Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Delegation (Law)”

One of the most enduring questions for the study of politics relates to what, if any, inde- pendent power international institutions have to affect the behavior of sovereign states. This dissertation addresses this question by examining the politics underlying one supranational judicial body’s exercise of authority—the World Trade Organization’s (WTO) Dispute Set- tlement Mechanism (DSM). International courts are strategic legal actors that operate in a highly political context. Politics matter for judicial outcomes—the rulings of courts—but legal constraints moderate the impact of politics in fairly systematic ways. The dissertation specifies the conditions under which one dynamic prevails and demonstrates that power pol- itics do not dominate international judicial interactions. Rather, courts are sensitive to the degree of institutional support they enjoy among the collective membership and a broader set of relevant stakeholders. Collective support for or challenges to a court’s institutional legitimacy—what I call a court’s political capital—affect judicial outcomes more than the preferences of dominant stakeholders. The second chapter develops the dissertation’s theoretical argument, while the third chapter describes the political context within which the WTO’s judicial bodies operate. It applies methods of automated text analysis to an original dataset of all member statements made within the WTO Dispute Settlement Body from 1995-2013 in order to construct measures of the DSM’s political capital. I supplement this evidence with a series of interviews with member representatives and WTO Secretariat officials. The fourth chapter employs original measures of dispute outcomes to identify how WTO panels respond to shifts in the DSM’s political capital. It finds that dispute panels are po- litically savvy, as they tend to signal less deference to national regulatory choices only when the DSM enjoys relatively greater support among the membership as a whole. However, the legal constraints of appellate case law moderate the influence of these political pressures on dispute outcomes. Through their rulings, panels seek to maximize support among their legal and political audiences simultaneously. The fifth chapter turns to the relationship between the Appellate Body (AB) and dis- pute panels. How panels review domestic laws and policy choices can be—and has been increasingly—challenged on appeal by parties. This chapter describes how the AB initially directed panels to engage in searching review of domestic policy choices, but that it has encouraged greater deference to national authorities in recent years. It identifies when the AB reverses panel findings on these grounds, with a focus on when it takes into account views expressed by governments. The final chapter turns to the impact of the WTO’s judicial authority on state behavior, specifically compliance with its judgments. Employing original measures of dispute judg- ments and compliance outcomes, this chapter demonstrates that the WTO’s judicial bodies use the content of their rulings to ease the domestic political costs of trade policy changes, thereby acting as ‘partners in compliance’ with a government’s executive branch. Yet the extent to which these strategies successfully facilitate swifter implementation is conditional on the domestic politics of compliance. The political cover provided within adverse rul- ings has no observable impact on the fact or timing of compliance for disputes that can be implemented through executive action alone. However, relatively greater validation of a trade measure does increase the probability of compliance and swifter implementation when legislative action is required. This suggests that the WTO’s judicial bodies successfully fa- cilitate compliance through the content of their rulings, thereby improving the effectiveness of the dispute settlement system.
Government

This thesis argues that there is a limited separation of powers in the Canadian Constitution between the executive and legislative branches. The fundamental nature of the Constitution Act, 1867 which commits the law-making power to elected legislatures demands that those bodies be prohibited from delegating their primary legislative powers to the executive. Judicial tolerance of such delegation flows from the unexamined assumption that as with the British constitution, the pivotal principle of our Constitution is parliamentary supremacy. It is not. Furthermore, such tolerance is troublesome in view of the fact that in constitutional practice today, cabinet controls Parliament. Canadian courts have the tools to develop a non-delegation doctrine that would insist that only legislatures could enact new laws or change existing ones. Such a doctrine would uphold the Constitution and ensure that all primary legislation be subject to the democratic safeguards provided by the rules of parliamentary procedure.

This Ph.D. thesis is a collection of four papers, each one corresponding to a chapter. The background challenge, common to all chapters, is the design of anti-corruption policies in a principal/supervisor/agent framework, where the supervisor and the agent can collude at the expense of the principal. The first two works tackle the issue of corruption from the perspective of law enforcement. The third and fourth chapters consider the problem of collusion from a mechanism design point of view. Accordingly, the focus is shifted from incentives to organizational responses, where the choice between centralized and decentralized organization of economic activity is relevant. More precisely, the first chapter studies the optimal compensation policy for a corruptible inspector, in charge with monitoring evasion from taxpayer. Namely, I discuss how the optimal compensation policy varies according to the timing of collusion, which is allowed to occur either before or after inspection takes place. Results show that increasing the inspector's bonus rate is a better policy than increasing the penalty rate, when corruption occurs after inspection. The contrary is true when the collusive agreement is established before the inspection. Implications for privatization of law enforcement and economic development are also analyzed. The second chapter analyses the impact of self reporting on law enforcement when officers are corruptible. The threat of corruption highlights two additional advantages to the use of self reporting beyond those identified elsewhere. First, by allowing individuals to self report their unlawful acts, the government is able to increase welfare by eliminating rents to its officers. Second, the introduction of self reporting further bene?ts those governments, which in its absence would tolerate corruption, by allowing them to fully eliminate corruption. The third chapter considers a simple modification of Laffont and Tirole's (1991) standard mechanism in hierarchical centralized structures, where two agents (a firm and an agency that acts as supervisor) can collude at the expense of the principal. The firm can choose between two competing contracts: a fast contract, which is free from supervision, or a grand contract, that is subject to it. This mechanism eliminates the agency costs of supervision by providing firms with the possibility of avoiding supervision altogether in the first stage. Thus, the model yields results that are superior to the standard hierarchical model. When firms are risk averse, this mechanism also provides an insurance coverage to productive agents. As a consequence, it would be worthwhile even abstracting from collusion. Finally, the fourth chapter studies the optimal design of an organization within a principal-supervisor-agent setting, with an agent informed on the cost of his economic activity and a supervisor better informed than the principal about agent's type. This work shows that collusion is not harmful if the principal contracts with both parties and collusion is allowed only after the acceptance of the principal's contract. Moreover, supervision is valuable regardless of the intensity of asymmetric information inside the coalition. These results are robust to alternative information structures and hold for a quite generic specification of agent's type.

Artificiell intelligens är digitala tekniker som har utvecklats snabbt de senaste åren. Allt fler uppgifter som tidigare krävt mänsklig färdighet och intelligens kan numera utföras autonomt av artificiell intelligens. Till följd av dess förmågor att på ett effektivt sätt behandla stora mängder information, lära sig nya saker, göra förutsägelser och föreslå handlingsalternativ samt i varierande grad handla efter egna uppfattningar, kan artificiell intelligens utgöra ett viktigt stöd vid beslutsfattande. Artificiell intelligens kan i teorin till och med ersätta människor. Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka under vilka förutsättningar artificiell intelligens kan användas för beslutsfattande i aktiebolag och att utvärdera hur svensk aktiebolagsrätt förhåller sig till den tekniska utveckling som sker på området. Frågor som uppstår är om artificiell intelligens kan ersätta aktieägare respektive styrelsen, i vilken utsträckning styrelsen kan delegera beslutsfattande till artificiell intelligens samt i vilken utsträckning styrelsen kan ta hjälp av artificiell intelligens vid sitt beslutsfattande. Även om vissa frågor med självklarhet kan besvaras, visar studien att det någonstans på vägen kommer en punkt där det inte går att avgöra hur artificiell intelligens ska behandlas. Undersökningen visar att artificiell intelligens varken kan ersätta aktieägare eller styrelsen i ett aktiebolag. Vad gäller styrelsens möjlighet att delegera beslutsfattande till artificiell intelligens samt om styrelsen kan ta hjälp av artificiell intelligens vid beslutsfattande, uppstår frågan om det kan anses oaktsamt av en styrelseledamot att använda artificiell intelligens på nämnt sätt och i sådant fall under vilka förutsättningar. En sådan aktsamhetsbedömning kan leda till att styrelseledamöter sanktioneras genom skadestånd. Rättsläget är oklart avseende om de uppgifter som styrelsen kan delegera till fysiska personer eller organ inom bolaget med ansvarsreducerande verkan, även kan delegeras till AI. Slutligen har styrelsen ett mycket stort handlingsutrymme att fatta beslut i aktiebolaget, under förutsättning att styrelsen iakttar bolagets intresse med omsorg. Det torde vara upp till styrelsen att avgöra om ett ärende kan beredas på ett tillfredsställande sätt med hjälp av AI.

Les contrats internationaux de délégation de service public s'inscrivent dans un ensemble de techniques connues de longue date, les affermages ayant plus de trois siècles d'existence et les concessions étant apparues aux XIXe siècles. Les partenariats public privés constituent la dernière forme en date des relations complexes entre les collectivités publiques et des opérateurs industriels ou de services. La technique de délégation de service public est largement utilisé dans le monde et les états adaptés suivent leurs propres législations internes sous différentes approches de la délégation. A noter que l'amplitude du sujet constitue un défit. Une apprche systématique permettra de réduire les difficultés. Plusieurs éléments sont à prendre en considération. Le premier porte sur l'activité délégable, le deuxième porte sur les formes contractuelles de la délégation et le troisième porte sur les transpositions internationales des contrats de délégation. Dans notre recherche, nous étudierons les contrats de délégation de service public dans le sens large du terme et d'un point de vue internationale sans entrer dans la classification interne de ces contrats dans chaque pays en se basant sur le modèle francais de la "concession" et le modèle Anglo-Saxon le "BOT" qui sont les deux modèles de base les plus répandus et ceci en suivant toutes les étapes du contrat de déégation : Passation, vie et fin du contrat ainsi que son contenu. Nous allons aussi essayer de mettre en relief des réponses aux problèmes émanant de cette expérience et ses applications répandus dans presque tout les pays et dont la réussite varie selon les dimensions géographiques et démographiques du pays
International contracts of public service delegation is part of a set of known longstanding techniques, long-terme leases with more than three centuries of existence and the concessions being emerged is the nineteenth century. Public-private partnerships are the latest form dated complex relations between public authorities and industry operators or services. The technique of delegation of public service is widely used in the world and adapted states follow there own internal laws in different approaches of the delegation. Notes that the amplitude of the subject is a challenge. A systematic approach will reduce difficulties. Several factors most be taken into consideration. The first concerns the delegable activity, the second door on the contractual forms of delegation and the third focuses on international transposition delegation contracts. In our research, we will study contracts delegation of public service in the broadest sense and from an international point of view without going into the internal classification of those contracts in each country. Based on the French model of th "concession" and the Anglo-Saxon model "BOT" which are the two basic models of the most common we will follow all the steps of delegation contract : Procurement, life and termination of the contract and its contents. We will also try to highlight the answers to the problems arising from this experience and widespread in almost all countries and applications whose success depends on the geographical area and population of the country

