LEISTUNGSEINSCHRÄNKUNGEN IN DIGITALE MENSCHMODELLE 4.1 ZIEL UND VORGEHENSWEISE 4.2 PARAMETRISIERUNG DER KRITERIEN ZUR ÜBERFÜHRUNG IN MENSCHMODELLE 4.2.1 KRITERIEN IM KONTEXT DER EINGABE/VERARBEITUNG/AUSGABE 4.2.2 AUFBEREITUNG DER KRITERIEN ZUR DATENINTERPRETATION 4.2.3 (SEMI-)AUTOMATISCHE ERSTELLUNG VON ARBEITSPLATZANFORDERUNGSPROFILEN 4.2.4 BERÜCKSICHTIGUNG VON MITARBEITERFÄHIGKEITSPROFILEN 4.3 ABLEITUNG NOTWENDIGER FUNKTIONSERWEITERUNGEN UND SCHNITTSTELLEN 4.4 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 5 ENTWICKLUNG EINER METHODIK ZUR DIGITALEN FÄHIGKEITSGERECHTEN ARBEITSGESTALTUNG 5.1 ZIEL UND VORGEHENSWEISE 5.2 WORKFLOW DER DIGITALEN FÄHIGKEITSGERECHTEN ARBEITSGESTALTUNG 5.2.1 PLANUNGSPROZESS DER DIGITALEN ARBEITSGESTALTUNG 5.2.2 PROZESSBESCHREIBUNG DES WORKFLOWS ZUR DIGITALEN FÄHIGKEITSGERECHTEN ARBEITSGESTALTUNG 5.3 ANFORDERUNGEN AN DIE EINGABE, AUSGABE UND SIMULATION 5.3.1 BERÜCKSICHTIGUNG VON MITARBEITERFÄHIGKEITSPROFILEN 5.3.2 AUSGABE VON ARBEITSPLATZANFORDERUNGSPROFILEN 5.3.3 EINSATZANALYSE UND PRODUKTIVITÄTSVERGLEICH 5.3.4 GESTALTUNGSHINWEISE UND HANDLUNGSEMPFEHLUNGEN 5.3.5 AUSGABEDARSTELLUNG UNTER BERÜCKSICHTIGUNG VON LEISTUNGSEINSCHRÄNKUNGEN 5.4 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 6 ÜBERTRAGUNG DES MODELLS UND DER METHODE AUF DIGITALE MENSCHMODELLE AM BEISPIEL DES EMA 6.1 ZIEL UND VORGEHENSWEISE 6.2 IST-STAND EMA-MENSCHMODELL UND SOFTWARESYSTEM 6.3 BENUTZERZENTRIERTER GESTALTUNGSPROZESS 6.4 ABLEITUNG NOTWENDIGER SOFTWARETECHNISCHER ANPASSUNGEN 6.4.1 BERÜCKSICHTIGUNG VON KRITERIEN ZUR INTEGRATION VON LEISTUNGSEINSCHRÄNKUNGEN 6.4.2 EINGABE UND ANZEIGE VON MITARBEITERFÄHIGKEITS- UND ARBEITSPLATZANFORDERUNGSPROFILEN 6.4.3 DARSTELLUNG DER EINSATZANALYSE UND PRODUKTIVITÄTSVERGLEICH 6.4.4 BERÜCKSICHTIGUNG NICHT ANFORDERUNGSGERECHTER SIMULATIONSSITUATIONEN 6.4.5 AUSGABE VON SITUATIVEN GESTALTUNGSHINWEISEN UND OPTIMIERUNGSPOTENTIALEN 6.4.6 ASSISTENT ZUR NUTZERGEFÜHRTEN FÄHIGKEITSGERECHTEN ARBEITSGESTALTUNG 6.5 BEWERTUNG DER ERZEUGUNG VON ARBEITSPLATZANFORDERUNGSPROFILEN 6.5.1 ZIELSTELLUNG UND UNTERSUCHUNGSGEGENSTAND 6.5.2 STICHPROBE 6.5.3 UNTERSUCHUNGSABLAUF 6.5.4 ERGEBNISSE 6.5.5 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 6.6 NUTZERORIENTIERTE EVALUATION 6.6.1 ZIELSTELLUNG UND UNTERSUCHUNGSGEGENSTAND 6.6.2 STICHPROBE 6.6.3 UNTERSUCHUNGSABLAUF 6.6.4 ERGEBNISSE UND WEITERE OPTIMIERUNGSPOTENTIALE 6.6.5 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 6.7 SCHLUSSFOLGERUNG FÜR DIE SOFTWARE-IMPLEMENTIERUNG 7 PRAKTISCHE ANWENDUNG DER METHODE 7.1 BEISPIEL ZUR OPTIMIERUNG VON ARBEITSPLÄTZEN FÜR DEN EINSATZ LEISTUNGSGEWANDELTER MITARBEITER MITTELS SIMULATION 7.2 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 8 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG UND AUSBLICK 8.1 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 8.2 LIMITATIONEN DER ERARBEITETEN LÖSUNGEN 8.3 AUSBLICK LITERATURVERZEICHNIS