Artykuły w czasopismach: „Cubensis mushroom”

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Kusumadewi, Andrian Fajar. "Case Report: Magic Mushroom (Psilocybe Cubensis) Intoxication." Archives of The Medicine and Case Reports 1, no. 2 (2021): 31–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.37275/amcr.v1i2.7.

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Introduction. Psilocybe mushroom, or wi dely known as the magic mushroom is a variety of mushroom commonly consumed because of hallucinogenic traits it causes toward its consumer. This hallucinogenic effect is caused by Psilocybin, a hallucinogenic substance often found within Psilocybe mushroom. This substance affects mental state of the consumer and has similar effect to those of LSD and Mescaline. Aside from its effect to cause mental disturbance, consumption of this mushroom may cause acute renal injury which leads to a fatal and life -threatening situation. Case presentation. A case of Psilocybe intoxication had been reported in a 22 years old male with a confirmed history of consuming Psilocybe mushroom. Patient first came with a symptom of disorientation and restlessness. Patient also often shook his head off, laughed out, screamed, and continuously making bizarre movements. Psychiatric examination confirmed a sign of auditory hallucination, unstable mood, and stereotypical behavior experienced by the patient. Conclusion. An approach is needed in the form of a ph ysical examination and support that supports a prompt and precise diagnosis, as well as comprehensive management that focuses on the direct management of life-threatening symptoms and symptomatic treatment, taking into account the si gns and symptoms of life-threateningnephrotoxicity

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Kusumadewi, Andrian Fajar. "Case Report: Magic Mushroom (Psilocybe Cubensis) Intoxication." Archives of The Medicine and Case Reports 1, no. 2 (2020): 67–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.37275/amcr.v1i2.505.

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A B S T R A C TIntroduction Psilocybe mushroom, or widely known as the magic mushroom is avariety of mushroom commonly consumed because of hallucinogenic traits it causestoward its consumer. This hallucinogenic effect is caused by Psilocybin, ahallucinogenic substance often found within Psilocybe mushroom. This substanceaffects mental state of the consumer and has similar effect to those of LSD andMescaline. Aside from its effect to cause mental disturbance, consumption of thismushroom may cause acute renal injury which leads to a fatal and life-threateningsituation.Case presentation: A case of Psilocybe intoxication had been reported in a22 years old male with a confirmed history of consuming Psilocybe mushroom. Patientfirst came with a symptom of disorientation and restlessness. Patient also often shookhis head off, laughed out, screamed, and continuously making bizarre movements.Psychiatric examination confirmed a sign of auditory hallucination, unstable mood,and stereotypical behavior experienced by the patient. Conclusion: An approach isneeded in the form of a physical examination and support that supports a promptand precise diagnosis, as well as comprehensive management that focuses on thedirect management of life-threatening symptoms and symptomatic treatment, takinginto account the signs and symptoms of life-threatening nephrotoxicity

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Kusumadewi, Andrian Fajar. "Case Report: Magic Mushroom (Psilocybe Cubensis) Intoxication." Archives of The Medicine and Case Reports 1, no. 2 (2020): 67–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.37275/amcr.v1i2.13.

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A B S T R A C TIntroduction Psilocybe mushroom, or widely known as the magic mushroom is avariety of mushroom commonly consumed because of hallucinogenic traits it causestoward its consumer. This hallucinogenic effect is caused by Psilocybin, ahallucinogenic substance often found within Psilocybe mushroom. This substanceaffects mental state of the consumer and has similar effect to those of LSD andMescaline. Aside from its effect to cause mental disturbance, consumption of thismushroom may cause acute renal injury which leads to a fatal and life-threateningsituation.Case presentation: A case of Psilocybe intoxication had been reported in a22 years old male with a confirmed history of consuming Psilocybe mushroom. Patientfirst came with a symptom of disorientation and restlessness. Patient also often shookhis head off, laughed out, screamed, and continuously making bizarre movements.Psychiatric examination confirmed a sign of auditory hallucination, unstable mood,and stereotypical behavior experienced by the patient. Conclusion: An approach isneeded in the form of a physical examination and support that supports a promptand precise diagnosis, as well as comprehensive management that focuses on thedirect management of life-threatening symptoms and symptomatic treatment, takinginto account the signs and symptoms of life-threatening nephrotoxicity

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Wartchow, Felipe, Aline S. Carvalho, Maria C. A. Sousa, and Vagner G. Cortez. "Some coprophilous Psilocybe (Strophariaceae) from Pernambuco State, Northeast Brazil." SITIENTIBUS série Ciências Biológicas 7, no. 2 (2007): 150–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.13102/scb8115.