The paper seeks to clarify the relationship between South Korea’s National Security Law (NSL) and democracy. The NSL is a special law that seeks to address the security threats from North Korea, criticized for limiting fundamental civil and political rights. However, these criticisms have shown limited effectiveness in light of the argument that South Korea has unique security needs that require some compromise. In order to demonstrate more effectively that the NSL is problematic for South Korea’s democracy, I argue that the continued use of the law makes more sense if South Korea is considered to be a “delegative democracy,” a defective subtype characterized by weaknesses in horizontal accountability and violation of civil rights, as opposed to a representative democracy that it purports to be. As such, I demonstrate that the opportunity cost of the continued use of the NSL is much greater than occasional violation of civil rights, and that it facilitates problematic behaviours by the executive that is not compatible within a representative democracy that South Korea is supposed to be. Ultimately, this paper raises the urgency to demand more information and transparency in the use of the NSL in South Korea today.
Arts, Faculty of
Political Science, Department of
Graduate

The main subject for this essay is how the possibility of recovery can be used as a resource in situations of high workload. The applicable law will be examined on the basis of the question what is the law in force at the possibility of recovery. The essay also touches the topic of delegation and what level of knowledge, competence and authority the managers have, to do the delegated work regarding work environment. The essay aims to investigate the new regulation AFS 2015: 4 which came into force on march 31 2016. This regulation is an effect of the high sickness rates that emerged in a survey conducted by the Work Environment Authority. According to the survey, the most common cause of sick leave among women is attributed to organizational and social factors. Employment law regulation in the form of the Work Environment Act and the regulations of the Work Environment Authority is processed to provide answers to the questions. Knowledge of stress and recovery are also given space in the essay. Furthermore, interviews were held as a part of a survey on selected businesses to examine how these companies work with the possibility of recovery. The survey also investigated how the companies work after implementation of the new regulation AFS 2015: 4 and the effects the regulation had on operations. All businesses have an over-representation of women. This selection was conscious because the paper has an overall gender perspective. The analysis concerns the legal research and empirical data processed in the paper to give answers to the questions. The Work Environment Act and the new regulation of AFS 2015: 4 can be concluded that the employer's health and safety responsibilities are far-reaching. Possibility of recovery given the fullest extent through breaks in the workplace. It is thus important that the employer ensures that the breaks are both scheduled and utilized. Whether the new regulation had any impact on sick leave, is in the current situation difficult to confirm.
Kandidatuppsatsens huvudämne är hur möjlighet till återhämtning kan användas som resurs vid hög arbetsbelastning. Gällande rätt kommer granskas utifrån frågeställningen vad gällande rätt är, vid möjlighet till återhämtning. Uppsatsen berör även ämnet delegering samt vad chefer har för kunskap, kompetens och befogenhet för att utföra ett delegerat arbetsmiljöarbete. Uppsatsen syftar till att utreda den nya föreskriften AFS 2015:4 som trädde i kraft 31 mars 2016. Föreskriften är en effekt av det höga sjuktal som framkommit i en undersökning utförd av arbetsmiljöverket. Enligt undersökningen kan den vanligaste orsaken till sjukskrivning bland kvinnor, härledas till organisatoriska och sociala faktorer. Arbetsrättslig reglering i form av Arbetsmiljölagen och Arbetsmiljöverkets föreskrifter bearbetas för att ge svar till frågeställningarna. Kunskaper om stress och återhämtning ges även utrymme i uppsatsen. Vidare har en kartläggning gjorts på utvalda verksamheter för att granska hur dessa verksamheter arbetar med möjlighet till återhämtning. I kartläggningen utreds även hur verksamheterna arbetar efter implementeringen av den nya föreskriften AFS 2015:4 och vilka effekter föreskriften haft på verksamheterna. Samtliga verksamheter har en överrepresentation av kvinnor. Detta urval var medvetet då uppsatsen har ett övergripande genusperspektiv. Analysen berör den rättsutredning och empiri som bearbetats i uppsatsen för att ge svar på frågeställningarna. Genom Arbetsmiljölagen och den nya föreskriften AFS 2015:4 kan det konstateras att arbetsgivarens arbetsmiljöansvar är långtgående. Möjlighet till återhämtning ges i största utsträckning genom raster på arbetsplatserna. Det är således viktigt att arbetsgivaren säkerställer att rasterna är båda schemalagda samt utnyttjas. Huruvida den nya föreskriften haft någon påverkan på sjuktalen, är i dagsläget svårt att bekräfta.

Les pouvoirs publics koweïtiens entendent créer un climat favorable aux investisseurs, en mettant l’accent notamment sur le partenariat entre public et privé. C’est ainsi qu’en 2008, le parlement koweitien a adopté la loi 7/2008 qui comporte une organisation générale des contrats de constructions, d’exploitation et de transfert (BOT). Le législateur a adopté par la suite la loi 116/2014 sur le partenariat qui reprend avec plus de détails les formes de coopération publique-privée. À cet effet, deux organes ont été créés : le Haut Comité et l’Autorité des projets, avec des compétences très étendues quant à la formation et à l’exécution du contrat BOT (appel d’offres, négociations, conclusion du contrat, sa durée, son financement, etc.). L’objectif de cette étude est de traiter, à partir de cette législation, la notion de contrat BOT que les spécialistes assimilent volontiers au terme de concession, ou à celui de délégation de service public. Dans cette perspective, il est nécessaire d’aborder le montage financier et la nature juridique du contrat BOT. La mise en œuvre du contrat BOT fait intervenir une diversité des parties contractantes (administration, partenaires privés, créditeurs, sociétés de construction, fournisseurs de matériels, investisseurs de capitaux, consommateurs utilisateurs des produits, etc.), cela rend la réalisation de ce type de contrat assez complexe. Cette complexité peut se poser de manière aiguë au Koweït, dans la mesure où le pays vient juste d’inaugurer cette procédure de passation de marché impliquant directement le public et le privéLe montage financier des contrats BOT, connu sous le nom de « projet de financement » repose presque totalement sur des acteurs privés. Dès lors, la question qui se pose est celle de la répartition des risques. À ce sujet, l’analyse cherche à comprendre pourquoi les risques liés au financement sont assumés essentiellement par l’opérateur privé, indirectement par la société de projet, et directement par le prêteur, en l’occurrence les banques. Reste que pour couvrir ces risques, le contrat BOT prévoit, au bénéfice des pourvoyeurs de fonds, un certain nombre de garanties portant aussi bien sur les actifs composant le projet (équipements, outillages, stocks, transmission de créances), que sur le projet lui-même (nantissement et hypothèques des actions de la société de projet, cession de revenus, substitution des banques au promoteur privé défaillant).La nature juridique du contrat BOT soulève deux interrogations majeures : la première est de savoir si ce type de contrat relève de droit administratif ou de droit civil. La seconde porte sur les litiges qui peuvent naître de ce type de contrat comportant un large éventail d’éléments d’extranéité (investissements extérieurs, transfert de technologie, etc.) et soumis à l’arbitrage international. À ce niveau, il convient de connaître le droit applicable : s’agit-il du droit interne ou droit international ? C’est à cet ensemble de questions que cette recherche tente d’apporter un début de réponse en prenant comme cadre de réflexion le contexte koweïtien
The Public Authorities (Government) of Kuwait aim to create a favorable investor climate, with particular emphasis on public-private partnerships. Thus, in 2008, the Kuwaiti Parliament passed Law 7/2008, which includes a general organization of contracts of construction, exploitation and transfer (BOT) “Build, Operate and Transfer”. The legislator subsequently adopted the law 116/2014 on the partnership which repeats in more detail the forms of public-private cooperation. To this end, two bodies have been created: the High Committee and the Projects Authority, with extensive expertise in the training and execution of the BOT contract (call for tenders, negotiations, conclusion of the contract, its duration, financing, etc.). The objective of this study is to deal, from this legislation, with the concept of BOT contract that specialists readily assimilate to the term of concession, or that of public service delegation. In this perspective, it is necessary to address the financial arrangement and the legal nature of the BOT contract.The implementation of the BOT contract involves a diversity of contracting parties (administration, private partners, creditors, construction companies, equipment suppliers, capital investors, consumer users of products, etc.), which makes the implementation of this type of contract rather complex. This complexity can be seriously arisen in Kuwait, as the country has just inaugurated this procurement procedure directly involving the public and the private sector.The financial set-up of the BOT contracts, known as the "financing project", relies almost entirely on private actors. Therefore, the question that arises is that of the distribution of risks. In this regard, the analysis seeks to understand why financing risks are borne mainly by the private operator, indirectly by the project company, and directly by the lender, in this case the banks. However, to cover these risks, the BOT contract provides, for the benefit of fund providers, a number of guarantees covering both the project assets (equipment, tools, inventory, transfer of receivables) and the project itself (pledging and hypothecation of shares in the project company, transfer of income, substitution banks to the defaulting private promoter).The legal nature of the BOT contract raises two major questions: the first is whether this type of contract falls under administrative law or civil law. The second deals with disputes that may arise from this type of contract, which includes a wide range of foreign elements (outside investment, technology transfer, etc.) and is subject to international arbitration. At this level, one must know the applicable law: is it domestic law or international law? It is to this set of questions that this research tries to bring a beginning of answer by taking as a framework of reflection the Kuwaiti context

