Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Defects in welding”

Friction stir welding (FSW) is an advantageous solid-state joining process, suitable for many materials in the energy, aerospace, naval and automotive industries. Like all other welding processes, friction stir welding requires non-destructive evaluation (NDE). The time and resources to preform NDE is expensive. To reduce these costs, nontraditional NDE methods are being developed for FSW. Spectral based defect recognition uses the forces during the welding process to validate weld quality. Although spectral NDE methods have shown promise as an alternative NDE processes, many research welding speeds do not correspond to manufacturing speeds, nor do they explain the relationship between the spectral data and the process. The purpose of this work is to explore the possibility of acquiring additional information about the defect. Namely the defect’s type, location, and magnitude. In this study, welds with “wormhole” defects were produced at 2000, 2500 and 3000 mmpm in 5754 aluminum. The welding process forces and torque were measured and analyzed spectrally. The welded plates were then imaged with x-ray photography, a validated NDE method. It was found that low frequencies (0 – 4 Hz) in the y & z force signals correlate with defect presence in high speed FSW. In addition, the strong correlation between the spectral data and the presence of a defect allowed for defect magnitude predictions. Linear fits were applied to the defect measurements and the spectral data. Large error inhibits the wide use of this prediction method.

The purpose of this research was to develop a methodology to evaluate the likelihood of defective welds as a procedure proposal is entered into a computerised database system. The approach developed was assessed for hydrogen induced cold cracking (HICC) since this defect is a major problem in welding technology. An expert system was used to implement the methodology. The information for the expert system knowledge base was partly gathered from previous work in this area. The technique necessary to analyze and incorporate knowledge was organized in a structured form including the major area to be attacked. The final system was implemented using an expert system shell. The global task of analyzing a welding procedure was broken-down into three different stages. A welding procedure specification comprised the first stage. In the second stage, an interface between the expert system software and a database was implemented. Having proved the feasibility and advantages of integrating the expert system shell with a relational database the remainder of the work was devoted to the development of a strategy for operating the expert system and in particular dealing with uncertainty. Detailed validation of the knowledge base and the system as a whole were confined to a single defect type in the belief that the modularity of the system would allow extension to other defect types and the strategies developed in the present work should it be applicable. Results have shown that the system performs well in the specified area. Validation trials using simulated welding conditions generated by the expert system have shown a very good correlation with practical results for different classes of steels. The integration between approved welding procedure records and procedure qualification records could be the basis for a complete welding database management. Practical application of this system could be extended for educational purpose and training facilities.

The thesis deals with a potential application of welding simulators in basic courses of welding held in welding schools. The first section briefly describes the welding simulators in the global market. There is a detailed description and the control of the welding simulator Virtual Welding, a description of core courses of welding and the necessary welding technology in the following section. Experiments with a welding simulator are carried out in the last section and also their evaluation, comparison and summary of costs.

One of the long-standing challenges in joining of aluminum alloys is the occurrence of solidification defects, i.e. hot cracking and porosity, since these defects significantly increase manufacturing costs. This research project investigates the formation of solidification defects through development of a novel and comprehensive 3-D multi-scale and multi-physics numerical study and then application to the GTA welding of the aluminum alloy AA6061. The developed multi-scale model is composed of four different modules: 1) Solidification, 2) Deformation, 3) Fluid flow, and 4) Defect formation. The solidification module numerically reconstructs the 3-D microstructure of semisolid welds using a granular model of solidification. Specifically, a modified Voronoi tessellation algorithm is used to generate an unstructured grid representing the weld microstructure. The reconstructed microstructure contains both columnar and equiaxed grains and varies as a function of welding process parameters. Then, the Scheil equation is used in combination with the temperature field obtained through the Rosenthal equation and the reconstructed 3D microstructure to simulate solidification. This module outputs the evolving 3D structure of the semisolid weld composed of solid grains and a network of micro liquid channels for use by the deformation and fluid flow modules as the simulation geometry. The deformation module analyzes via finite elements the deformation of the semisolid weld due to externally applied strains and self-induced strains such as thermo-mechanical strains and solidification shrinkage in order to obtain local strain rates within the micro liquid channels. The local strain rates outputted by the deformation module feed a fluid flow analysis module in which the pressure field within the semisolid weld is calculated. Finally, the defect formation module uses various defect formation models to link the pressure field and the local strain rates to the formation of solidification defects including micro cracks and hydrogen porosity.
Applied Science, Faculty of
Engineering, School of (Okanagan)
Graduate

Cold laps are defined as micro-lack of fusion defects at the weld toe more or less parallel to the surface of the parent plate. These defects are known to negatively influence the fatigue properties of weldments. Previous studies suggest that cold lap formation can not be avoided completely in Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). Therefore, a better understanding of formation mechanisms is imperative to be able to minimize the number and size of these defects. The main objective of this work has been to provide a more comprehensive understanding of cold laps, including categorising, characterisation and defining the most significant factors for formation. GMAW was used to produce welds that were investigated by metallographic methods using light optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectrometry. A novel classification of cold laps was introduced and three types of cold laps were identified: spatter cold laps, overlap cold laps and spatter-overlap cold laps. It was shown that cold laps are partially or fully filled by oxides. The most common oxides are manganese silicon oxides which were concluded to be formed primarily by oxidation of droplets. The presence of oxides was found to significantly increase the tendency to form spatter cold laps as well as overlap cold laps. Particularly for overlap cold laps, it was found that the depth (in transverse direction of weld) is reduced when welding in a non-oxidising environment. Welding on blasted surfaces increased the cold lap formation by entrapment of gas. The droplet and base metal temperatures were also found to be significant factors in cold lap formation. For overlap cold laps the occurrence frequency decreased with increased preheating temperature of the base metal. Mechanisms of overflowing resulting in overlap cold laps were discussed based on an extensive literature review. Several phenomena are believed to contribute to overflow including Rayleigh instability, the balance of forces, transfer of lateral momentum by droplets and an outward Marangoni fluid flow of the weld pool. The present studies suggest that cold lap formation can be suppressed by ensuring that the welding process (arc) is as stable as possible and by welding on a preheated work piece in a non-oxidising environment.

Orientador: Roseana da Exaltação Trevisan
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecanica
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Resumo: Visando solucionar o problema da ocorrência de poros em um cordão de solda de um eixo automotivo, o presente trabalho apresenta um estudo da influência de diferentes fatores na ocorrência de porosidade em juntas de aço soldadas pelo processo MIG/MAG robotizado. Basicamente, foi estudada a influência de três fatores na ocorrência dos poros. São eles, a presença de uma camada rica em nitretos na extremidade de um dos tubos que compõe a junta, a limpeza das superfícies a serem soldadas e a vazão do gás de proteção. Após a soldagem dos corpos de prova foram retiradas de cada um deles, três amostras da seção transversal do cordão de solda. A porosidade foi quantificada pela técnica de análise metalográfica por microscopia ótica. Os resultados de porosidade foram apresentados de duas maneiras, uma sem qualquer tipo de restrição quanto aos poros encontrados, e outra em que houve distinção quanto à localização dos poros na seção transversal do cordão de solda. Quando a porosidade foi quantificada de maneira geral, sem qualquer tipo de distinção quanto à localização dos poros, dois fatores influenciaram a ocorrência de poros na junta soldada. São eles, a presença da camada rica em nitretos e a vazão do gás de proteção. No outro caso, levando em consideração a localização dos poros na seção transversal do cordão de solda, foi constatado que para o caso dos poros localizados na raiz da junta, a presença da camada rica em nitretos gerada pelo processo de corte a plasma na extremidade do tubo correspondente ao metal-base 1 afetou significativamente a porosidade resultante no cordão de solda. Além dos ensaios experimentais, ensaios práticos foram realizados no próprio chão de fabrica de produção dos eixos. A realização de ensaios práticos visou avaliar a solução proposta para eliminação da ocorrência de porosidade no cordão de solda dos eixos. Os resultados destes ensaios comprovaram que a substituição do gás utilizado para o corte a plasma na extremidade do tubo correspondente ao metal-base 1, de ar comprimido por oxigênio puro, inibiu a formação dos poros
Abstract: In order to solve the occurrence of pores in weld beads of an automotive axle, the present work studies the influence of three different factors on the occurrence of porosity in joints welded by robotized GMAW process. The factors analyzed were: the presence of a region enriched by nitrides on the surface of the tube related to the base metal 1, the surface cleanliness of the joint components, and the shielding gas flow. Three samples of the weld bead transversal section were retired in each specimen. The porosity was quantified by metalographic analysis technique using an optical microscope. The results were presented by two different ways. In one of this ways, pores were quantified without any kind of distinction. In the other way, pores were grouped in accordance of their location in the weld bead transversal section. The pores quantified without any kind of distinction were affected by the ¿presence of the coat¿ and by the shielding gas flow. The pores located near the joint root were affected only by the ¿presence of the coat¿. In addition to the experimental specimens, practical experiments were made in the axles line production. These practical experiments were developed to evaluate a proposed solution to prevent the occurrence of the pores on the weld bead of the axles. The results of these practical experiments proved that changing the compressed air used in the plasma cut of the extremities of the tube related to the base metal 1 by pure oxygen gas inhibited the pores formation
Mestrado
Materiais e Processos de Fabricação
Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