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Coprophilous species Psilocybe argentina, P. pegleriana and P. cubensis are reported for the first time for Northeast Brazil. The last one is a hallucinogenic mushroom. Descriptions, discussions and drawings of the species are provided.

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Wartchow, Felipe, Aline S. Carvalho, Maria C. A. Sousa, and Vagner G. Cortez. "Some coprophilous Psilocybe (Strophariaceae) from Pernambuco State, Northeast Brazil." SITIENTIBUS série Ciências Biológicas 7, no. 2 (2007): 150–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.13102/scb8115.

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Coprophilous species Psilocybe argentina, P. pegleriana and P. cubensis are reported for the first time for Northeast Brazil. The last one is a hallucinogenic mushroom. Descriptions, discussions and drawings of the species are provided.

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Mancuello, Claudia, Yanine Maubet, Enzo Cristaldo, et al. "Oudemansiella cubensis an Edible Mushroom from the Neotropics with Biological and Nutritional Benefits." Natural Resources for Human Health 4, no. 3 (2024): 257–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.53365/nrfhh/189170.

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In this work, we evaluated the antioxidant, toxicological, mutagenic, antigenotoxic and nutritional properties of Oudemansiella cubensis, which is a mushroom found in neotropical regions worldwide and native to Paraguay. Nutritional content analyses revealed that O. cubensis is a rich source of protein, dietary fiber, and fats. Antimicrobial analyses showed antimicrobial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterococcus faecalis. Additionally, the species resulted to be nontoxic for human consumption with an LD50 value of 37.1 mg.mL-1. The ethanolic extract of O. cubensis showcased an important antimutagenic activity at a concentration of 20 mg.mL-1, which promotes the prevention of genotoxic damage. Regarding its chemical profile, Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry confirmed the presence of compounds such as l-(+)-ascorbic acid 2,6-dihexadecanoate, octacosanol and cyclo(l-leucyl-l-prolyl), which stood out for antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. This study provided further evidence that Oudemansiella cubensis is a valuable species because of its potential for biotechnological applications.

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McKernan, Kevin, Liam T. Kane, Seth Crawford, Chen-Shan Chin, Aaron Trippe, and Stephen McLaughlin. "A draft sequence reference of the Psilocybe cubensis genome." F1000Research 10 (April 9, 2021): 281. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.51613.1.

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We describe the use of high-fidelity single molecule sequencing to assemble the genome of the psychoactive Psilocybe cubensis mushroom. The genome is 46.6Mb, 46% GC, and in 32 contigs with an N50 of 3.3Mb. The BUSCO completeness scores are 97.6% with 1.2% duplicates. The Psilocybin synthesis cluster exists in a single 3.2Mb contig. The dataset is available from NCBI BioProject with accessions PRJNA687911 and PRJNA700437.

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McKernan, Kevin, Liam T. Kane, Seth Crawford, Chen-Shan Chin, Aaron Trippe, and Stephen McLaughlin. "A draft reference assembly of the Psilocybe cubensis genome." F1000Research 10 (June 15, 2021): 281. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.51613.2.

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We describe the use of high-fidelity single molecule sequencing to assemble the genome of the psychoactive Psilocybe cubensis mushroom. The genome is 46.6Mb, 46% GC, and in 32 contigs with an N50 of 3.3Mb. The BUSCO completeness scores are 97.6% with 1.2% duplicates. The Psilocybin synthesis cluster exists in a single 3.2Mb contig. The dataset is available from NCBI BioProject with accessions PRJNA687911 and PRJNA700437.

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Austin, Emily, Hilary S. Myron, Richard K. Summerbell, and Constance A. Mackenzie. "Acute renal injury cause by confirmed Psilocybe cubensis mushroom ingestion." Medical Mycology Case Reports 23 (March 2019): 55–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mmcr.2018.12.007.

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Moldavan, Mykhaylo, Elvira F. Solomko, Anna A. Grodzinskaya, Victor M. Storozhuk, and Marharyta L. Lomberg. "Neurotropic Effect of Extracts from the Hallucinogenic Mushroom Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Sing. (Agaricomycetideae). In Vitro Studies." International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 2, no. 4 (2000): 10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1615/intjmedmushr.v2.i4.130.

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Musikaphongsakul, Prinya, Kimheang Ya, Pakpoom Subsoontorn, and Manupat Lohitnavy. "Development of a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model of psilocybin and psilocin from magic mushroom in rats and humans." F1000Research 10 (March 15, 2021): 209. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.28133.1.