Varje kommun ska ha en byggnadsnämnd. Byggnadsnämnden består av förtroendevalda poli-tiker som bland annat ansvarar för lovärendeprocessen. Tjänstemännen som jobbar med lovä-rendeprocessen är anställda av byggnadsnämnden. Tjänstemännens huvuduppgift är att ta be-slut i lovärenden via delegation från byggnadsnämnden. I lovärenden där delegation saknas ska tjänstemännen bereda lovärendet och skriva ett förslag till beslut. Förslaget ska sedan redovisas inför byggnadsnämnden, som därefter tar det slutliga beslutet. I denna uppsats har enbart lovä-renden där byggnadsnämnden och tjänstemännen har haft olika bedömningar granskats. Det har även granskats vilken laghänvisning och bedömning som ligger till grund för deras förslag eller beslut. Kommunen ska ge berörda grannar och sakägare tillfälle att yttra sig när det är en avvikelse från en detaljplan, områdesbestämmelser eller utanför detaljplan. Vid ett positivt lovbeslut ska kommunerna kungöra lovärendet i Post och Inrikes Tidningar. Båda dessa uppgifter måste ge-nomföras på rätt sätt för att hanteringen ska vara rättssäker och kvalitetssäker samt för att lo-värendet ska vinna laga kraft. Detta arbete ska undersöka hur kommunerna hanterar rättssäkerheten och kvalitetssäkerheten i lovprocessen för att ett lovärende ska vinna laga kraft. För att få vidare rådgivning, kunskap och information angående lagtolkning gällande granne-hörande och kungörelse togs kontakt med Ulrika Nolåker, Byggutbildarna, Ulf Jensen, profes-sor på Högskolan Väst och Eidar Lindgren universitetsadjunkt på Kungliga Tekniska Högsko-lan. I undersökningen studerades fyra kommuner i Västra Götalands län. Undersökningen delades upp i tre delar som bestod av intervju dels av tjänstemän och sakkunniga samt granskning av lovärenden. I kommunerna var det 1386 lovärenden som kom in och togs beslut under 2015. Av dessa var det 23 lovärenden där byggnadsnämnden inte tog beslut i enlighet med tjänste-männens förslag. Kommunernas lovärendeprocess saknar regelbundet arbetssätt både när det gäller grannehöran och kungörelse av lovärenden. Kommunerna använder en så kallad "tyst accept" vid granne-höran, vilket innebär att grannarna förlorar sin demokratiska rättighet att påverka åtgärden. Genom att hänvisa lagparagraf i ett beslut kvalitetssäkras beslutsunderlag. Att hänvisa till en lagparagraf är något som varken byggnadsnämnden eller tjänstemännen gör regelbundet. Kungörelsen i Post- och Inrikes Tidning gjordes mellan 12-28 dagar efter beslutet togs samt att det förkom lovärenden som inte var kungjorda överhuvudtaget. Endast tre av de 23 grans-kade lovärendena anses ha vunnit laga kraft.
Each municipality in Sweden must have a local building committee. The committee consists of elected politicians responsible for managing the permit process related to construction, dem-olition and ground processing. The committee manages the permit process by delegating the entire task or parts of it to employed officials. If there is no delegation the officials will write a suggested decision to be reviewed and decided by the committee. This essay investigates construction-, demolition- and ground processing permit where the of-ficials and the local building committee differ in their decisions and the assessment which led to these decisions. The examination included studies of four municipalities in the county of Västra Götaland: two smaller, Färgelanda and Munkedal municipalities, and two larger, Trollhättan and Uddevalla. The investigation consisted of two parts. One examination of the permit protocols, and a series of interviews with officials. During 2015 there were 1386 cases of permits within the four municipalities. 23 of these were cases of the committee not deciding in accordance with the proposition of the officials. A number of errors were also found, such as there not being a stated reason for the decision, or lack of any clear legal reference. This raises the question of whether or not the rule of law is followed during these circumstances. After consulting with Ulrika Nolåker from Byggutbildarna, the issues were expanded further when it was discovered that more errors occur during the municipal management of the con-cerned parties and the announcements of the cases. In order to receive further guidance, knowledge and information on how to interpret the laws handling concerned parties and an-nouncements, contact was made with Ulf Jensen and Eidar Lindgren, professor in real estate science at Högskolan Väst, and lecturer of real estate sciences at Kungliga Tekniska Högsko-lan, respectively. The conclusions of the examination is that the building committee puts a lot of responsibility on the officials through delegations. The cases when there is no delegation and the case is decided by the committee are few. The reasons why the proposition and the final decision not always matches is due to different factors such as different knowledge or different assessments. Neither the committee nor the officials are consistent with the law referencing in the decisions. The municipality cannot guarantee that every concerned party have been given the chance to give their opinion, when some of them use what’s called "silent agreement". Only three of the cases has the municipality received and opinion from every concerned party. None of the cases has been announced in the correct time and two has not been announced at all.

A regulação financeira, especialmente a regulação bancária, tem um papel central na organização da vida social. As modernas técnicas regulatórias, altamente sofisticadas, são o resultado de décadas de evolução. Elas exigem técnicos especializados, orçamentos específicos e uma estrutura institucional complexa. Mais que isso: para promover as regulações sistêmica e prudencial, os reguladores necessitam de amplos poderes normativos uma capacidade normativa de conjuntura. A atribuição de tais competências a órgãos que não contam com a legitimidade das urnas é considerada por alguns autores uma espécie de anomalia no direito constitucional. Para outros, ao contrário, ela é um elemento necessário do desenho institucional do Estado Regulador contemporâneo. É nesse ponto que se cruzam os debates sobre o processo de burocratização da vida social e sobre o desenvolvimento dos cânones do direito ocidental, especialmente a doutrina da separação dos poderes. A juridificação das esferas sociais suscita o tema do déficit democrático da formulação de políticas pela burocracia. A presente tese desenvolve, a partir do modelo de democracia deliberativa de Jürgen Habermas, a premissa normativa segundo a qual o controle judicial é necessário para garantir a legitimidade democrática do processo administrativo normativo. Como o cidadão comum não dispõe nem do conhecimento técnico nem dos meios materiais necessários para acompanhar o processo de tomada de decisões, o controle judicial deveria funcionar como um mecanismo de controle democrático da regulação financeira. A tese analisa esse déficit democrático a partir da jurisprudência constitucional do Supremo Tribunal Federal (STF) relativa à separação dos poderes e às disputas doutrinárias sobre delegação legislativa e poder regulamentar. Os estudos de caso, focados no sistema financeiro, buscam investigar se a atuação do STF tem garantido de forma adequada um equilíbrio entre a racionalidade tecnocrática e as exigências normativas de uma democracia deliberativa.
Financial regulation, specially banking regulation, plays a central role in the organization of social life. The current regulatory techniques, highly sophisticated, are the result of decades of evolution. They require well-trained public officials, specific budgets and a complex institutional framework. Moreover, in order to carry on the systemic and prudential regulations, regulators need broad rule-making powers. The assignment of such authority to non-majoritarian bodies is considered by some authors as a sort of anomaly in Constitutional Law. To others, it is seen as a necessary element of the institutional design of the contemporary Regulatory State. This is the stage where the debate about the process of bureaucratization of social life meets the intellectual concern about the current developments of western public law, namely the issue of the separation of powers. The juridification of the social spheres brings the issue of the democratic deficit of bureaucratic policymaking. Since ordinary citizens lack the expertise as well as the material and financial resources which are necessary to monitor the decision-making process, this dissertation develops the normative assumption that judicial review is necessary to ensure the democratic legitimacy of the administrative process. The dissertation analyses that democratic deficit from the viewpoint of the constitutional jurisprudence of the Brazilian Supreme Court (Supremo Tribunal Federal STF) regarding separation of powers, the rule-making authority of Brazilian non-majoritarian bodies and the doctrinal disputes about legislative delegation. The case studies show that the judicial review by STF has in practice rejected the Brazilian public law non-delegation doctrine, but has done it in a way that does not strike a balance between technocratic rationality and the normative claims of deliberative democracy.

Thesis (M.A. in Security Studies (Homeland Security and Defense))--Naval Postgraduate School, December 2008.
Thesis Advisor(s): Brannan, David; Miller, Patrick. "December 2008." Description based on title screen as viewed on January 29, 2009. Includes bibliographical references (p. 107-114). Also available in print.

La doctrine constitutionnelle française a reconnu, à la suite des traités de Jules Poudra et d’Eugène Pierre, que le droit parlementaire représentait une réalité juridique positive qui méritait d’être conceptualisée et d’accéder au rang de discipline universitaire. Paradoxalement, aucune étude approfondie du Gouvernement n’a jamais été menée pour déterminer s’il existait un droit gouvernemental.En procédant au récolement et à l’analyse des règles relatives à l’ordonnancement intérieur du Gouvernement de la Ve République, cette thèse entend précisément démontrer que le Gouvernement régit de manière autonome sa propre organisation et son fonctionnement internes au même titre que le Parlement. D’une part, elle permet de soutenir que le Gouvernement dispose d’une autonomie de portée variable (résiduelle, partagée ou pleine) lorsqu’il élabore le droit régissant son organisation politique. D’autre part, elle établit qu’il jouit d’une pleine autonomie pour réglementer l’organisation de son administration gouvernementale (cabinets ministériels, administrations chargées de la coordination interministérielle et administrations centrales).Cette thèse ne prétend pas pour autant constituer une théorie générale du droit gouvernemental. Elle se veut une première recherche de droit constitutionnel destinée à susciter un débat doctrinal au sujet de l’existence juridique du droit gouvernemental et de son utilité pour la démocratie
French constitutional doctrine, following the treaties of Jules Poudra and Eugène Pierre, acknowledged that Parliamentary Law represented a positive reality which deserved to be conceptualised and take its full place as a university discipline. It is paradoxical that no in-depth study has ever been carried out on Government to determine if Governmental law really existsBy collecting, gathering and analysing the rules concerning the internal organisation of the Government of the Fifth Republic, this thesis wishes to prove that the Government regulates its own organisation and internal operations in an autonomous manner in much the same way as the Parliament. On the one hand this thesis defends the fact that the Government has a variable scope of autonomy (Residual, shared or complete) when drawing up laws governing its own organisation policy. On the other hand, it points out that the Government exercises full autonomy to regulate the organisation of its administration (Ministries, Offices in charge of coordinating the different Ministries and the Central Administration).The intention of this thesis is not to put forward a general theory on Governmental Law. It is an initial research into constitutional law with a purpose of stimulating doctrinal debate on the existence of Governmental Law and its utility for Democracy

La doctrine constitutionnelle française a reconnu, à la suite des traités de Jules Poudra et d’Eugène Pierre, que le droit parlementaire représentait une réalité juridique positive qui méritait d’être conceptualisée et d’accéder au rang de discipline universitaire. Paradoxalement, aucune étude approfondie du Gouvernement n’a jamais été menée pour déterminer s’il existait un droit gouvernemental.En procédant au récolement et à l’analyse des règles relatives à l’ordonnancement intérieur du Gouvernement de la Ve République, cette thèse entend précisément démontrer que le Gouvernement régit de manière autonome sa propre organisation et son fonctionnement internes au même titre que le Parlement. D’une part, elle permet de soutenir que le Gouvernement dispose d’une autonomie de portée variable (résiduelle, partagée ou pleine) lorsqu’il élabore le droit régissant son organisation politique. D’autre part, elle établit qu’il jouit d’une pleine autonomie pour réglementer l’organisation de son administration gouvernementale (cabinets ministériels, administrations chargées de la coordination interministérielle et administrations centrales).Cette thèse ne prétend pas pour autant constituer une théorie générale du droit gouvernemental. Elle se veut une première recherche de droit constitutionnel destinée à susciter un débat doctrinal au sujet de l’existence juridique du droit gouvernemental et de son utilité pour la démocratie
French constitutional doctrine, following the treaties of Jules Poudra and Eugène Pierre, acknowledged that Parliamentary Law represented a positive reality which deserved to be conceptualised and take its full place as a university discipline. It is paradoxical that no in-depth study has ever been carried out on Government to determine if Governmental law really existsBy collecting, gathering and analysing the rules concerning the internal organisation of the Government of the Fifth Republic, this thesis wishes to prove that the Government regulates its own organisation and internal operations in an autonomous manner in much the same way as the Parliament. On the one hand this thesis defends the fact that the Government has a variable scope of autonomy (Residual, shared or complete) when drawing up laws governing its own organisation policy. On the other hand, it points out that the Government exercises full autonomy to regulate the organisation of its administration (Ministries, Offices in charge of coordinating the different Ministries and the Central Administration).The intention of this thesis is not to put forward a general theory on Governmental Law. It is an initial research into constitutional law with a purpose of stimulating doctrinal debate on the existence of Governmental Law and its utility for Democracy