Processos de soldagem por atrito apresentam diversas vantagens na união de materiais metálicos. O processamento de pinos por atrito ou “Friction Hydro Pillar Processing” (FHPP), é um exemplo de tecnologia de soldagem por atrito que pode ser utilizado no reparo de estruturas metálicas em ambientes hostis. Dependendo dos parâmetros de soldagem e dos materiais utilizados (pinos consumíveis e material base), as soldas FHPP podem apresentar defeitos como trincas na interface de união da junta e presença de inclusões. Tais defeitos e as tais inclusões comprometem a integridade mecânica e metalúrgica da solda, logo a inspeção utilizando ensaios não destrutivos é justificada. Utilizando o ensaio de ultrassom, soldas FHPP com chapas de aço ASTM A36 e pinos de aços ASTM A36 e SAE 8620 foram inspecionadas, variando somente as seguintes forças axiais do processo de soldagem: 200, 250, 300 e 350kN. Foi possível relacionar os resultados do ensaio de ultrassom com a localização de defeitos e inclusões nos corpos-de-prova e esses sinais foram validados através de micrografia das juntas estudadas.
Friction welding processes have several advantages in the union of metallic materials. The friction processing of pins or Friction Hydro Pillar Processing (FHPP), is an example of friction welding technology that can be used in the repair of metallic structures in hostile environments. Depending on the welding parameters and materials used (consumable pins and base material), the FHPP welds can present defects like cracks in the bond surface and the presence of inclusions. Such inclusions and defects compromise the mechanical integrity of the weld and therefore a inspection using nondestructive evaluation is justified. Using ultrasonic testing, FHPP welds using ASTM A36 steel plates and ASTM A36 and SAE 8620 steel pins were surveyed, varying only the axial forces in the welding process: 200, 250, 300 and 350kN. It was possible to relate the ultrasound testing results with the location of defects and inclusions in the specimens and those signals were validated by the micrography of the joints studied.

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Dissertacao (Mestrado)
IPEN/D
Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN/CNEN-SP

The diploma thesis focuses on laser welding of extra deep-drawn steel sheet according to the standard WSS-M1A365-A14 with a protective zinc surface layer. A 0,9 mm thick steel sheet with a zinc layer with coating weight 50 g · m^-2 is welded by a hybrid welding method Laser-TIG. The laser, as the primary energy source, is used for welding the material. The arc, provided by a non-melting tungsten electrode, is used for preheating the material for melting and evaporation of the zinc layer. Based on the initial experiments, the magnitude of the laser power with the welding speed was chosen as a constant parameter. The magnitude of the electric current, as the variable parameter, was set up to 0, 20, 30 and 40 ampers for welding the lap and the butt welds. Only one piece of the each weld type combination was made. The welds were afterwards tested to verify their quality and material properties. The first differences between laser welding with or without TIG preheating were visible during the experiment. The positive effects of the laser welding with preheating by TIG were confirmed. The material properties of the joints achieved better values and a influence of the welding defects on the quality of the joints was reduced. The Laser-TIG is a good choice for welding galvanized steel sheets in the mass production of automotive industry and it could be improved by more researches.

This bachelor thesis was made in collaboration with Scania. The objective was to find the cause for defects found in some rear axle welds. It was known axle material was coated with anti-corrosive oil. Oils were examined through ICP-AES, and then compared to the composition found on the surface of the steel samples. Elements found in the oils vastly differed from one another. One of the oils contains large amounts of aluminium while the other contains high levels of calcium. When samples surfaces were analysed using EDS, phases consisting of aluminium and calcium were observed. These results indicate that the wrong anti-corrosive had been used for the axle material which gave substandard welds. The oil used contained elements with a low vaporisation temperature, such as calcium. This causes instabilities in the keyhole, leading to collapse. Collapse of the keyhole facilitates the formation of defects.

Šiame baigiamajame magistro darbe tiriama R65 tipo bėgio kontaktinio suvirinimo jungtis. Supažindinama su pagrindiniais mokslininkų parašytais straipsniais, bėgių kontaktinio suvirinimo tematika. Pateikiama tyrimų metodika, kurią sudaro šios dalys: apžiūrimasis paviršiaus tyrimas, ultragarsinės kontrolės tyrimas, važiuojamasis paviršiaus kiečio bandymas, sulydimo zonos nustatymas, termiškai suminkštintos zonos kiečio matavimas, mikrokietumo matavimas, mikroskopinis jungties matomosios terminio poveikio ir sulydymo zonų tyrimas, smūginio tąsumo bandymas, cheminė analizė, aširačio bandažo ir bėgio sąveikos tyrimas baigtinių elementų metodu (BEM). Išanalizuoti gauti tyrimo rezultatai, kurie įvertina suvirinimo siūlės kokybę. Pateiktos tiriamojo darbo išvados.
In the final thesis of masters degree I analyze the R65 type rail joint that were welded flash butt. Introducing with scientific articles about flash butt welding of rails. Survey methodology of the research, which consists of the following parts: visual surface review of welded joint, ultrasonic rail inspection, hardness test of upper part of the rail, fusion area research, the measurement test hardness of heat-softened area, the measurement test microhardness, microstructure research of the welded joint, impact strenght experiments, chemical analysis of welded joint, wheel-rail interaction research of the finite element method (FEM). Analyzes the results of the research, who assess the quality of weld. The conclusion is based on the results of this research.

Stress relieving in the welded joints occurs when loaded of the platform lift. Critical welds of profile from steel S235JRH and of stiffener from steel S355J0 are examined in terms of flexibility, strength and safety using strength analysis method. Under different welding conditions and parameters are performed the testing welds by method MAG. Macroscopic and microscopic inspection are conducted as well as tension test. Weld created in active gas 82 %Ar + 18 %CO2, by dip transfer with low values of welding current 96 A and voltage 20,2 V became as the top evaluated sample. This weld is recommended to use in practice.

The diploma thesis deals with the problematics of weld defects of cranes localisation and check. The aim is to analyse non-destructive methods, monitor the occurence of defects and their form and also to suggest the procedure of correction. The work is divided into a theoretical and practical part. In the theoretical part, there is an analysis of individual methods of non-destructive testing that are used for weld check on a particular girder. There is also an analysis of welding technologies used when making a crane girder. The practical part deals with evaluation of weld defects using two methods of non-destructive testing. Furthermore, statistics of defects is realised. In conclusion, the statistics outcome is resumed and evaluated.