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Background: Psilocybin (PB) is a psychoactive compound commonly found in magic mushroom (Psilocybe cubensis). PB is quickly converted by the body to psilocin (PI), which has a psychedelic effect through the activation of the 5-HT2A receptor in the brain. The objective of this study is to develop a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model of PB and PI in rats and humans for predicting concentrations of the psychoactive substance in the brain. Methods: Following a search in PubMed, three studies were retrieved and information concerning concentration-time profiles of PI were extracted from the selected studies. In the study in rats, PI was orally administered with a dose of 10.1 mg/kg. There were two studies in humans following a single intravenous dose of PB (1 mg) and oral dose of PB (0.224 mg/kg and 0.3 mg/kg). Berkeley Madonna software was used for computer coding and simulations. The developed PBPK model consisted of seven organ compartments (i.e. lung, heart, brain, fat, muscle, kidney, and liver). Results: The simulations show a good agreement between observed and simulated data, although results for oral administration in rats and humans showed under-predictions and results for intravenous administration in humans showed over-predictions. Conclusions: A PBPK model of PB and PI in rats and humans was developed and could predict concentration-time profiles of PI in plasma, particularly in the brain, following intravenous and oral administration of PB. This model may be useful for a safer dosage regimen of PB for patients with some disorders.

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Zhang, Xiaochun, Huan Yu, Qi Yang, et al. "A Forensic Detection Method for Hallucinogenic Mushrooms via High-Resolution Melting (HRM) Analysis." Genes 12, no. 2 (2021): 199. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes12020199.

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In recent years, trafficking and abuse of hallucinogenic mushrooms have become a serious social problem. It is therefore imperative to identify hallucinogenic mushrooms of the genus Psilocybe for national drug control legislation. An internal transcribed spacer (ITS) is a DNA barcoding tool utilized for species identification. Many methods have been used to discriminate the ITS region, but they are often limited by having a low resolution. In this study, we sought to analyze the ITS and its fragments, ITS1 and ITS2, by using high-resolution melting (HRM) analysis, which is a rapid and sensitive method for evaluating sequence variation within PCR amplicons. The ITS HRM assay was tested for specificity, reproducibility, sensitivity, and the capacity to analyze mixture samples. It was shown that the melting temperatures of the ITS, ITS1, and ITS2 of Psilocybe cubensis were 83.72 ± 0.01, 80.98 ± 0.06, and 83.46 ± 0.08 °C, and for other species, we also obtained species-specific results. Finally, we performed ITS sequencing to validate the presumptive taxonomic identity of our samples, and the sequencing output significantly supported our HRM data. Taken together, these results indicate that the HRM method can quickly distinguish the DNA barcoding of Psilocybe cubensis and other fungi, which can be utilized for drug trafficking cases and forensic science.

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Masrukhin, Masrukhin, Ade Lia Putri, Tri Ratna Sulistiyani, et al. "Antifungal Activity of Bacterial Isolates from Straw Mushroom Cultivation Medium against Phytopathogenic Fungi." Journal of Tropical Biodiversity and Biotechnology 6, no. 1 (2021): 59235. http://dx.doi.org/10.22146/jtbb.59235.

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Several bacteria were isolated from straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) cultivation medium. There are three potential isolates previously characterized and has growth inhibition effect against V. volvacea. This screening result lead to the further study about the inhibition activity against phytopathogenic fungi. The aim of this research is to investigate the antifungal activity of three bacterial isolates against three phytopathogenic fungi and identification of the bacteria. The method used in this study are antifungal assay using co-culture method and disk difussion assay using the filtrate of each bacteria. The profile of antifungal compound was identified using ethyl acetate extract followed by evaporation and gas chromatography (GC-MS) analysis. Identification of each isolates was performed using 16S rDNA amplification and sequencing. Three phytopathogenic fungi i.e Cercospora lactucae (InaCC F168), Colletotrichum gloeosporides (InaCC F304) and Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (F817) were co-cultured with bacterial isolates C2.2, C3.8, and D3.3. The C3.8 isolate has highest average inhibition activity either using isolate and filtrate. The result relatively consistent against three phytopathogenic fungi. The metabolite profile of C3.8 isolate showed the Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate as the main compound with 97% similarity. Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate has potential effect as antibacterial and antifungal compound. According to EzBioCloud and GeneBank databases, the C2.2 isolate identified as Bacillus tequilensis, C3.8 as Bacillus siamensis and D3.3 as Bacillus subtilis subsp. Subtilis. This study also shows the potential of Bacillus siamensis C3.8 as biocontrol against phytopathogenic fungi.