Esta Tesis Doctoral presenta la edición y el estudio global de seis certificados de peregrinación a los lugares santos de La Meca y Medina, datados entre los ss. XV y XVI. La particularidad de esta tipología documental radica en que la modalidad de peregrinación acreditada es la delegación, cuyo origen legal analizaremos en esta Tesis Doctoral. En este sentido, este trabajo se aleja de la perspectiva devocional con la que los certificados han sido descritos, y propone que el papel desempeñado por estos documentos estaría relacionado con la jurisprudencia islámica sobre la herencia. Los manuscritos aquí estudiados serán analizados comparativamente, lo que nos permite ofrecer una panorámica general de la evolución de esta tipología desde tres perspectivas diferentes: materialidad, textualidad e iconografía. El objetivo de este trabajo es avanzar en el conocimiento de los motivos que suscitaron la aparición de los certificados y complementar el trabajo de edición y estudio de manuscritos inéditos conforme a los criterios de la Papirología.
This PhD Dissertation presents the edition and global study of six pilgrimage certificates to the holy places of Mecca and Medina, dated between the 15th and 16th centuries. The particularity of this documentary typology lies in the fact that they attest delegated pilgrimages, whose legal origin is analyzed in this work. In this sense, this Dissertation differs in perspective from the devotional approach commonly used to study previously described certificates, and propose that the role played by these documents would be related to the Islamic jurisprudence on inheritance law. The comparative analysis, on the other hand, allows us to offer a general overview of the evolution of this typology from three different perspectives: materiality, textuality, and iconography. The main aim of this work is shed light on our knowledge of this kind of documents, explore the reasons for their emergence and implement the methodology of editing and studying unpublished manuscripts according to the criteria proposed by Papyrology.

Tenaillé entre les logiques de la globalisation juridique, de l'intégration communautaireet les contraintes politiques, économiques et sociales propres aux Etats, le droit des contratsadministratifs en Afrique noire francophone s'est transformé. Ses sources se sont élargies. Sesfondements conceptuels et matériels ont connu une mutation. C'est dans ce contexte qu'émergele droit de la commande publique. Renouvelant les principes matriciels de transparence, deliberté et d'égalité, le droit de la commande publique apporte un noyau dur de règles communesaux marchés publics, aux contrats de délégation de service public et aux contrats de partenariatpublic-privée. Pour ce faire, il se fonde d'abord sur une nouvelle conceptualisation des notions àla base du droit des contrats administratifs. Dans un second temps, le droit de la commandepublique représente une refondation des procédures de passation, des mécanismes de contrôle etde règlement des litiges relatifs à ces contrats administratifs. L'émergence de ces nouvellesrègles fait suite aux réformes d'envergure des législations nationales relatives aux contratsadministratifs. Cette étude se donne comme objectif d'analyser les apports véritables desdispositions issues de ces réformes afin de voir si elles ont permis de garantir davantagel'effectivité de l'idéologie concurrentielle
Caught between the new reality of legal globalization, community integrationrequirements and the political, economic and social constraints of each state, the regulation ofadministrative contracts in French-speaking African countries has changed. The sources of suchregulation have been expanded. Its conceptual and material foundations have changed. A newsystem of public procurement has emerged. Trying to renew principles of transparency, as wellas freedom of acces to public procurement and equality, the new public procurement regulationprovides a body of common rules for public procurement, public service delegation contractsand public-private partnership contracts.First, in order to achieve this, it relies on a new interpretation of the notions on whichAdministrative Contracts Law is based. Second, the new public procurement regulationrepresents a recasting of award procedures, control mechanisms and dispute resolutionmeasures. The emergence of these new regulations follows reforms of Administrative ContractsLaw in the respective countries.The objective of this study is to analyze the actual contribution of provisions flowing from thesereforms, in order to see if they are contributing to ensuring that competitive ideology isincreasingly effective

Tant pour la jurisprudence (constitutionnelle et administrative) que pour une partie de la doctrine, l’encadrement de la passation et de l’exécution des contrats administratifs de l’État et de ses établissements publics ainsi que des marchés des collectivités territoriales et de leurs établissements relève du domaine du règlement. Et ce, car à l’origine, l’association du droit de la commande publique aux matières relevant traditionnellement du pouvoir réglementaire autonome, telles que la procédure administrative non contentieuse et l’organisation des services publics est un fait établi. Pourtant, le désordre normatif dans les sources législatives et réglementaires du droit des contrats de la commande publique est largement dû à la place marquée du pouvoir réglementaire. Malgré la consolidation jurisprudentielle de cette dernière, des textes législatifs destinés à s’articuler avec les textes réglementaires se sont multipliés, accentuant la complexité de la matière. En général, le mouvement ascendant des sources du droit des contrats administratifs de la commande publique dans la hiérarchie des normes ces dernières années, y compris sa dimension communautaire, exige l’intervention préalable du législateur. De la sorte, la réorganisation des sources textuelles du droit des contrats de la commande publique s’impose avec la plus grande acuité par la ré-détermination des fondements constitutionnels des compétences normatives en la matière et, consécutivement, des rapports entre la loi et le règlement en faveur de la première dans l’encadrement du régime de la passation et d’exécution des contrats respectifs. L’unification du fondement constitutionnel de la compétence de la loi en matière contractuelle sur le fondement de l’article 34 qui attribue au législateur le soin de déterminer les principes fondamentaux des obligations civiles contribuera décisivement à la cohérence et à la systématisation des sources du droit de la commande publique. Une fois la compétence de la loi sauvegardée, le règlement se limitera à son rôle habituel, à savoir, un rôle secondaire et subordonné à l’égard de celle-ci
According to the case law of the Constitutional Council and the administrative courts as well as to some public law theorists, the definition of the rules governing the award and the performance of Government administrative contracts, administrative contracts of State-depended public bodies and public contracts of local authorities falls within the scope of the regulatory powers of Government. More specifically it is argued that public procurement law is part of the rules governing the procedure of administrative decision making and the organisation of public services which are matters traditionally reserved to the autonomous regulatory power. The lack of coherence within the legislative and regulatory sources of public procurement law is mainly due to the predominant role of regulations. Despite the latter’s consolidation by the French courts, the growing number of legislative texts intended to build a coherent set of rules in this field has become a source of complexity. The transformation of the sources of the law of administrative contracts in the last few years – including the Community law dimension – requires the prior intervention of the Legislature. Therefore, the provisions governing the law of public procurement contracts should necessarily be restructured. This could be achieved through the redefinition of the constitutional basis of legislative and regulatory powers in the field of public contract law and consequently through a new balance between law and regulation with the intention of safeguarding the predominance of the former. Drafting the rules on the basis of Article 34 of the French Constitution which enables the Legislature to define the fundamental principles of civil obligations will clearly contribute to a more coherent and systematic approach regarding the sources of public procurement law.. Should the powers of the Legislature be safeguarded, the regulations will then be confined to their usual role, which is secondary and subordinate to Parliamentary Acts

Frans Vredenrijk Engelenburg (1863-1938) played a major role in the development and expansion of Afrikaans and the Afrikaans academic culture - especially in the northern part of South Africa. As a Dutch intellectual, lawyer and journalist in the nineteenth century South African Republic (Transvaal), he in particular played an important role as advisor and opinion maker from the 1890s onward. One of his biggest achievements was the key role that he played in the establishment of De Zuid Afrikaanse Akademie voor Taal, Letteren en Kunst in 1909. This study is the first part of a more comprehensive biographical project on the life of Engelenburg and the role he fulfilled in the history of the Akademie and South Africa until the thirties of the twentieth century. Since the 1600s the Engelenburg family has played a prominent role in the community where they lived. Aside from the high positions they had held for centuries before, they had in the fourth and again in the sixth generation married into noble families. This contributed to their important position in the community. Due to circumstances Engelenburg was not raised in the Engelenburg milieu. A family break in 1836 was the cause that Engelenburg's father, as a baby, was spirited away from this family milieu. Engelenburg received an extraordinarily good schooling. The solid intellectual foundation already laid then, to a large extent determined the course of his life. He was at the Stedelijk Gymnasium Arnhem when he met Marie Koopmans-De Wet (1834-1906), an aunt by marriage who lived in Cape Town, when on a visit to Europe. She was his soul mate and acted as a mentor and advisor to Engelenburg. The friendship strengthened with the years. He already at school had the desire to visit South Africa one day. His parents' divorce when he was still a student at the University of Leyden, steered his life in a very different direction than what he had foreseen for himself. The divorce was to a large extent the reason that, although he had studied law, he discarded the notion of a career in law after only a year. His decision to follow a career in journalism affected the rest of his life. The Transvaal War (1880-1881) meant that the Dutch developed an admiration for the Transvaalers for the determination and courage they displayed in their attempts to defeat the British army. President Paul Kruger's call shortly after the war that the Transvaal needed young Dutchmen further encouraged Engelenburg to come to South Africa. Previously Engelenburg had for a year worked for Fred Hogendorp at the Dagblad van Suidholland en s’Gravenhage in The Hague. Circumstances abruptly changed when Hogendorp suddenly became insane. During the same time, the owner of De Volksstem newspaper in Pretoria had committed suicide and Engelenburg seized the work opportunity. Within a matter of three months, he arrived in the Transvaal. Within a month after his arrival he was appointed chief editor of De Volksstem. He had studied the Transvaal situation thoroughly and by means of the newspaper and through tireless efforts, he contributed to improving the farming community’s cultural literacy. The education situation in the Transvaal enjoyed his constant attention. After the Anglo-Boer War (ABW) (1899-1902), he continued to work towards improving the education system in the Transvaal. He early on became involved in the Transvaal University College (later University of Pretoria). Before the ABW he did everything possible to promote the Dutch language to the Boer people. However, after the war he realised that Afrikaans had a rightful place, and he, in addition to Dutch, became a champion for the Afrikaans language. The battle between the proponents of Dutch and Afrikaans respectively, increased after the ABW. To achieve unity of action between the two groups, De Zuid Afrikaanse Akademie voor Taal, Letteren and Kunst was founded in 1909. Behind the scenes Engelenburg was one of the major driving forces to assist with the founding of the organisation. As a board member and later as chairman, he gave impetus to the Akademie. In 2009 the organisation celebrated its centenary. This is an important milestone, especially seen in the light of the current political climate in South Africa. The Akademie can now be regarded as a monument to Engelenburg as the fruit of his labour and perseverance during the first three decades of the Akademie’s existence.
Thesis (M.A. (History))--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2010.