FundaÃÃo de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do CearÃ
Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico
In this work a procedure is studied for pattern classification related to different types of data, namely: (1) signals obtained from ultrasonic testing ( pulse-echo technique) and magnetic signals obtained from BarkhÃusen noise in samples of ferritic-pearlitic carbon steel tubes which, due to temperature effects, have shown microstructural changes as consequence of the total or partial transformation of the pearlite into spherodite; (2) images built from TOFD ultrasonic testing and 8 bit digital radiographic images obtained from carbon steel 1020 sheets, with different welding defects. From the data obtained, images have been considered with the defects as lack of fusion, lack of penetration, porosity and images without defect. For this aim, non-conventional mathematical techniques have been used for the preprocessing of the data, namely, the statistical analyses, Hurst analysis (RSA) and detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA), and fractal analyses, box counting analysis (BCA) and minimal cover analysis (MCA). The curves obtained with the initial mathematical treatment, discrete functions of the temporal window width, have been handled with the supervised and non-supervised pattern recognition techniques known as principal component analysis and Karhunen-LoÃve (KL) transformation analysis respectively. With respect to the magnetic signals, the KL classifier has been shown to be very efficient when applied to DFA obtained from the magnetic flux, with a success rate around 94%. On the other hand, for the magnetic noise signals we have not obtained an acceptable success rate independently of the pre-processing used. However, when were considered the curves obtained by concatenating all curves of the pre-processing was obtained a consistent average success rate of 85%. As far as the rate of success of the PCA classifier is concerned, an excellent success of 96% has been reached for concatenated curves of selected data of magnetic noise only. As far as the analyses of the backscattered ultrasonic signals is concerned, it was not possible to classify the different stages of the microstructural degradation by using KL or PCA independently of the pre-processing used. As far as the analyses of the D-scan images are concerned, by applying PCA a rate of success of 81% has been obtained with MCA data, 73% has been obtained by concatenating all curves from the different fractal and statistical analyses and around 85% when concatenating the best individual results (DFA and MCA). On the other hand, considering the KL classifier, high success rates have been verified for the training stage, between 96% and 99%, and a maximum success rate (100%), when concatenating all analyses. With respect to the testing results, the best success rate which has been reached was approximately 77%, when concatenating all the curves obtained from the statistical and fractal pre-processing. For the digitalized radiographic images, relevant individual rates of success (between 70% and 90%) for the training set (consisting of all data) have been obtained for the classifier KL only, and a 100% success rate, when concatenating all the curves obtained from the pre-processing of the images.
Neste trabalho estudou-se uma metodologia de classificaÃÃo de padrÃes relacionados a dois tipos de dados: (1) sinais obtidos atravÃs dos ensaios ultrassÃnicos (tÃcnica pulso-eco) e sinais magnÃticos obtidos atravÃs de ruÃdo Barkhausen realizados em amostras de tubos de aÃo carbono ferrÃtico-perlÃtico que devido aos efeitos da temperatura de trabalho apresentaram mudanÃas microestruturais decorrentes da transformaÃÃo parcial ou total da perlita em esferoiditas; e (2) imagens construÃdas a partir de ensaios ultrassÃnicos (tÃcnica TOFD) e imagens radiogrÃficas digitais de chapas de aÃo carbono 1020 soldadas, obtidas com resoluÃÃo de 8bits, nas quais foram inseridos diversos tipos de defeitos de soldagem. Dos dados gerados, foram estudadas as imagens com os defeitos de falta de fusÃo (FF), falta de penetraÃÃo (FP), porosidade (PO) e uma classe designada como sem defeito (SD). Para tanto, utilizaram-se de tÃcnicas matemÃticas nÃo convencionais no prÃ-processamentos dos dados conhecidas como anÃlises estatÃsticas de Hurst (RSA) e flutuaÃÃo sem tendÃncia (DFA) e as anÃlises fractais de contagem de caixas (BCA) e de mÃnima cobertura (MCA). Em seguida as curvas obtidas desse tratamento matemÃtico inicial, funÃÃes discretas da largura da janela temporal, foram utilizadas na alimentaÃÃo das tÃcnicas de reconhecimento de padrÃes nÃo supervisionada e supervisionada conhecidas, respectivamente, como anÃlise de componentes principais (PCA) e anÃlise da transformaÃÃo de Karhunen-LoÃve (KL). Em relaÃÃo aos estudos dos sinais magnÃticos, o classificador KL mostrou-se eficiente quando aplicado Ãs DFA do fluxo magnÃtico, com uma taxa de sucesso em torno de 94%. JÃ para os sinais do ruÃdo magnÃtico nÃo se obteve uma taxa de sucesso aceitÃvel, independente do prÃ-processamento utilizado. Entretanto quando todas as curvas de todas as anÃlises, dos dois tipos de sinais magnÃticos (ruÃdo e fluxo), foram concatenadas, obteve-se uma taxa mÃdia de sucesso consistente de aproximadamente 85%. No tocante Ãs taxas de sucesso do classificador PCA, somente para o ruÃdo magnÃtico e considerando todas as curvas concatenadas para um grupo de dados selecionados, conseguiu-se uma taxa de sucesso de 96%. A respeito das anÃlises dos sinais ultrassÃnicos retroespalhados, tambÃm nÃo foi possÃvel classificar, nem com a KL e nem com a PCA, os diferentes estÃgios de degradaÃÃo microestrutural, independemente do prÃ-processamento utilizado. No tocante Ãs analises das imagens D-scan, obteve-se com a PCA, taxas de sucesso de 81% considerando apenas os dados das MCA, 73% quando as curvas de todas as anÃlises estatÃsticas e fractais foram concatenadas, e em torno de 85%, quando apenas as curvas das melhores anÃlises (DFA e MCA) foram concatenadas. JÃ considerando o classificador KL, verificaram-se taxas de sucesso na etapa de treinamento, entre 96% e 99%, e mÃxima taxa de sucesso (100%) no caso dos vetores de todas as anÃlises concatenados. Em relaÃÃo aos resultados dos testes, a melhor taxa de sucesso alcanÃada foi aproximadamente de 77% quando se concatenaram todas as curvas oriundas dos prÃ-processamentos estatÃsticos e fractais. Com respeito Ãs imagens radiogrÃficas digitalizadas somente com o classificador KL (na etapa de treinamento, com 100% dos vetores) obtiveram-se taxas de sucesso individuais entre 70 e 90% de acertos e 100% de sucesso na classificaÃÃo quando se concatenaram as curvas de todos os prÃ-processamentos das imagens.

Resistance spot welding is used frequently as a successful joining method for a variety of work commonly in automotive and other manufacturing processes. Spot weld nugget is generally hidden between two sheets, causing its inspection difficult and expensive. Undersized nuggets, brittle or cracked nuggets, and excessive indentation of electrodes reveals the lack of fusion between the parts that can make the weld sub-standard. Visual inspection, pry testing and physical teardown with chisel and hammer method or a combination of them are being used traditionally. However, this study presents a more effective nondestructive inspection method based upon an ultrasonic pulse-echo technique. The theory of the technique together with the experimental verification are presented and its advantages over the other destructive and nondestructive techniques are considered.

The master‘s thesis deals with the influence of the thermal cycle of welding with preheat on castings made of grey cast iron to change the hardness. The thesis deals with the classification of graphitic cast irons, their structure, properties and influences they have on the formation and transformation of the structure. Emphasis is placed on chemical composition and structure stability at elevated temperatures. The practical part deals with the investigation of the effects of casting repair on the decrease of hardness measured in the foundry Heunisch Brno.

Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a fast-growing technology in manufacturing industries. Applications of AM are spread across a wide range of fields. The aerospace industry is one of the industries that use AM because of its ability to produce light-weighted components and design freedom. Since the aerospace industry is conservative, quality control and quality assurance are essential. The quality of the welding is one of the factors that determine the quality of the AM components, hence, detecting faults in the welding is crucial. In this thesis, an automated system for detecting the faults in the welding process is presented. For this, three methods are proposed to find the anomalies in the process. The process videos that contain weld melt-pool behaviour are used in the methods. The three methods are 1) Autoencoder method, 2) Variational Autoencoder method, and 3) Image Classification method. Methods 1 and 2 are implemented using Convolutional-Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) networks to capture anomalies that occur over a span of time. For this, instead of a single image, a sequence of images is used as input to track abnormal behaviour by identifying the dependencies among the images. The method training to detect anomalies is unsupervised. Method 3 is implemented using Convolutional Neural Networks, and it takes a single image as input and predicts the process image as stable or unstable. The method learning is supervised. The results show that among the three models, the Variational Autoencoder model performed best in our case for detecting the anomalies. In addition, it is observed that in methods 1 and 2, the sequence length and frames retrieved per second from process videos has effect on model performance. Furthermore, it is observed that considering the time dependencies in our case is very beneficial as the difference between the anomalous and the non anomalous process is very small