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Ocimati, Walter, Evans Were, Anthony Fredrick Tazuba, Miguel Dita, Si-Jun Zheng, and Guy Blomme. "Spent Pleurotus ostreatus Substrate Has Potential for Managing Fusarium Wilt of Banana." Journal of Fungi 7, no. 11 (2021): 946. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof7110946.

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A range of basidiomycetes including the edible mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus (Po) can suppress plant pathogens such as Fusarium spp. With the current increase in production and consumption of Po in Uganda, the spent Po substrate (SPoS) could be an alternative to manage Fusarium wilt of banana (FWB), caused by the soil borne pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense, race 1 (Foc). This study determined the potential of SPoS to inhibit Foc in vitro and in potted plants. In vitro studies confirmed suppression of Foc in pure co-culture (Po vs. Foc) assays and media amended with different concentrations (0% to 50% w/v) of un-sterilized SPoS filtrates. Foc growth in the sterile SPoS filtrate was comparable to the water control, suggesting possible roles of biotic or thermolabile components of the SPoS. To further verify the suppressive effects of SPoS, pot experiments were carried out with a resistant (‘Mbwazirume’, AAA) and susceptible (‘Sukali Ndizi’, AAB) banana cultivar using both artificially and naturally infested soils. Independent of the inoculation method, SPoS significantly reduced the severity of FWB in pot experiments. Susceptible cultivar ‘Sukali Ndizi’ growing in substrates amended with SPoS showed lower (1.25) corm damage (Scale 0–5) than the un-amended control (3.75). No corm damage was observed in uninoculated controls. The resistant cultivar ‘Mbwazirume’, showed slight (0.25) corm damage only in the Foc-inoculated plants without SPoS. These findings suggest that SPoS could be used as part of the management practices to reduce the impact of FWB.

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Schäfer, Eike, Paula Sophie Seibold, Stefan Bartram, et al. "A „Magic Mushroom“ Multi‐Product Sesquiterpene Synthase." ChemBioChem, August 23, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cbic.202300511.

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Psilocybe “magic mushrooms” are chemically well understood for their psychotropic tryptamines. However, the diversity of their other specialized metabolites, in particular terpenoids, has largely remained an open question. Yet, knowledge on the natural product background is critical to understand if other compounds modulate the psychotropic pharmacological effects. CubA, the single clade II sesquiterpene synthase of P. cubensis, was heterologously produced in Escherichia coli and characterized in vitro, complemented by in vivo product formation assays in Aspergillus niger as heterologous host. Extensive GC‐MS analyses proved a function as multi‐product synthase and, depending on the reaction conditions, cubebol, β‐copaene, δ‐cadinene and germacrene D were detected as the major products of CubA. In addition, mature P. cubensis carpophores were analysed chromatographically which led to detection of β‐copaene and δ‐cadinene. Enzymes closely related to CubA are encoded in the genomes of various Psilocybe species. Therefore, our results provide insight into the metabolic capacity of the entire genus.

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Nkadimeng, Sanah M., Christiaan M. L. Steinmann, and Jacobus N. Eloff. "Effects and safety of Psilocybe cubensis and Panaeolus cyanescens magic mushroom extracts on endothelin-1-induced hypertrophy and cell injury in cardiomyocytes." Scientific Reports 10, no. 1 (2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-79328-5.

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AbstractPrevalence of major depression in people with chronic heart failure is higher than in normal populations. Depression in heart failure has become a major issue. Psilocybin-containing mushrooms commonly known as magic mushrooms, have been used since ancient times for their mind healing properties. Their safety in cardiovascular disease conditions is not fully known and may pose as a risk for users suffering from these illnesses. Study investigates the effects and safety of Psilocybe cubensis and Panaeolus cyanescens magic mushrooms use from genus Psilocybe and Panaeolus respectively, in a pathological hypertrophy conditions in which endothelin-1 disorder is a contributor to pathogenesis. We examined the effects of the mushrooms extracts on endothelin-1-induced hypertrophy and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF- α)-induced cell injury in H9C2 cardiomyocytes. Mushrooms were oven dried and extracted with cold and boiling-hot water. H9C2 cardiomyocytes were induced with endothelin-1 prior to treatment with extracts over 48 h. Cell injury was stimulated with TNF-α. Results proposed that the water extracts of Panaeolus cyanescens and Psilocybe cubensis did not aggravate the pathological hypertrophy induced by endothelin-1 and also protected against the TNF-α-induced injury and cell death in concentrations used. Results support medicinal safe use of mushrooms under controlled conditions and cautioned use of higher concentrations.

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Melo, Luíze Garcia de, Caroline Quintana Braga, Carolina dos Santos Bermann, et al. "Inhibitory potential of bioactive extracts from southern Brazil mushrooms on the pathogenic oomycete Pythium insidiosum." Ciência Rural 54, no. 10 (2024). http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0103-8478cr20230528.