Le principe de légalité de l’impôt, en tant que traduction au plan juridique du principe de consentement de l’impôt et principe fondamental du droit fiscal, est universellement reconnu par des pays démocratiques. Ce principe consistant à limiter le pouvoir de l’exécutif en matière fiscale et protéger des droits fondamentaux du contribuable en tant que citoyen, joue un rôle crucial pour l’établissement de la hiérarchie des normes dans un Etat de droit. Pourtant, ce principe n’est reconnu que de manière partielle et imprécise dans le droit chinois. Nous avons conviction que l’application effective de ce principe permettra non seulement d’améliorer l’efficacité de la gestion des impôts, mais aussi de diminuer les tensions et d’améliorer les relations entre l’administration fiscale et le contribuable. L’application de ce principe doit se réaliser autour de deux axes : l’un consiste en l’établissement des normes fiscales essentielles par la loi afin de délimiter le pouvoir réglementaire en matière fiscale, et l’autre en la mise en œuvre effective de ces normes dans les procédures fiscales afin de protéger les droits du contribuable. Pour le premier, l’abrogation de ces habilitations nous paraît fort souhaitable et indispensable pour régler le problème de l’incompétence négative du législateur chinois et celui du déclassement des normes fiscales dans le pays. Pour ce dernier, il est nécessaire de révéler les illégalités et les irrégularités commises dans l’exécution de la loi fiscale qui menacent sérieusement l’application effective du principe de légalité de l’impôt en Chine, que ce soit dans les procédures d’imposition ou dans les procédures contentieuses
The principle of legality of the tax, being a translation of the taxation consent in a legal background, is universally recognized by democratic countries. This principle, consisting to limit the taxation power of the government and to protect the fundamental rights of citizen, plays a crucial role to establish a hierarchy of legal rules. However, this principle is recognized only partially and vaguely in China. We have conviction that the effective application of this principle will not only improve the efficiency of the management of the taxes, but also calm down the tensions and to improve the relationship between the administration and tax payers.The application of this principle must be carried out around two axes: one consists in the establishment of taxation rules principally by law in order to limit the power of regulation of government, the other in effective application of the legal rules in taxation, in order to protect the tax payer’s rights. For the first one, abrogation of delegations of legislative power appears desirable and necessary to settle the problem of negligence of legislator’s competence, as well as the depreciation of the tax norms in China. And as for the second one, it is necessary to notice the illegality and irregularities in the execution of the legal rules, which is an obstacle to apply this principle either in the taxation in the proceedings

Les fédérations sportives françaises se sont développées en dehors de toute intervention étatique. Elles disposaient alors de prérogatives propres en vue de l'organisation des compétitions de leur discipline sportive. Il découlait de leur statut associatif qu'elles étaient entièrement régies par le droit privé. Néanmoins, à partir d'une jurisprudence du Conseil d'Etat de 1974 entérinant l'existence d'un service public délégué aux structures fédérales, le législateur consacrera progressivement le principe de l'octroi de leurs prérogatives par le ministère chargé des sports au travers de deux actes : l'agrément ministériel et la délégation de service public. Dès lors que la délivrance de ces actes est synonyme de pouvoirs reconnus aux fédérations par le droit étatique et que la délégation mène à la publicisation de leur régime juridique, cette étude a pour objet de dresser la teneur de cet encadrement des prérogatives fédérales. L'agrément et la délégation entraînent pour les fédérations bénéficiaires, diverses sujétions visant à encadrer leur fonctionnement et qui tendent à réduire leur autonomie. Il s'agit d'un encadrement de nature textuelle, contenu au sein de la législation. Bien que ces prescriptions légales se singularisent par leur application uniforme à l'égard de ces fédérations, l'attribution par le ministère des sports de leurs pouvoirs se révèle hétérogène. L'examen de cet encadrement ministériel, appréhendé notamment au travers de sa politique interventionniste à l'égard des disciplines de " boxes pieds poings ", conduit à envisager ses incertitudes ainsi que les pistes d'une réforme de son cadre légal.

L’éducation publique coréenne, qui a contribué à la croissance économique et de la démocratie en moins de cent ans, était la fierté du pays, mais elle s’est érodée sous l’effet du poids de l’éducation privée et la crise de l’éducation publique. À partir de la prise de conscience de ces problèmes, cette thèse débute avec l’intention d’obtenir des idées éducatives et juridiques applicables à l’éducation coréenne en analysant le domaine du service public de l’éducation française. Le problème lié au statut ambigu des écoles privées et celui du principe de neutralité incorrectement appliqué sont souvent indiqués comme problèmes juridiques observés dans le service public de l’éducation en Corée du Sud. Comme solution à ce problème, l’introduction du concept de service public français et des fondements juridiques associés, tels que la classification des services publics fondée sur la norme fonctionnelle, la délégation de service public, le respect des principes du service public et la résolution active des litiges par le biais de tribunaux administratifs, mérite d’être envisagée. Le service public exige le respect de principes connexes, donc l’introduction de la notion de service public peut également contribuer à résoudre les problèmes liés au principe de neutralité. L’obligation de neutralité ne s’étend pas au domaine de la vie privée, et ne doit pas servir de base juridique pour la privation des droits fondamentaux. De plus, les écoles privées religieuses, bénéficiant de subventions de l’État, doivent respecter le principe de neutralité plutôt que d’imposer une religion spécifique aux membres de l’école
The South Korean public education which contributed to the success of economic growth and democracy within a century was the pride of the country, but it eroded under the weight of the private school system and the public education crisis. Being aware of these issues, this thesis aims to obtain educational and legal ideas that apply to the education in South Korea by analyzing the French public service of education. Issues related to the ambiguous status of private schools and the neutrality principle incorrectly applied are usually reported as legal issues observed in the South Korean public service of education. As a solution to these issues, consider introducing the French concept of public service and related legal basis such as classification of public services based on functional standards, delegation of public services, respect for public service principles and active resolution of disputes through administrative courts are worth considering. The public sector requires respect for related principles and the introduction of the concept of public service can contribute to the resolution of problems related to the neutrality principle. The obligation of neutrality does not extend to the area of private life and should not serve as a legal basis to deprive fundamental rights. In addition, private religious schools which receive public subsidies, must respect the principle of neutrality instead of enforcing a specific religion on the members of the school

D.Ed. (Education Management)
This research departs from the premise that within the school, the principal as a professional leader, is vested with some kind of authority which he' exercises in order to ensure effective and efficient management of his school. He is the central authoritative body and the pivot on which management powers and their delegation " hinge. He derives this apparent authoritative legal status from his position as a principal and professional leader ofa school (Bray, 1988:44). Placed in this situation, the principal is called upon to utilize a wide range of competencies in carrying out his job and delegation is one of the most important management techniques he must rely on, if he wants to be successful. However, delegation of authority does require consideration of some legal implications such as the legal limitation that certain tasks delegated by law cannot be further delegated. Schools, like other organizations, are legally established organizations set up to serve specific functions, and like all organizations, they need to be administered and properly managed. Invariably, within the school final authority over most aspects of schooling rests with the school principal. Engelking (in Hostrop,1990:200) argues that "the principal of a successful high school is an initiator, one who displays creativity and vision in decision-making, one who is able to delegate responsibility as appropriate and analyzes information relative to school problems"...

碩士
臺北巿立體育學院
運動科學研究所
91
Abstract The purpose of this study was to understand government purchasing law, the purchase of sports facility and the influence of the implementation of government purchase law on the sports groups, studying the Busan Asian Games as a case. This study investigates the problems encountered by the sports groups when purchasing sports facility, whose influence to athletes and some suggestions for future reference. It is a hope that the result of this study can be provided to government and civil organizations for their future reference. This study was written with support from analyzing the questionnaires of the impact of the government purchasing law on the sports groups, sampling from 46 staff of Busan Asian Games participating groups, and the results of the study are as follows: 1. Most of the staff think that the implementation of the government purchasing law has made the purchase of sports facility deficient, lack of administration back up and that a clear system be set up. 2. Most of the staff disagrees that the government purchasing law should imply to the national sports teams when purchasing sports facility, for it takes time to facilitate the procedures. Besides, designated sports facility does not allow to be replaced by others. 3. In general, the efficiency of purchasing training facility is vital to the improvement of the skill and result of the athletes. 4. To sum up, suggestions are that modification of the purchasing law or addition to relative regulations of the sports purchasing law can be made or in consultation with that of the other fields.