Este trabalho propõe um novo método para a detecção automática de cordões de solda em imagens radiográficas de juntas soldadas de tubulações. A metodologia proposta baseia-se na otimização de parâmetros que controlam e adaptam o posicionamento, tamanho e formato de uma janela de imagem, de modo a enquadrar a região da imagem que mais se assemelha à representação visual de um cordão de solda radiografado. A busca por parâmetros ótimos é conduzida por um algoritmo genético, que parte de soluções aleatoriamente geradas e as avalia com base em um conceito de similaridade entre imagens, oriundo de técnicas de casamento de protótipos. Além de se tratar de uma proposta inédita, a solução apresentada cobre uma diversidade de situações, incluindo problemas de detecção do cordão de solda para os quais ainda não havia sido encontrada uma solução automatizada que a literatura tenha referenciado. Os resultados dos testes realizados alcançaram um desempenho entre 93 e 100%, para um total de 478 imagens consideradas, que incluem exemplos de praticamente todas as técnicas de exposição radiográfica recomendadas pelo código ASME V, para inspeção de juntas soldadas de tubulações. Entrementes, uma técnica já existente de segmentação de imagens foi adaptada para desempenhar a detecção automática de defeitos de soldagem. Para tais testes, foram utilizados padrões radiográficos das principais classes de defeitos, provenientes do International Institute of Welding (IIW). Após modificações agregadas à técnica de segmentação utilizada, foi possível detectar exemplos de todas as classes de defeitos testadas. Tais resultados contribuem para a análise automática de radiografias industriais e visa melhorar a qualidade e eficiência na inspeção radiográfica de soldas.
This work proposes a new method for the automatic detection of the weld seam in radiographic images of pipeline welded joints. The proposed methodology is based on the optimization of parameters that are used to control and modify the position, size and shape of an image window, in order to enclose the image region that best matches the radiographic representation of a reinforced weld seam. The search for the best matching is managed by a genetic algorithm and uses an image similarity concept that is commonly applied on template matching procedures. The proposed technique solved weld seam detection problems for which no other automatic detection method was successful. The test results achieved an accuracy between 93% and 100%, regarding different tests circumstances, for a total of 478 radiographic images. The images data set included radiograph samples that cover all the recommended radiographic exposure techniques that are recommended, in the ASME V code, for inspection of pipeline welded joints. Meanwhile, a known image segmentation technique was modified and applied to perform the automatic detection of welding defects. For that test series, radiographic patterns from the International Institute of Welding (IIW) were used, including samples of the most popular classes of welding defects. After the used segmentation technique has been properly modified, defect detection samples were achieved for all the tested defect classes. Such results contribute with advancements in the automatic analysis of industrial radiographs and, as a final goal, aim at aggregating quality and efficiency to the radiographic inspection of welded joints.

A inspeção visual de imagens radiográficas de soldas e tubulações é uma tarefa difícil para o ser humano, devido a sua característica repetitiva. Desta forma, a partir da digitalização dessas imagens radiográficas, é possível o desenvolvimento de ferramentas de inspeção automática, reduzindo os erros cometidos por inspeção visual. Este trabalho apresenta uma metodologia que tem o objetivo de automaticamente segmentar os defeitos em soldas e tubulações e extrair características que permitam o reconhecimento destes defeitos. Os resultados obtidos com o uso da metodologia desenvolvida neste trabalho mostram que é possível segmentar os defeitos em imagens radiográficas de soldas e levantar as características desses defeitos de forma automática, mesmo que tais defeitos sejam de difícil visualização. O trabalho também propõe o uso de parâmetros para calibrar o método proposto, sendo que tais parâmetros conferem uma maior maleabilidade ao método. Desta forma o método proposto para segmentar os defeitos foi testado com dois grupos de imagens, cada grupo proveniente de origem diferente, e obteve resultados satisfatórios conseguindo segmentar os defeitos em quase todas as imagens. Para extrair as características utilizou-se a rotulação das regiões segmentadas fechadas, este algoritmo coloca um label em cada possível defeito e assim permite levantar os seus parâmetros de forma automática. Por sua vez o método de segmentação de cordões de solda também se mostrou visualmente robusto conseguindo segmentar os cordões mesmo em imagens onde haviam outros objetos inseridos.
The visual inspection of radiographic images of welds and pipelines is a very repetitive task, very hard for humans. However, using digital radiographic images, it is possible to develop computational tools to be applied in the inspection process and to decrease the risks of inconsistent evaluations. This work presents a methodology to be applied in the automatic segmentation of defects in welds and pipes radiographic images, as well as to extract characteristics for the defects recognition. The tests and results, using the proposed methodology, show that it is possible to automatically perform the defect segmentation and characteristic extraction. As a result, some defects, difficult to be visually detected, were automatically segmented by the proposed method. Using some adjusting parameters, also proposed in this work, it is possible to adjust the method performance, obtaining more flexibility in the method applications. Two groups of images, originating from different sources, were tested and the results were satisfactory, since the defects, in almost all images, were segmented by the proposed method. A connected region labeling algorithm was used in order to make possible the automatic characteristics extraction for each detected defect. Besides, the proposed methodology shows to be robust also in some situations where other undesirable objects are presented in the image.

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In 1991, it was developed a solid state welding process called Friction Stir Welding - FSW, intended to increase the number of applications for the aluminum and its alloys. As every welding process the presence of defects should be avoided to not compromise the quality of the welded joint. Some typical defects originating from FSW process are found in some joints depending of the welding parameters. Thus, this study has the purpose to evaluate the quality of welded joints in 3 mm thick 6013-T6 friction stir welded joints in function of the obtained defects, using different welding parameters. The characterization was based on metallography by OM and SEM of the welded joints in order to analyze the obtained defects. The mechanical properties were evaluated by tensile, microhardness and fatigue tests.Welds joints were intentionally produced to contain inner defects in the weld nugget like tunnel shaped along the joint and lack of root penetration of the welding tool. All welded conditions, the microhardness profiles show a big drop in hardness when crossing from the HAZ zone into the center of each weld, while the tensile and fatigue tests showed a strong defects influence in the mechanical properties. The lack of penetration weld defect had the worst results of mechanical properties compared to tunneling defects, and the sound weld joint exhibited the best results of mechanical properties for all conditions investigated.
Visando ampliar o número de aplicações para o alumínio e suas ligas, foi desenvolvido em 1991, um processo de soldagem no estado sólido denominado Friction Stir Welding. Como em todo processo de soldagem a presença de defeitos deve ser evitada, pois compromete a qualidade da junta soldada. Alguns defeitos típicos oriundos do processo FSW são encontrados em algumas juntas dependendo dos parâmetros de soldagem escolhidos. Assim sendo, este trabalho teve como principal objetivo estudar a influência de defeitos nas propriedades mecânicas de juntas soldadas pelo processo Friction Stir Welding da liga de alumínio 6013-T6, correlacionando as variações microestruturais obtidas com os diferentes parâmetros de soldagem adotados. Para tanto foram utilizados diferentes parâmetros de soldagem para a obtenção de juntas soldadas que apresentem defeitos distintos. A caracterização metalográfica se baseou em macrografias e micrografias via M.O. e MEV das juntas soldadas, de forma a analisar os defeitos obtidos. As propriedades mecânicas foram avaliadas por ensaios de tração, microdureza e fadiga. Foram obtidas soldas com defeitos internos a lente de soldagem em forma de vazios ao longo do cordão e soldas com falta de penetração na região da raiz. Em todas as condições foi observada uma redução brusca nos valores de microdureza na região da junta soldada, enquanto os ensaios de tração e fadiga revelaram forte influência da presença de defeitos na junta. A solda que apresentava como defeito a falta de penetração na raiz apresentou resultados de propriedades mecânicas muito inferiores às condições que apresentaram vazios internos a lente de soldagem. A solda que não continha defeitos apresentou os melhores resultados de propriedades mecânicas em relação a todas as condições investigadas.

For TIG welding of transformer fame is important enough weld root fusion, however exposed surfaces must remain unaffected. Three types of test were made to determine properties of welds under different conditions. Tests were macroscopic inspection, tensile test and fracture test. Next was economic evaluation of different methods. Best results were for single layer weld with pre-heated material.

A inspeção de defeitos de soldagem em imagens radiográficas de tubulações é bastante subjetiva e está sujeita a erros de interpretação por parte do inspetor laudista. Dentro desse contexto, nos últimos anos tem-se visto um grande esforço no desenvolvimento de métodos automáticos e semiautomáticos de detecção de defeitos em juntas soldadas. Este trabalho apresenta um método automatizado para detecção e classificação de defeitos em imagens radiográficas de juntas soldadas de tubulações obtidas pela técnica de exposição radiográfica parede dupla vista dupla (PDVD), obtidas em reais situações de campo e que, geralmente, têm uma qualidade mais baixa do que as imagens usadas em outros estudos. O método proposto identifica na imagem a região do cordão de solda, detecta as descontinuidades e classifica as mesmas em defeitos e não defeitos, destacando na imagem o resultado. São avaliados classificadores a partir de métodos de classificação por redes neurais Multilayer Perceptron (MLP), redes neurais Extreme Learning Machines (ELM) e classificador estatístico Support Vector Machines (SVM). O método proposto para identificação da região de interesse atingiu 100% de precisão na segmentação do cordão de solda. O classificador SVM apresentou um desempenho melhor que os classificadores MLP e ELM em todos os cenários testados. Com a utilização de ensembles de ELMs obteve-se um F-score de 85,7% para o banco de padrões de teste, resultados satisfatórios quando comprados com trabalhos semelhantes. O uso de ensembles de ELMs representa um ganho de apenas 0,5% no F-score em comparação com o melhor resultado de rede treinada individualmente, entretanto, com o uso de faixas de limiares de decisão do ensemble, o uso do método permite mostrar as descontinuidades sobre as quais o ensemble não tem certeza, destacando na imagem estas descontinuidades. A imagem resultate da aplicação do método serve como auxílio ao especialista na elaboração de laudos.
The inspection of radiographic images of welded joints is very subjective and is subject to errors of interpretation by the inspector. In this context, a great effort has been made in the last years to develop automatic and semiautomatic methods for detecting defects in welded joints. This research work presents an automated method for the detection and classification of defects in radiographic images of welded joints of pipes obtained by the double wall double image (DWDI) exposure technique obtained in real field situations and which generally have a lower quality than the images used in other studies. The proposed methos identifies the region of the weld bead, detects the discontinuities and classifies them as defects and non-defects, highlighting in the image the result. Classifiers are evalueted using methods of classification by multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural networks, extreme learning machines (ELM) neural networks, and Support Vector Machines (SVM). The proposed method for identifying the region of interest reached 100% precision in the segmentation od the weld bead. The SVM classifier performed better than the MLP and ELM classifiers in all scenarios tested. Using ELM ensembles, an F_score of 85,7% was obtained for a test patterns database, satisfactoryresults when compared to similar works. The use of ensembles of ELMs represents a gain of only 0,5% in the F-score compared to the best result of the individually trained network, however, with the use of ensemble decision threshold ranges, the presented method allows to show the discontinuities about which the ensemble is not sure, highlighting in the image these discontinuities as a region of uncertainty, leaving to the specialist the final evaluation of these discontinuities. The image resulting from the application of the method serves as an aid to the expert in the elaboration of reports.

Les liaisons bimetalliques soudees concernees par cette etude interessent les assemblages par soudage des tubulures de cuve en acier faiblement allie 16mnd5 et des tuyauteries en acier austenitique 316 du circuit rep. Certaines de ces liaisons presentent en peau externe des defauts intergranulaires en premiere couche de beurrage qui n'apparaissent que lorsque la structure de cette premiere couche est purement austenitique. Les materiaux assembles ayant des coefficients de dilatation tres differents, nous avons suppose que la fatigue thermique pouvait etre responsable de la presence de ces defauts. Aussi, afin de tester cette hypothese et estimer le degre de nocivite de la structure austenitique, nous avons etudie une liaison bimetallique presentant une structure austenitique en premiere couche et avons simule la fatigue thermique par de la fatigue oligocyclique a 320c. Nous nous sommes attaches a decrire les transformations metallurgiques induites par le caractere heterogene de l'assemblage. De nombreuses discontinuites ont ainsi pu etre mises en evidence au niveau de l'interface metal de base/premiere couche de beurrage : discontinuites chimiques, microstructurales et cristallographiques. Une analyse des conditions de solidification imposees par le caractere heterogene de la liaison a ete proposee permettant de rendre compte des phenomenes observes. D'un point de vue mecanique, il semble que ces heterogeneites aient peu d'influence sur la tenue en fatigue de la liaison. Quel que soit le mode de sollicitation envisage, nous ne recreons pas les decohesions intergranulaires observees sur site. Une modelisation par elements finis a ete menee pour determiner la repartition de la deformation plastique cumulee et expliquer la presence d'une zone sans bandes de glissements apparentes au niveau de l'interface, cote beurrage.

In laser Transmission Welding (LTW), the laser beam passes through the transparent part and is dissipated as heat in the absorbent material through the use of laser-absorbing pigments such as carbon black (CB). This energy is then conducted further into both parts. Melting and subsequent solidification occur at the interface causing a weld to form between the two parts. Gluing or welding structures to the back of automotive Class-A panels often results in the appearance of undesirable surface deformations on the Class-A side. Through control of the laser welding and material parameters, it may be possible to use contour LTW as a means of joining structures to the back of absorbent Class-A panels without creating these unwanted surface defects. A series of lap welds was made using a range of CB levels, laser powers and polypropylene part thicknesses. A profilometer was used to measure the size and shape of the defects generated on the surface of the black part. Two types of defects were observed: ribs and sink marks. It was observed that lower powers combined with higher carbon black levels generally resulted in smaller defects. The type of defect depended on the boundary conditions between the two parts and the flow of polymer that had thermally expanded during welding (flash). If weld flash flowed into gaps between the two plates, rib defects were always observed. If flash flowed elsewhere and no gaps existed between the plates, sink marks occurred. Finite element modeling was used to qualitatively validate these observations.
Thesis (Master, Chemical Engineering) -- Queen's University, 2010-07-02 14:34:41.201

碩士
國立海洋大學
河海工程學系
83
Welding is the most important problem in the steel structures. It is always of defect no matter how to use artificial or automatic welding steel structures.The motivation of this investigation is to evaluate the integrity and safety of welding steel plate by using the fast,portable and reliable nondestructive testing.The main purpose of this study is to detect the defect of welding steel plate by using ultrasonic testing.The method of experiment use SM41A steel,welding producer is GMAW(Gas Metal Arc Welding) and SMAW(Shielded Metal Arc Welding),specimen size is 30cm×20cm×15mm,welding condition are perfect、 porosity、incomplete penetration、 incomplete fusion、crater crack and slag inclusion,using portable ultrasonic flaw detector associated with singnal analysis and display(ver.4.0) of programme to detect the welding integrity and comparing to the results obtained from X- ray photograph.The results of this investigation show that A- scan is not accurate and time consuming.The B-scan is more reliable.The C-scan is very accurate in 70o transducer.The point of wave incident and direction is very important relatively to detecting the welding defect.In this investigation ,the result of ultrasonic detecting the welding defect is very wonderful except crater crack.Thus ,it is a powerful and useful tool to detect the welding steel plate by means of ultrasonic technique.

碩士
長庚大學
機械工程研究所
92
Arc welding has been proven to be a very economical and efficient manufacturing technology, and is widely used in various industries. However, there might still be some unexpected welding defects occurring during welding. In addition to human errors, the most noticeable defects are weld cracking, which are primarily caused by both microstructural changes and thermal stresses during welding. The formation of thermal stresses is due to the abrupt heating and cooling, and the non-uniform cooling of the weldments. The thermal stresses can be roughly divided into the thermal stress during cooling and the residual stress after the weldment being completely cooled. Weld cracking is directly related to these stresses, which are tensile in nature. It is probable to lower the cracking susceptibility such as fusion zone solidification cracking and heat-affected zone liquation cracking by reducing the thermal stresses during cooling. Moreover, the residual stress of the weldments may also be lowered and consequently result in better fatigue strength and resistance to stress corrosion cracking. The major goal of this study is to design an externally-applied compressive mechanism, which is based on the concept of shot peening, to produce a series of impacts or presses at various locations of the weld metal or HAZ. The impacts should be able to produce minor plastic deformation and also lower the tensile thermal stresses, which may even become compressive momentarily. Consequently, most tensile stress-related weld cracking may be prevented. In order to perform a systematic optimization study of each experimental variable, the following procedures will be conducted including FEM simulation. In addition, measurements of welding thermal cycles and residual stresses will be conducted. The welding defects to be evaluated in this study include HAZ liquation cracking, repair welding defects in extensively radiated materials, and ductility dip cracking.