Au cours d'une transaction portant sur une acceptation bancaire (ci-après «BA» tel que dénommée dans le jargon juridique) différents types de relations peuvent s'établir entre les parties impliquées, certaines plus directes que d'autres. Dans une transaction donnée, à part le client et la banque, on peut trouver une ou plusieurs banques participantes et un ou plusieurs investisseurs, qui deviennent détenteurs de BA. La situation peut devenir complexe et les relations légales risquent de devenir assez compliquées. Cependant, il est important d'identifier si la relation s'est établie à travers l'instrument de BA, si elle existe par le biais d'une relation contractuelle ordinaire ou encore, si elle existe par le fait de la loi. Une bonne analyse des circonstances entourant la transaction, des facteurs connexes à la transaction et des droits et obligations qui existent entre les parties, sera nécessaire pour déterminer laquelle de la loi provinciale ou fédérale s'appliquera, et dans quelle mesure. Une fois accordée, la BA est gouvernée par la Loi sur les lettres de change. Toutes solutions apportées à un problème qui implique des BA, doivent, en principe, respecter la nature inhérente de la BA en tant qu'effet de commerce, gouverné par la loi fédérale. En matière de BA, c'est, soit la Loi sur les lettres de change soit la Loi sur les lettres et billets de dépôt (Depository Bills and Note Act) qui s'appliqueront à l'acte. Comme il existe des lois fédérales applicables à la BA, l'objet de notre étude est de déterminer si, et dans quelle circonstance la loi de la province, tel que le Code civil du Québec, trouvera application et éclaircira dans certains cas la disposition contenue dans la Loi sur les lettres de change, notamment lorsque les dispositions de ladite loi sont silencieuses ou ambigües. La solution la plus simple serait d'appliquer la loi provinciale aux matières qui ne sont pas traitées dans la loi, étant donné que les lois provinciales apportent souvent un complément à la législation fédérale. Cependant, la Loi sur les lettres de change contient des dispositions spéciales, tel que l'article 9 qui stipule : « 9. Les règles de la common law d'Angleterre, y compris en droit commercial, s'appliquent aux lettres, billets et chèques dans la mesure de leur compatibilité avec les dispositions expresses de la présente loi. » Cette disposition a crée une certaine confusion relativement à l'application du droit civil du Québec en matière de Lettres de change. En effet, il existe un doute quant à savoir si l'application de l'article 9 est une incorporation par référence qui exclue totalement l'application du droit civil. Cette question continue de se poser inexorablement dans la doctrine et la jurisprudence. Elle a en effet donné lieu à une série de théories quand au degré d'application de la common law en matière de lettres de change. Une revue de la jurisprudence dominante nous permet de conclure que les tribunaux ont accepté l'application du droit provinciale dans certaines questions impliquant les lettres de change. La question essentielle traitée lors de notre analyse est la suivante: lorsqu'un litige prend naissance dans une transaction de BA, quelle est la règle qui devra s'appliquer? Quel sera le droit qui gouvernera les problèmes émergeant dans une BA, celui du Code Civil du Québec ou celui de la common law d'Angleterre? Étant donne le nombre de cas qui sont portés devant les cours de justice en rapport avec des transactions de BA, comprendre quelle sera la loi applicable est d'une importance fondamentale. Pour répondre à cette question, nous commencerons par un examen de l'historique, du développement et de l'évolution de la BA. Afin de mieux comprendre la BA, nous débuterons par un bref survol des origines de cet instrument juridique. Dans le deuxième chapitre, nous analyserons la nature et le caractère légal de la BA. Cela constituera le cadre aux travers duquel nous pourrons identifier les règles et les principes qui s'appliquent aux différents aspects de la transaction de BA. Le chapitre trois fera l'objet d'un examen détaillé des mécanismes de l'opération de BA tout en étudiant de près les exigences imposées par la législation applicable. Après avoir examine l'aspect légal de la BA, nous procéderons au chapitre quatre, à l'étude de l'applicabilité de la loi provinciale relativement à certains aspects de la transaction de BA. A cet effet, nous examinerons les différentes approches de compréhension de la Loi sur les lettres de change et plus particulièrement la problématique rencontrée à l'article 9. Nous étudierons aussi l'application et l'interprétation de cette loi par les tribunaux du Québec au cours du siècle dernier. Les juges et les juristes se sont penchés sur les sens qu'a voulu donner le législateur lorsqu'il a stipulé dans l'article 9 «Le règles de la common law d'Angleterre, y compris en droit commercial, s appliquent aux lettres, billets et chèques dans la mesure de leur compatibilité avec les dispositions expresses de la présente loi ». Cette section doit-elle être appliquée à la lettre, nous obligeant à appliquer la common law d'Angleterre a chaque problème qui peut se poser en relation avec les lettres et les billets? Le Parlement a-t-il l'intention que cette disposition s'applique également au Québec, dont le droit privé est basé sur le système du Code Civil? Notre étude portera sur les différentes approches d'interprétation qui offrent une diversité de solutions au problème posé par l'article 9. Finalement, compte tenu des nouveaux développements législatifs, au chapitre cinq, nous proposons une méthode en vue de déterminer la loi applicable aux différents aspects de la transaction de BA. Notre analyse nous a conduit à adopter la solution proposée par la majorité des juristes, à la différence que notre approche de l'article 9 est basée sur des raisons de politique. Nous avons donc adopté la stricte dichotomie (en tant qu'effet négociable d'une part, et d'une sorte de contrat et de propriété de l'autre) en prenant en compte les difficultés inhérentes à déterminer quand l'un finit et l'autre commence. En conclusion, selon notre opinion, il existe deux solutions. Premièrement, il y a la possibilité que l'article 9 puisse être écarté. Dans ce cas, toutes les matières qui ne sont pas expressément évoquées dans la loi tomberont dans la compétence de la loi provinciale, comme c'est le cas dans d'autres types de législations fédérales. Dans ces situations, le droit civil du Québec joue un rôle supplétif dans les applications d'une loi fédérale au Québec. Deuxièmement, modifier l'article 9 plutôt que d'en écarter son application offre une autre possibilité. Incorporer la large stricte dichotomie dans l'article 9 nous semble être une solution préférable. La disposition pourrait se lire comme suit: « Les règles de la common law d'Angleterre incluant le droit commercial dans la mesure ou elles ne sont pas incompatibles avec les dispositions expresses de la Loi, s’appliquent aux lettres, billets, et chèques au sens stricte. Pour plus de certitude, les lettres et les billets au sens strict, incluent la forme, la délivrance et I’émission des lettres, billets, et chèques.» Ce type de changement se révélera être un pas important dans le but de clarifier la loi et déterminer l'équilibre à trouver entre l'application des lois fédérales et provinciales en matière de BA.
When dealing with a BA transaction several types of relationships may develop, some more direct than others. In any given transaction, aside from the customer and bank, there may be one or more participating banks, investment dealers, or multiple investors, who become holders of the BA. The situation may be complex and the legal relationships may become quite intricate. However, it is important to identify whether the relationship is established through the BA instrument, or whether it exists by ordinary contractual relationship or by operation of law. Proper analysis of the surrounding circumstances, the connecting factors, and the obligations and the rights which exist between the parties, will be necessary in determining whether or not the contractual rules of the provinces, or federal law rules apply, and to what extent. Granted, the BA instrument is clearly governed by the Bills of Exchange Act. Any solution introduced to a problem involving a BA must, in principle, respect the inherent nature of the BA as a negotiable instrument, governed by federal law. In the case of BAs, either the Bills of Exchange Act or the Depository Bills and Notes Act will apply to the instrument. Since there are applicable federal rules to BAs, the purpose of our study is to determine if, and under what circumstances, provincial law, such as the Civil Code of Quebec, would find application with respect to BAs and complement the provisions of the Bills of Exchange Act where the statute is silent or ambiguous. The simple solution would be to apply provincial law to those matters not addressed in the Act, as provincial law typically compliments federal legislation. However, the Bills of Exchange Act contains a peculiar provision, namely section 9, which provides: “9. The rules of the common law of England, including the law merchant, save in so far as they are inconsistent with the express provisions of this Act, apply to bills, notes and cheques.” This provision has created confusion as to the appropriate application of Quebec civil law to matters of bills of exchange. Indeed, there is doubt as to whether section 9 is in fact an incorporation by reference that effectively precludes the application of civil law. The problem continues to be a contentious issue in the doctrine and jurisprudence. The "inexorable character" of the problem created by the interpretation of this provision has given rise to a number of diverse theories regarding the extent of the applicability of common law to matters of bills of exchange. As we can clearly conclude from a review of the jurisprudence, the courts, for the most part, have been conciliatory to the application of provincial law in issues involving bills of exchange. The majority of judges express a hesitance to jeopardize the integrity of the provincial law as complimentary law in order to accommodate the idea that Parliament's desire was to enact an extensive and far-reaching law of bills and notes. The position of most doctrinal writers is very much the same. The essential question of our analysis is which rules will govern the issues, which emerge within BAs - the Civil Code of Quebec or the common law of England? From a Canadian perspective, understanding which law is applicable to BAs is of paramount importance, since courts are dealing with an increasing amount of banker's acceptance transactions. To answer this question, we will begin with an examination of the origin and evolution of the banker's acceptance. In Chapter Two, we will also analyze the nature and legal character of the BA. This will establish the framework through which we can identify the rules and principles that apply to the various aspects of the BA transaction. In Chapter Three, we examine the mechanics of the BA operation step-by-step, paying close attention to the requirements imposed by legislation. We look at the laws applicable to the BA and describe the various agreements pertaining to the BA. Having examined the legal nature of the BA as being a negotiable instrument governed by federal law and a contract and moveable pursuant to the Civil Code of Quebec, we will proceed in Chapter Four to consider the applicability of provincial law to aspects of the BA transaction. To this end, we examine different approaches to understanding the Bills of Exchange Act, particularly the problematic section 9, as well as the applicable law as understood in Quebec jurisprudence during the past century. Judges and jurists alike have attempted to understand what was meant when the legislator stated in section 9, "[t]he rules of the common law of England, including the law merchant, save in so far as they are inconsistent with the express provisions of this Act, apply to bills, notes and cheques." Is this section to be interpreted literally, requiring us to apply English common law to every issue that might arise in connection with bills and notes? Does Parliament intend this provision to apply equally to Quebec, whose private law is based on the civil law system? Our study will look to interpretive approaches offering a variety of different solutions to the problem of section 9. Finally, given new legislative developments, in Chapter Five, we offer a proposed method to determine the law applicable to various aspects of the BA transaction. Our analysis has lead us to adopt the result advocated by the majority of jurists, but with the recognition that our approach to section 9 is based on reasons of policy. We have adopted the strict/wide dichotomy, (as a negotiable instrument on the one hand, and as a specie of contract and property on the other hand) realizing the difficulties inherent in determining where one ends and the other begins. Therefore, in our opinion there exist two solutions. Firstly, there is the possibility that section 9 could be repealed. In this case, all matters not expressly dealt with in the Act would fall to be governed by provincial law, as is the case with other federal legislation. In these situations, Quebec civil law takes on a suppletive role in applying a federal law in Quebec. Secondly, there is the possibility of modifying rather than repealing section 9. Incorporating the strict/wide dichotomy into section 9 itself seems to us to be a more preferable solution. The provision could read, "The rules of the common law of England, including the law merchant, save in so far as they are inconsistent with the express provisions of this Act, apply to bills, notes and cheques in a strict sense. For greater certainty, bills and notes in a strict sense include the form, issue, negotiation and discharge of bills, notes and cheques." Alternatively, a Law Reform Commission could draft an Act that defines section 9 according to the strict /wide dichotomy. These types of changes would prove to be an important step to clarifying the law, and strike the appropriate balance between the application of federal and provincial law to bankers' acceptances.