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Engenharia Mecânica apresentada à Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia
O objetivo desta dissertação é estudar a influência dos parâmetros de Friction Stir Welding (FSW) na qualidade de soldaduras de topo em placas de Polietileno (PE) e Acrilonitrila Butadieno Estireno (ABS) com 6 mm de espessura. As soldaduras foram realizadas com uma ferramenta de base estacionária e pino cónico, sem aquecimento externo. Os parâmetros estudados foram a velocidade de rotação da ferramenta, com valores de 870, 1140 e 1500rpm, e a velocidade de soldadura, com 60 e 120mm/mim. Durante a soldadura foram registados os ciclos térmicos na vizinhança da soldadura. Depois de ser feita a inspeção visual, as soldaduras foram submetidas a microscopia ótica e a análise tomográfica, para caraterizar a morfologia das soldaduras, e a ensaios de microdureza, e a testes de tração, para caraterizar as propriedades mecânicas das soldaduras. Verificou-se que a morfologia das soldaduras, e em particular, a presença de defeitos, é muito influenciada pelo calor adicionado no processo. O aumento do rácio entre a velocidade de rotação e avanço da ferramenta (w/v) aumenta a temperatura na soldadura, principalmente nas soldaduras em ABS. O aumento de temperatura local facilita o fluxo de material e reduz a formação defeitos. O aumento do rácio w/v não alterou sensivelmente a dureza das soldaduras, mas aumentou a eficiência de soldadura. A resistência das soldaduras foi sempre inferior aos respetivos materiais de base, mas as soldaduras em PE apresentaram eficiência superior às realizadas em ABS. A eficiência de soldadura é muito condicionada pela presença de defeitos.
The aim of this dissertation is to study the influence of Friction stir Welding ( FSW ) parameters on the quality of butt welds in 6 mm thick Polyethylene ( PE ) and Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ( ABS ) plates. The welds were carried out using a tool with a stationary shoulder and conical pin, without external heating. The parameters studied were the tool rotation speed, with values of 870, 1140 and 1500 rpm, and the welding speed, with 60 and 120 mm/min. During welding, thermal cycles in the vicinity of the weld were recorded. After visual inspection, the welds were submitted to optical microscopy and tomographic analysis, to characterize the morphology of the welds, and microhardness tests and tensile tests, to characterize the mechanical properties of the welds. It was found that the morphology of the welds, and in particular the presence of defects, is greatly influenced by the heat input in the process. Increasing the ratio between rotation speed and tool feed ( w/v ) increases the temperature in the weld, especially in ABS welds. On-site temperature rise facilitates material flow and reduces the formation of defects. Increasing the w/v ratio did not noticeably change the hardness of the welds, but it did increase the welding efficiency. The strength of the welds was always lower than the respective base materials, but the PE welds showed greater efficiency than those made in ABS. Welding efficiency is greatly affected by the presence of defects.

碩士
國立臺灣海洋大學
材料工程研究所
92
The influence of weld defects on the undercut properties of Ti-6-4 laser welds was investigation in this work. Experimental results indicated the presence of undercut on the weld surfaces inevitably played an important role on the reduced weld’s ductility, regardless of post-weld treatment. For the weld consisting of a large amount of porosity during tensile straining may lead to a great decrease in ductility. Moreover, the existence of porosity in the weld metal will deteriorate the impact toughness of the weld significantly. The result of fatigue crack growth tests revealed environments have a great influence on the fatigue crack growth rate (FCGR) of Ti-6-4 alloy. As a whole, the FCGR was lower for the specimens tested in vacuum and gaseous hydrogen than the counterpart tested in laboratory air. In general, the defect-free laser weld showed a higher resistance fatigue crack growth than the base plate, owing to the combined microstructural and residual stress effects. The presence of porosity in the weld metal did not accelerate the fatigue crack growth . Although the erratic change of FCGR as the crack tip met the porosity occurred, the blunting of crack tip should be the main causes for the weld with relatively high resistance to crack growth as compared with the defect-free weld.

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Engenharia Mecânica apresentada à Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra.
A soldadura por fricção linear (FSW), surge atualmente como um processo de ligação, de grande interesse na produção de juntas T. Estas soldaduras apresentam, frequentemente, defeitos como cavidades e linhas de óxidos, além da redução da espessura na pele da junta T. Neste trabalho estudou-se a solução para o problema de redução de espessura, a otimização da geometria de ferramenta e de parâmetros de soldadura para a obtenção de soldaduras sem defeitos e a possível melhoria do comportamento mecânico de juntas T na liga de alumínio 6082-T6. Para o efeito foram realizadas análises morfológicas, ensaios de dureza, tração e fadiga seguida de análise fratográfica, para soldaduras nos dois tipos de configuração de junta, T-Butt e T-Lap. Concluiu-se que, com a ferramenta progressiva usada na configuração T-Butt é possível eliminar a linha de óxidos e que a configuração T-Lap elimina totalmente a redução de espessura da pele.
Nowadays, friction stir welding (FSW) appears as a joining process of increasing interest in the production of T joints. This type of welds frequently present defects such as cavities or oxides lines, besides the thickness reduction in the skin of the T joint. This paper work will try to present a possible solution to the thickness reduction problem, an optimization of welding parameters to obtain defect free welds and a possible improvement in mechanical behavior of this type of joint in the 6082-T6 aluminum alloy. In order to do that, several analysis and tests will be conducted, ranging from morphologic analysis to hardness, stress and fatigue tests followed by fracture analysis, in two types of joint configurations, T-Butt and T-Lap. It was concluded that the removal of the oxide lines are possible using the progressive tool design and also that the joint configuration, T-Lap, was able to completely eliminate the thickness reduction problem.

"February, 2004."
Bibliography: leaves 231-249.
xxvii, 261 leaves : ill. (some col.), plates, photos (col.) ; 30 cm.
Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library.
Examines ways of reducing the risk of hydrogen assisted cold cracking in pipeline construction by modifying the construction procedure to reduce residual stress and hydrogen concentration. A numerical model of the pipeline construction procedure capable of modelling the process in a transient sense was created. Experimental validation of the model involved using the "blind hole drilling" strain gauge method of residual stress measurement. The diffusion of hydrogen during welding was modelled using a scheme based on Fick's Second Law of Diffusion, finding that the parameters which dominate the rate of diffusion are the timing of the weldment process, joint geometry, pre-heating and post-heating.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, School of Mechanical Engineering, 2004

"February, 2004."
Bibliography: leaves 231-249.
xxvii, 261 leaves : ill. (some col.), plates, photos (col.) ; 30 cm.
Examines ways of reducing the risk of hydrogen assisted cold cracking in pipeline construction by modifying the construction procedure to reduce residual stress and hydrogen concentration. A numerical model of the pipeline construction procedure capable of modelling the process in a transient sense was created. Experimental validation of the model involved using the "blind hole drilling" strain gauge method of residual stress measurement. The diffusion of hydrogen during welding was modelled using a scheme based on Fick's Second Law of Diffusion, finding that the parameters which dominate the rate of diffusion are the timing of the weldment process, joint geometry, pre-heating and post-heating.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, School of Mechanical Engineering, 2004