碩士
臺灣大學
國家發展研究所
98
According to the regulations that in this law, the management organization is ○○○ in the central government, is the municipal government in the municipality, and is the county (city) government in the county (city), the present central laws often divides administration authority into central and local, thereby establishing the level of the jurisdiction of administrative appeal in administrative remedies. However, after dividing administration authority into central and local, local governments add empowerment clauses in organizational autonomy laws and use delegation regulations, 15th 1st item, in administrative procedural laws to delegate the power to sub institutions. As a result, besides changing the punishment nominal institutions, the level of the jurisdiction of administrative appeal in administrative remedies is also changed. Thus, a case of administrative appeal that belongs to the central level is changed to the local level. Whether this method is appropriate is worthy of discussion, especially for the situation that many municipalities directly under the jurisdiction of the central government, such as Taipei City, New Taipei City, Taichung City, Tainan City, and Kaohsiung City, and quasi-municipalities, such as Taoyuan County, are increasing. Such way, that’s revising empowerment clauses in organizational autonomy laws, and delegating power to the first-level institutions will become the normality, resulting in the unfair dispute of the case of administrative appeal. This study adopts the theory of the administrative-appeal system and the administrative jurisdiction to analyze various pragmatically operative difficulties and causes of disputes resulting from local governments using organizational autonomy laws to delegate power. The author explores the actual operative situation through the explanation of laws to make clear the gap between the theory and the practice, which highlights the contradiction and drawbacks of the present system. Thus, this study thinks that the delegating clauses in local organizational laws not only lead harm to people’s rights of administrative appeal but also mismatch the nature of autonomous and delegating notes. Next, the change of the administrative jurisdiction should be recognized severely and it should have definite laws in order to avoid the arbitrary change of the level of the jurisdiction of administrative appeal. Lastly, owing to the dispute of delegating clauses in local organizational laws, this study suggests that power delegation as well as the definition, applicable scope, prerequisite, and recognizable principals of delegation should be more specific and definite, and central functional laws should be provided. As to administrative appeal, the jurisdiction of administrative appeal should coordinate the relative regulations of power transferring in administrative procedural laws. The selection of members and the chairman of administrative-appeal committee should avoid choosing by the self institution to maintain the fairness.

The rule-making power of the European Commission, dissertation Mgr. Mgr. Jiří Lenfeld, M.A.; supervisor: doc. JUDr. Richard Král, Ph.D., LL.M. Charles University, Faculty of Law, Department of European Law Prague, March 2013 The aim of the dissertation is to analyse the role of the European Commission in the legislative process of the European Union with the focus on procedures for adoption of legally binding Union acts. The European Commission is one of the main institutions of the European Union. It represents and upholds the interests of the EU as a whole and manages the day-to-day business of implementing EU policies. However, to limit the role of the European Commission to that of an executive body would be misleading. Its role in the EU institutional system is much broader than that. The European Commission is the most important legislator among the EU institutions and is also empowered with an almost exclusive power to submit drafts of EU legal acts. The rule-making power of the European Commission could be seen from two different points of view. In a narrow sense of the word it could be seen as a power conferred on the European Commission by the Treaties to propose drafts and to adopt EU legal acts implementing legally binding Union acts. However, the exercise of the rule-making power may...

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
This research explores what roles nonprofits play in political representation by applying the concept of the representational role to nonprofits. The representational role consists of representational focus and style. Representational focus shows those whom nonprofits aim to serve: members, constituents, or the general public. Representational style denotes the ways nonprofits advocate for their focal groups: the delegation, trusteeship, and educational styles. The survey and regression analysis results demonstrate that nonprofits serving their members are most likely to convey their members’ voices directly to policy makers: the delegation style. In contrast, nonprofits advocating for their constituents are likely to pursue what they independently identify as the interests of their constituents: the trusteeship style. Finally, nonprofits speaking for the general public are most likely to work toward educating the general public: the educational style. These results suggest that nonprofits play different roles in political representation, depending on the types of their focal groups.

Celem rozprawy jest kompleksowa analiza kompetencji zarządu do prowadzenia spraw spółki w systemie organizacyjnym spółki akcyjnej. Wybór tematu rozprawy doktorskiej podyktowany był dążeniem do podjęcia tematyki, która nie została dotąd zbadana szerzej przez polskie piśmiennictwo i orzecznictwo. Problematyka kompetencji zarządu do prowadzenia spraw spółki jest przede wszystkim przedmiotem analizy w komentarzach do Kodeksu spółek handlowych lub jest poruszana w monografiach wyłącznie jako tło innych zagadnień szczegółowych związanych z funkcjonowaniem spółki akcyjnej. Nie sprzyja to stworzeniu całościowej teorii na temat podstawowej funkcji zarządu spółki. Całość pracy została podzielona na sześć rozdziałów, wprowadzenie oraz uwagi końcowe. W pierwszym rozdziale przedstawiono zagadnienia ogólne dotyczące pozycji zarządu jako organu spółki w uwarunkowaniach ustroju spółki akcyjnej. Omówienie problematyki zarządu jako organu osoby prawnej stanowi punkt wyjścia dla dalszych rozważań dotyczących relacji pomiędzy kompetencjami przypisanymi organowi a obowiązkami spoczywającymi na poszczególnych członkach zarządu. Rozdział ten zawiera również przedstawienie podstawowych cech dualistycznej oraz monistycznej struktury organów spółki. Wskazano także na przykłady systemów prawnych, których nie można przyporządkować do modeli dualistycznego ani monistycznego, takich jak systemy nordyckie czy też oferujące kilka rozwiązań struktury organów spółki (np. Włochy, Francja). Rozdział ten zamyka analiza porównawcza pozycji zarządu w innych systemach prawnych opartych na modelu dualistycznym (Niemcy, Austria). Rozdział drugi został poświęcony analizie pojęcia prowadzenia spraw spółki. Przeprowadzone w tym rozdziale wywody unaoczniły złożony charakter kompetencji zarządu w sferze prowadzenia spraw spółki, obejmującej akty zarządzania spółką, w tym zarówno decyzje podejmowane w sferze wewnętrznej spółki, jak czynności należące do sfery reprezentacji. Rozważaniom tym towarzyszy analiza pojęć kierowania spółką (Leitung) i prowadzenia spraw spółki (Geschäftsführung) stosowanych w niemieckiej ustawie akcyjnej. Celem rozdziału trzeciego było opisanie granic dopuszczalnego wpływu walnego zgromadzenia i rady nadzorczej na prowadzenie spraw spółki przez zarząd. Analizę tę dopełniło badanie postanowień statutów spółek notowanych w ramach indeksu WIG30 w zakresie, w jakim umacniają one rolę walnego zgromadzenia i rady nadzorczej w procesie prowadzenia spraw spółki. Przegląd statutów spółek potwierdza nadanie radzie nadzorczej kompetencji w obszarze współuczestniczenia w zarządzaniu strategicznym.Kluczowe znaczenie z perspektywy celów badawczych rozprawy miała analiza zagadnienia sposobu prowadzenia spraw spółki, któremu poświęcono rozdział czwarty i piąty. W rozdziale czwartym ocenie poddano kodeksowy model kolegialnego prowadzenia spraw spółki oraz dopuszczalne odstępstwa od tego modelu na rzecz podziału kompetencji (art. 371 § 1 k.s.h.). Wśród najważniejszych wniosków zawartych w tym rozdziale można wyróżnić tezę, że obowiązujący model kolegialnego prowadzenia spraw spółki, pozwalający na podział kompetencji między członkami zarządu wyłącznie na mocy postanowień statutu jest niezadowalający, gdyż nie odpowiada złożonym realiom procesów zarządczych spółką. W rozdziale piątym omówiono zagadnienie powierzenia wykonania czynności prowadzenia spraw spółki kadrze kierowniczej spółki. Ostatni rozdział jest poświęcony problematyce organizacji zarządu. Przedmiotem zainteresowania tego rozdziału jest, po pierwsze, zakreślenie podstaw prawnych regulujących organizację zarządu. Dla określenia tych podstaw konieczne jest uwzględnienie problematyki delimitacji materii statutowej i regulaminowej. Po drugie, przeanalizowano zasady zwoływania posiedzeń zarządu oraz podejmowania uchwał. Rozdział zamykają uwagi dotyczące prawnych możliwości sądowego podważenia uchwał zarządu w drodze powództwa o ustalenie.Dysertację zamykają wnioski oraz postulaty de lege ferenda.
The aim of the dissertation is a complex analysis of the management board’s competence to manage company’s affairs in the organizational system of a joint-stock company. The choice of this topic was motivated by the pursuit to study a subject matter, which until now has not been extensively examined by doctrine and jurisprudence. This is predominantly analyzed in the commentaries to the Code of Commercial Companies or in monographies exclusively as a background for other subjects related to operation of a company. This does not support the creation of a comprehensive theory on this core function of the management board. The dissertation is divided into six chapters, introduction and final remarks. The first chapter describes the general issues of the management board’s position as a company body in the context of its organization. The description of the board as a body of a legal person is a starting point for further considerations on the relationship between the competences of the company’s body and duties vested in the individual members of the management board. This chapter also provides a description of the main characteristics of the one-tier and two-tier system. Examples of legal systems, which neither can be qualified to dualistic nor monistic systems, such as Nordic systems or those offering the market participants several solutions as regards the corporate structure (Italy, France), have been indicated. This chapter is concluded with a comparative analysis of the board’s position in other legal systems, based on the two-tier system (Germany, Austria). The second chapter was devoted to an analysis of the concept of managing the joint-stock company’s affairs. The considerations made in this chapter have highlighted the complex nature of the board’s competence to manage company’s affairs, which encompasses all managerial acts of the company, including internal decisions and representation acts. These considerations have been accompanied by the analysis of the concept of the direction of a company (Leitung) and management of the company’s affairs (Geschäftsführung) used in the German Stock Corporation Act. The aim of the third chapter was to describe the permitted limits of shareholders meeting’s and supervisory board’s influence on managing the company’s affairs by the board. This analysis was complemented by examining the statutes of public companies listed in the WIG30 index, to the extent to which they enhance the powers of the shareholders meeting and supervisory board in the process of managing company’s affairs. Analyzing the manner of managing company’s affairs – which has a crucial meaning from the perspective of the research objectives of this dissertation – was carried out in the fourth and fifth chapter. In the fourth chapter the statutory model of managing company’s affairs and the divergences from this model toward the division of competences have been evaluated. One of the most important conclusions of this chapter is that the applicable model of managing company’s affairs – enabling the division of competences among the members of the board only by the provisions of the company’s statutes – is insufficient, because it does not correspond with the complex realities of the management process. The fifth chapter concerns the issue of transferring the performance of managerial activities to the senior management staff. The last chapter is dedicated to issues related to the organization of the management board. The object of interest in this chapter is the description of legal basis hereto. Therefore it is necessary to consider the delimitation of the company’s statutes and management board by-laws. Secondly, the principles of convening the board meetings and adopting resolutions have been analyzed. This chapter is concluded with remarks on challenging board resolutions before the courts by submitting a so-called claim of determination. The dissertation is closed by conclusions and de lege ferenda motions.

This paper deals with a comparison between the Czech duty of due managerial care of a member of governing body of limited company and the Irish non-fiduciary duty to exercise care, skill and diligence of a director of limited company (hereinafter also referred as "duty of care"). The paper aims to find out a possible way to improve legislation of the duty of due managerial care on the basis of comparison with the duty of care. The duty of care sets the ground for the comparison, therefore the paper deals first with the Irish legal status of the duty of care, which has been recently changed by the Companies Act 2014. Despite of the codification of the directors' duties, the core of interpretation and application of the duty of care still rests in judicial decisions. Nevertheless, the change of source and statutory wording of the duty means that the substance of Re City Equitable [1925] does not represent a good law anymore. The standard of care of Re City Equitable [1925] has been replaced by the minimal objective standard based on the British judgment Re D'Jan of London [1994]. The content of the duty of care is determined on the case by case basis, but in any event it consists of conclusions of the British judgment Re Barings [1999], which has been accepted by the Irish courts in restriction...

Dissertação de Mestrado em Direito: Especialidade em Ciências Juridico-Forenses apresentada à Faculdade de Direito
O nosso estudo debruçar-se-á sobre a delegação de diligências e/ou investigações por parte do Ministério Público (MP) nos Órgãos de Polícia Criminal (OPC). Tal prática delegatória, pensamos, como ponto de partida, encontrar-se sob alçada de uma regulamentação legal, a lei da organização e investigação criminal (LOIC). Vamos apurar se tal ocorre, ou se antes, pode ser reconduzido a um outro qualquer mecanismo que desvincule o MP desta lei. Desde logo, a título exemplificativo, vamos analisar os mecanismos de oportunidade e a chamada “discricionariedade vinculada”. Nesta nossa análise, cumpre também dedicar o nosso estudo ao princípio da legalidade e as suas diversas valências, assim podendo melhor compreender este princípio e, de uma forma adequada, analisar se a ele se encontra vinculado o MP na sua prática delegatória.Partiremos da premissa de que este se encontra vinculado, por força do dever que recaí sobre o MP de exercer a acção penal orientado pelo princípio da legalidade e, como tal, levantam-se problemas quando este não observa a lei. O Ministério Público, no plano da prática, não segue nem respeita tal Lei. Ele afirma que por força da autonomia de que goza e pelo facto de ser o titular da acção penal, ele pode livremente proceder à escolha do concreto Órgão de Polícia Criminal. Esta posição do Ministério Público, contrária ao princípio e à Lei, “estranhamente” encontra apoio nos tribunais que, sistematicamente com ela concordam. Em face desta situação, pretendemos analisar se, efectivamente, pode ou não o Ministério Público agir deste modo e, retirar as devidas consequências da resposta que viermos a obter.
Our study is about the delegation of diligences and / or investigations by the Public Prosecutor (MP) in the Criminal Police Bodies (OPC). As a starting point, we consider this practice to be under the rule of law, Criminal Investigation and Organization Law (LOIC). We will determine if this occurs, or if before, there is any mechanism that unlinks the MP of this law. First of all, by example, we will analyze the mechanisms of opportunity and the so-called "bounded discretionary ". In our analysis, we must also devote our study to the principle of legality and its various values, so that we can better understand this principle and, in an appropriate way, analyze if the MP is bounded to it in its delegatory practice. We will start from the premise that MP is bounded, by virtue of the duty on the MP to prosecute based on the principle of legality, and as such, problems arise when MP does not observe the law.The Public Prosecutor's practice does not follow or respect such Law. It affirms that, by virtue of the autonomy which it has and the fact that it is the owner of the criminal proceedings, it may freely make the choice of concrete Criminal Police Body. This position of the Public Prosecutor, contrary to the principle and the Law, "strangely" finds support in the courts that systematically agree with it. In view of this situation, we intend to examine whether or not the Public Prosecutor can act in this way and we want to extract the appropriate conclusions from the response we are going to obtain.

Przedmiotem rozprawy doktorskiej jest zagadnienie swobody kształtowania treści umowy spółki z o.o. Doktryna nie wypracowała dotąd jasnych wskazówek interpretacyjnych, które pozwoliłyby rozstrzygnąć w spójny sposób o dopuszczalności umieszczania określonych postanowień w umowie spółki z o.o. Konsekwencją tego są spory dotyczące licznych zagadnień szczegółowych. Prowadzi to do niejednolitej praktyki sądów rejestrowych, co jest zjawiskiem niepożądanym, powoduje bowiem brak pewności co do rozstrzygnięć sądowych.W tych uwarunkowaniach konieczne było, po pierwsze, ustalenie treści dyrektyw interpretacyjnych, przy pomocy których należy oceniać dopuszczalność zamieszczenia w umowie spółki z o.o. konkretnych postanowień oraz, po drugie, ustalenie właściwego sposobu pojmowania kryteriów ograniczających swobodę kształtowania treści umowy spółki z o.o. Analiza obu tych kwestii umożliwiła z kolei odpowiedź na pytanie, czy stosowana wdoktrynie i orzecznictwie wykładnia przepisów nie zawęża nadmiernie autonomii woli wspólników.Pracę podzielono na trzy części. Analiza przeprowadzona w pierwszej części pracy doprowadziła do wniosku, że spółka z o.o. stanowi szczególnego rodzaju stosunek zobowiązaniowy. W związku z tym spółkę z o.o. należy postrzegać przez pryzmat zasady swobody umów – wspólnicy powinni mieć możliwość swobodnego dostosowywania kształtu instytucji spółki z o.o. do własnych potrzeb, tak długo, jak realizacja ich autonomii woli nie narusza szeroko pojętego bezpieczeństwa obrotu. Podstawę ustalania zakresu swobody kształtowania treści umowy spółki z o.o. w zakresie pozostawionych przez ustawodawcę luzów decyzyjnych, tj. w odniesieniu do postanowień zmieniających treść ustawy oraz postanowień dodatkowych stanowi więc art. 3531 k.c. Jednak ze sposobu sformułowania przepisów oraz aksjologii prawa spółek odkodowanej z całokształtu regulacji spółki z o.o. wynika konieczność przyjęcia – inaczej niż w prawie zobowiązań – wstępnego domniemania imperatywnego charakteru norm prawnych. Ponadto analiza dotycząca charakteru prawnego spółki z o.o. doprowadziła do sformułowania uwag de lege ferenda – w niektórych przypadkach regulacja spółki z o.o. nadmiernie ogranicza swobodę umów.W drugiej części pracy zostały omówione kryteria delimitujące swobodę kształtowania treści umowy spółki z o.o.: zasady współżycia społecznego, natura stosunku spółki z o.o. i ustawa. Z analizy wynika, że w procesie definiowania tych kryteriów należy poszukiwać rozwiązań w jak największym stopniu uwzgledniających zasadę swobody umów – dotyczy to m.in. sposobu pojmowania kryterium natury spółki.W trzeciej części dysertacji zilustrowano, jak tezy zaprezentowane w poprzednich częściach pracy wpływają na ocenę dopuszczalności umieszczenia w umowie spółki z o.o. konkretnych postanowień. W tej części rozprawy odwołano się również do poglądów doktryny niemieckiej, która uznaje dość szeroki zakres swobody umów w spółce z o.o. Powyższe spostrzeżenie powinno stanowić asumpt do podjęcia dyskusji nad zasadnością zawężania swobody umów w polskiej spółce z o.o. Pomimo ogólnych deklaracji o obowiązywaniu w spółce z o.o. zasady swobody umów, polska doktryna często opowiada się przeciwko dopuszczalności konkretnych postanowień umowy spółki z o.o. w sytuacjach, gdy wydaje się, że w świetle zasady swobody umów zasadne byłoby przyznanie wspólnikom swobody kształtowania treści umowy spółki.
This doctoral dissertation focuses on the freedom of determination of the contents of articles of association of a Polish spółka z o.o. So far, the doctrine has not developed unambiguous interpretative guidelines that would make it possible to consistently decide the issue of admissibility of introducing certain provisions in articles of association of spółka z o.o. This gives rise to disputes on a number of specific issues. This leads to the inconsistent approach taken by registry courts, which is an undesirable phenomenon, as it gives rise to uncertainty as to court decisions.In such circumstances, it was necessary, first, to determine the content of the interpretative directives which should be used for evaluating the admissibility of introducing certain provisions in the articles of association of spółka z o.o. and, secondly, to determine the proper understanding of the criteria restricting the freedom of determination of the content of articles of association of spółka z o.o. The analysis of these two issues has, in turn, made it possible to answer the question of whether the interpretation of the provisions applied by the doctrine and courts does not excessively restrict the autonomy of shareholders’ will.The dissertation has been divided into three parts. The analysis carried out in the first part has led to the conclusion that spółka z o.o. creates an obligation of a specific type. Accordingly, spółka z o.o. should be seen through the prism of the principle of freedom of contract, i.e. shareholders should be able to freely adjust the structure of spółka z o.o. to their purposes, so long as the exercise of their autonomy of will does not prejudice broadly understood security of transactions. Therefore, the determination of the scope of freedom of determination of the contents of articles of association of spółka z o.o. within the leewaygranted by the legislator, i.e. with respect to the provisions amending the legal norms and additional provisions, is based on Article 3531 of the Polish Civil Code. However, it results from the way of drafting the legal provisions and the axiology of company law decoded from all provisions governing spółka z o.o. that, unlike in the contract law, legal norms must be presumed to be mandatory. In addition, the analysis of the legal nature of spółka z o.o has led to the formulation of comments de lege ferenda – in some cases the provisions governing spółka z o.o excessively restrict the freedom of contract.The second part of the dissertation discusses the criteria delimiting the freedom of determination of the contents of articles of association of spółka z o.o, such as principles of community life, nature of the spółka z o.o. relationship and relevant acts. The analysis reveals that, when determining such criteria, solutions taking into account, as much as possible, the principle of freedom of contract should be sought. This applies, among others, to the understanding of the criterion of the nature of a company.The third part of the dissertation illustrates how the theses put forward in the previous parts affect the evaluation of admissibility of introducing certain provisions in the articles of association of spółka z o.o. That part of the dissertation also refers to the views presented in the German doctrine which allows for a fairly broad freedom of contract in spółka z o.o. The above observation should serve as a cornerstone for discussion whether or not it is reasonable to restrict the freedom of contract in a Polish spółka z o.o. Despite general declarations that the principle of freedom of contract is applicable in spółka z o.o., the Polish doctrine often puts forward arguments against the admissibility of introducing certain provisions in the articles of association of spółka z o.o. where, in the light of the principle of freedom of contract, it would be reasonable to allow shareholders to freely determine the contents of articles of association.