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Engenharia Mecânica apresentada à Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia
Este trabalho foi feito com o objetivo de estudar a influência dos parâmetros de soldadura na morfologia e no comportamento à fadiga de juntas T de ligas de alumínio dissimilares soldadas a laser, com o fim da sua aplicação na indústria aeronáutica.Utilizando a soldadura laser, foram fabricadas juntas T em chapas com 2 mm de espessura das ligas AA2024-T4 (Skin) e AA7075-T6 (Stringer) e elétrodo da liga AA4047 como material de adição. Foi feita a variação de parâmetros de soldadura como o diâmetro de spot, o ângulo e posição de incidência do feixe laser e velocidade de soldadura. As soldaduras foram feitas sequencialmente de um e outro lado do Stringer. Foi então analisada a influência dos vários parâmetros de soldadura na geometria de cordões de soldadura, na sua microestrutura e resistência mecânica, recorrendo à microscopia ótica e eletrónica (SEM), à medição de microdurezas, à radiografia, aos ensaios de tração e fadiga e, por fim, à análise de elementos finitos. Observou-se que estes parâmetros influenciaram a penetração e distância entre os pés dos dois cordões e na formação de poros no interior da zona fundida. Conseguiu-se ainda evitar a fissuração a quente. Nos ensaios de arrancamento e tração do Skin, a penetração e a distância entre os pés dos cordões não tiveram grande influência na resistência mecânica. Nos ensaios de fadiga estudou-se a influência da amplitude de tensão nominal na vida total dos provetes tendo-se por fim comparado as curvas S-N das várias séries entre si. Utilizando a análise de elementos finitos construíram-se as curvas S-N para as tensões locais das várias séries de soldadura tendo-se comparado as várias curvas entre si e com as curvas S-N para a tensão nominal, concluindo-se por fim que o parâmetro com maior influência no comportamento à fadiga foi a presença de defeitos.
This paper was made to evaluate the influence of welding parameters on the morphology and fatigue behaviour of laser welded dissimilar aluminium alloys T joints for aeronautical industry application.T joints of 2mm thick sheets were produced with AA2024-T4 as skin, AA7075-T6 as Stringer and AA4047 as filler metal. The variation of welding parameters such as the spot diameter, the angle and position of incidence of the laser beam and the welding speed was made. The influence of the various welding parameters on the weld bead geometry on its microstructure and mechanical strength using optical and electronic microscopy (SEM), micro hardness measurement, radiography, tensile and fatigue tests and, finally, analysis of finite elements was studied.It was observed that these parameters influenced the penetration and distance between the two weld bead toes and the formation of pores within the molten zone. It was still possible to avoid hot cracking. In the T-pull and skin traction tests, the penetration and distance between the welding bead toes did not have great influence on mechanical resistance. In the fatigue tests the influence of the nominal stress amplitude on the total life of the test specimens was studied, comparing the S-N curves of the various welding series with each other. Using the finite element analysis, the SN curves for the local stress of the various welding series were constructed by comparing the various curves with each other and with the curves SN for the nominal stress, finally concluding that the parameter with greater influence on fatigue behaviour was the presence of defects.

碩士
國立中興大學
機械工程學系所
101
In recent years, laser welding has been increasingly used in different industrial applications because of its deep penetration, high depth to width ratio, high speed and high precision with low heat effects. However, due to some defects might occurs during processes such as the partial penetration and cavity generation to lower down the strength of the welded parts and deteriorate the surface quality, the real-time quality monitoring for laser welding plays an important role to improve the production rate and to decrease cost. This thesis is to develop a laser welding monitoring system which using acoustic emission and sound signal for detecting the welding quality. 0.2mm thin plate stainless steel welded in type of butt joint and conduction mode will be implemented on a Nd-YAG laser welding system integrated with two acoustic emission (AE) sensors and two free-field condenser microphones. Acoustic emission sensors were placed on two different locations, one on the stainless steel workpiece and the other one on the aluminum fixture for holding the workpiece. Two different microphones were installed in the system, including the one with a frequency response between 3.15Hz and 20kHz and high sensitivity, and the other one with a frequency response between 4Hz and 80kHz and low sensitivity. Five experimental setups were conducted to create various qualities including the ideal welding and the welding with partial penetration, cavity generation, standard trapezoid weld pool and non-standard trapezoid weld pool. The class-mean-scatter criteria were used to select the proper features correlated to the welding quality and the Fisher linear discriminant function was developed to classify the defect or quality. The results show that higher than 77% of classification rate for the detect detection can be obtained for AE sensors by developing the system independently for each defect monitoring, and higher than 95% of classification rate for the detect detection can be obtained for Microphone for each defect monitoring. By considering the sensor location effect on the system performance, the AE signal on workpiece shows the better ability to detect the welding with partial penetration and non-standard trapezoid weld pool than the AE signal on fixture. However, the counterpart demonstrates the higher capability in detecting the welding qualities with cavity generation and standard trapezoid weld pool. By considering the sound signal for welding quality monitoring, the 20k microphone shows a better ability to detect the welding with partial penetration and standard trapezoid weld pool. On the other hand, the 80k microphone demonstrates the higher capability in detecting the welding with cavity generation. By the way, both of them show the same ability to detect the non standard trapezoid weld pool. To improve the reliability of the developed system, a decision fusion algorithm based on the results obtained from all four sensors was implemented and the results shows that 100% for all defect detection excepting for the welding with cavity generation (92.5%) can be obtained. Finally, a multiple defect classification algorithms were proposed and the result shows that the mixed signals corresponding to the ideal welding and all defects can be mapped successfully to the ideal welding, the welding with cavity generation, and the welding with two types of trapezoid weld pool. 90% classification can also be obtained for the welding with partial penetration.

碩士
義守大學
工業工程與管理學系
92
ABSTRACT From the years supervision experience on the pipeline Submerged Arc Welding (SAW), the author found that even utilized the similar welding equipment it doesn’t mean a same high quality SAW product level could be achieved. The reasons can be due to the technique issues and engineering management issues. Traditional pipeline SAW processes, the engineering management applied is loose, hence, the variation in quality is significantly. There have no means to raising the yield rate and then to decreasing the welding cost systematically. Upon this observation, a prevention management model for pipeline SAW welding was proposed on this study to improve the quality of SAW. The methodology of Analytic Hierarchic Process (AHP) was used to analyze the four management factors of welding operations of the case study company. Through the calculation of the weighting for management factors, the ranking of management performance can exposure the poorest management section of the target case company. This weighting will be also a cross reference for defect analysis of SAW product later. On the other hand, through the literature review and the experiences in SAW operation supervision, the key factors and event frequency of major defects of SAW welding were summarized. Consequently, two key concepts that (1) Reasonableness of the management process to prevent the occurrence of defect and, (2) Tracing the reasons of defects quickly and applying the solutions immediately are implemented to develop a defect prevention management model with the weighting of engineering management performance. The study indicated that the smallest weighting in AHP analysis could exposure the poorest management section. The superviser should request the company to correct the faults and improve the performance immediately. Otherwise, once the welding defect occurs, the causes due to this management section will take high probability.Consequently the engineer can trace the caures easily and provide the solut quickly. The case study shows well consistency with this finding. At similar situation, the occurrence frequency of defect type that summarized via the literature review and supervision experiences is also consistency with the case well. It is conclused that introduces a well construction defect prevention management model to undertake welding process management can lower the total welding defect counts, therefore, the management performance is remarkable. However, the ratio of the defect types are still kept the same trend as the very beginning, the defect type ratio cannot be changed significantly due to the defect type is determined by the technique characteristics that adopted.

碩士
國立屏東科技大學
機械工程系所
100
Ultrasonic testing (UT) is one of the main approaches for inspecting weld quality, and has advantages such as simple equipment, fast inspections, and easy operation. But in the applications of inspection, the inspectors usually cannot judge the type of defects by the defect echo waves. Different defect shapes inside the welds may generate noise waves and cause direct influences on the judgment of the ultrasonic inspectors or even mislead them. This research explores the currently most popular ultrasonic testing techniques applied in welds according to the sound wave principle and characteristics of ultrasound. The main purpose is to inspect the integrity and safety inside the welds with the most fast, convenient and reliable approach without destroying the welds. The research method uses the SN490-B plate to weld the 25 mm and 60 mm butt test pieces by flue cored arc welding and considers the classical and actual defects of welds including cluster porosity, defective fusion, incomplete penetration, slag inclusion and cracks. Moreover, the ultrasonic testing is applied with different angles of probe scanning to judge the type of defects by echo wave characteristics, wave shape analysis and rich experiences, and then the results are verified with X-ray testing and Chipping. The results of this research show that probes with small angels are suitable for thick steel plates, high-frequency probes with centralized sound beam are with high attenuation, and the incident angles of sound waves are closely related to the shapes, sizes and directions of defects. As a result, using the ultrasound to test the welds can effectively improve the inspection ability of engineering inspectors and ensure the welding quality of buildings, factories, roads and bridges.

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a rapidly growing solid state welding process and has been a proven method for welding high strength aluminium alloys which were formerly not recommended for joining by conventional fusion welding methods. Based on the information acquired from previous studies, to obtain a defect free Friction Stir (FS) weld with suitable strength, three basic requirements need to be fulfilled (i) Filling of the cavity created behind the tool pin during its traverse and ensuring satisfactory contact of filled material with newly generated surface (on advancing side trailing edge of the pin) (ii) Disrupting and distributing the oxide layer at the initial weld interface (iii) Adequate level of mixing of both side material (Adjacent and Retreating side) in similar welding. In the case of dissimilar welding mixing is desired in controlled amount (to prevent or curtail formation of intermetallics) depending on material combination. Failure to achieve the first precondition results in void. Second and third precondition are interconnected for similar FSW as adequate mixing in weld helps in disruption and distribution of oxide layer at initial weld interface. Failure to achieve this, results in Joint Line Remnant (JLR). Metal to metal contact cannot be established due to the presence of JLR (aligned oxide particles) and subsequently initial interface is left unwelded which deteriorate the static and dynamic strength of friction stir welds. The problem aggravates while friction stir welding materials with tenacious contaminant layer. Therefore, appropriate stirring (which entails large deformation and mixing) of initial weld interface is essential for successful FS welds. Hence, process aspects assisting mixing of adjacent (Advancing and Retreating side) materials need to identified and studied, which are missing in former studies. Experiments are conducted with classical FS tool (possessing frustum shaped/tapered circular pin) to analyse the effect of welding parameters (tool rotation speed, traverse speed, plunge depth, tool tilt and tool position w.r.t initial interface) and tool runout by changing these parameters over a range. Tool rotation speed, traverse speed, plunge depth and tool position with initial interface are changed continuously and tool tilt and tool runout are changed in discrete steps. Tool geometry is considered to be a prime parameter controlling the magnitude of mixing, as interaction of rotating tool with initial abutting base metal interface makes the process mechanism complex, unlike other solid state welding process, namely forge welding, diffusion welding, friction welding, explosive welding, ultrasonic welding and roll bonding. Furthermore, due to asymmetric nature of material flow in FSW process, the material located in different locations with respect to the tool is subjected to different levels of deformation. For this purpose experiments have been carried out to analyse the effect of different tool geometrical aspects on level of mixing and material flow. On the other hand, visualizing flow and mixing in metals is debatable as insertion of marker material in the weld line can alter the nature of material flow in the weld due to different material flow characteristics of the base and marker materials and introduction of additional interfaces. Further, using dissimilar materials for flow studies cannot be considered for comparison with similar friction stir welds as their flow properties are different. Therefore, an alternate experimental strategy is devised in these studies using physical modelling approach which is effective and helps in identifying and quantifying mixing observed under different tooling and process conditions. In the present investigation, plasticine of primary colours is adopted and the hue attribute of colour is used to study and quantify intermixing. Yellow and Blue plasticine are placed on advancing and retreating sides respectively. The degree of mixing is indicated by the intensity of generated green. Digital images of the cross section in weld nugget region are taken. To obtain hue component of these digital images the RGB color-maps are converted to HSV color-maps. Overall, these studies help in formulating the guidelines which are useful during tool design, and administering the process to obtain a defect free well mixed welds. Based on the experimental results following conclusions are derived. 1. Following process aspects: tool geometry, interface offset, tool rotation and tool runout demonstrate a significant impact on material mixing and breaking and dispersion of initial interface in weld nugget. Tool tilt, plunge depth, tool traverse exhibit negligible effect on degree of mixing. 2. Increase in tool rotation speed (with other parameters fixed) improves mixing substantially but can be increased to a certain limit after which voids emerge due to loss of weld nugget material in the form of flash. 3. Reducing the weld pitch (i.e. increasing tool rotation speed for a given tool traverse speed) reduces the size of the weld nugget and vice versa. Tool traverse speed largely affects advancing side material and rotation speed affects retreating side material. Therefore, for higher weld pitch advancing side material (yellow plasticine) dominates the weld nugget, whereas for lower weld pitch retreating side material (blue plasticine) dominates the weld nugget. 4. The extended macro-structural feature commonly observed in FS welds occurs under influence of plunge depth. Consequently, this macro-structural feature serves as the demarcation point between shoulder affected and pin induced material flow in FS weld. 5. The degree of mixing and subsequent elimination of JLR, improves, when original interface is offset on the advancing side w.r.t tool axis for all the tools investigated in the present study. Triangular and square pin generate larger pin induced mixing which intensifies further with interface on advancing side, indicating tools with such profiles to possess larger safe zone with better mixing characteristics 6. At zero interface offset with all the process parameters fixed, tapered triangular and square pin profile tools produce welds with maximum mixing. For pins with faces, material is transported in lumps around the pin. The size of lump increases with lesser number of faces on pin. Material in the vicinity of the pin experiences spinning/whirling movement. The volume of material experiencing spinning in a single tool revolution depends on (a) weld-pitch (lesser volume of material for smaller weld pitch and vice versa) and (b) number of faces on the pin (lesser volume of material for greater number of faces and vice versa). Therefore, circular pin which can be considered to be made of infinite faces, spinning of material occurs at micro level for relatively smaller weld pitch. 7. For classical FS tool (tapered circular/frustum shape), there exists an optimum ratio (shoulder diameter/pin diameter) situated between 2.7 to 3.6 to produce void free well mixed welds. Tools with ratio of 2.7 and below possess a tendency to produce welds with void but with better mixing in weld region. Tools with ratio of 3.6 and above possess a tendency to produce void free welds but with poor mixing in weld region. Voids appear and grow under following circumstances (a) with increase in pin diameter (for a fixed shoulder diameter), (b) with decrease in shoulder diameter (for a fixed pin diameter), (c) with decrease in pin taper (for a fixed shoulder diameter and top diameter of pin). Pin length has no effect on void formation. However, it is obvious, length of root defect increases with decrease in pin length. The tooling guidelines established in this study through plasticine work can be extended to metallic friction stir welds of various thickness plates by proportionately increasing or decreasing the tool dimensions as long as they fall in the recommended range. 8. Smaller pin diameter tools exhibit higher optimum weld pitch (but with lower degree of mixing) when compared to larger pins (but with higher degree of mixing). Optimum weld pitch represents weld pitch resulting in void free welds. Consequently, tools with higher optimum weld pitch help in welding at a better rate. 9. Tool runout is replicated through tools with eccentric pins. It is interesting to note that, all the tools with pin eccentricities do not assist in mixing but tools with only certain eccentricities (0.3 and 0.6mm assisted in mixing in the present investigation). It implies that tool runout of certain values facilitate mixing in weld. On the other hand density of void increases with eccentricity of pin/tool runout. 10. In dissimilar FSW investigated with plasticine A, B, C and D possessing different flow stresses (flow stresses ascending in the order of A, B, C and D) and strain rate sensitivity of 0.24, 0.22, 0.19 and 0.18 respectively, following inferences are drawn (i) For combination A and B, weldability improves when plasticine B is on Advancing Side (AS) and A is on Retreating Side (RS). The level of mixing also improves when interface is on AS (w.r.t tool axis) for this handedness. On the contrary, severe discontinuities emerge when plasticine B is on RS and A is on AS, especially when interface is closer to the tool pin axis. (ii) For combination A and C, weldability improves when C is on AS and A is on RS. The level of mixing also enhances when interface is on AS (w.r.t tool axis) for this handedness. (iii) For combination A and D, joining is poor for both the handedness. However, nature of defect is different in both the combinations. Cracks are observed when A is located on AS and voids emerge when D is located on AS. On the other hand, placing A on AS results in weld thinning. (iv) For combination B and C, there is no appreciable change in terms of weldability and level of mixing. Both the handedness in this combination yielded fairly similar results. (v) For combination B and D, though discontinuities do not emerge with change in handedness, mixing in weld improves when B is on AS unlike to its location on RS. (vi) For combination C and D, there is no appreciable change in terms of defect formation and level of mixing with change in handedness. Both the handedness in this combination yield fairly similar results.