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ABSTRACT: Pythium insidiosum is an important oomycete pathogen of mammals that causes pythiosis, an endemic disease in warm climates that stands out for its unfavorable prognosis, lethality in the affected species, and difficulties in treatment. This study evaluated in vitro anti-P. insidiosum potential of aqueous, hydroethanolic, and ethanolic extracts of indigenous wild mushrooms from southern Brazil. The extracts were prepared from Amanita gemmata, Amanita muscaria, Auricularia auricula, Gymnopilus junonius, Lactarius deliciosus, Laccaria laccata, Psilocybe cubensis, and Russula xerampelina. In vitro susceptibility assays employed the microdilution technique according to the M38-A2 protocol CLSI. The hydroethanolic and ethanolic extracts of R. xerampelina showed anti-P. insidiosum activity at minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 1.87-7.50 mg/mL. The other mushroom species extracts showed no inhibitory effects on growth of P. insidiosum. This is the first study to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of mushrooms on oomycetes, evidencing the antimicrobial potential of R. xerampelina on the pathogen P. insidiosum. So, the present study expands new perspectives, since the secondary metabolites produced by mushrooms can be potential targets for the development of new categories of medicines. However, considering the wide biodiversity of Brazilian mushrooms, we suggested that the search for other basidiomycetes species with anti-P. insidiosum action needs to be expanded.

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Gotvaldová, Klára, Kateřina Hájková, Jan Borovička, Radek Jurok, Petra Cihlářová, and Martin Kuchař. "Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensis." Drug Testing and Analysis, November 4, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dta.2950.

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Goff, Roman, Morgan Smith, Sabrina Islam, et al. "Determination of psilocybin and psilocin content in multiple Psilocybe cubensis mushroom strains using liquid chromatography – Tandem mass spectrometry." Analytica Chimica Acta, December 2023, 342161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2023.342161.

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Hernandez-Leon, Alberto, Raúl Iván Escamilla-Orozco, Aylín R. Tabal-Robles, et al. "Antidepressant- and anxiolytic-like activities and acute toxicity evaluation of the Psilocybe cubensis mushroom in experimental models in mice." Journal of Ethnopharmacology, November 2023, 117415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2023.117415.

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Seibold, Paula Sophie, Sebastian Dörner, Janis Fricke, Tim Schäfer, Christine Beemelmanns, and Dirk Hoffmeister. "Genetic regulation of l-tryptophan metabolism in Psilocybe mexicana supports psilocybin biosynthesis." Fungal Biology and Biotechnology 11, no. 1 (2024). http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40694-024-00173-6.

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Abstract Background Although Basidiomycota produce pharmaceutically and ecologically relevant natural products, knowledge of how they coordinate their primary and secondary metabolism is virtually non-existent. Upon transition from vegetative mycelium to carpophore formation, mushrooms of the genus Psilocybe use l-tryptophan to supply the biosynthesis of the psychedelic tryptamine alkaloid psilocybin with the scaffold, leading to a strongly increased demand for this particular amino acid as this alkaloid may account for up to 2% of the dry mass. Using Psilocybe mexicana as our model and relying on genetic, transcriptomic, and biochemical methods, this study investigated if l-tryptophan biosynthesis and degradation in P. mexicana correlate with natural product formation. Results A comparative transcriptomic approach of gene expression in P. mexicana psilocybin non-producing vegetative mycelium versus producing carpophores identified the upregulation of l-tryptophan biosynthesis genes. The shikimate pathway genes trpE1, trpD, and trpB (encoding anthranilate synthase, anthranilate phosphoribosyltransferase, and l-tryptophan synthase, respectively) were upregulated in carpophores. In contrast, genes idoA and iasA, encoding indole-2,3-dioxygenase and indole-3-acetaldehyde synthase, i.e., gateway enzymes for l-tryptophan-consuming pathways, were massively downregulated. Subsequently, IasA was heterologously produced in Escherichia coli and biochemically characterized in vitro. This enzyme represents the first characterized microbial l-tryptophan-preferring acetaldehyde synthase. A comparison of transcriptomic data collected in this study with prior data of Psilocybe cubensis showed species-specific differences in how l-tryptophan metabolism genes are regulated, despite the close taxonomic relationship. Conclusions The upregulated l-tryptophan biosynthesis genes and, oppositely, the concomitant downregulated genes encoding l-tryptophan-consuming enzymes reflect a well-adjusted cellular system to route this amino acid toward psilocybin production. Our study has pilot character beyond the genus Psilocybe and provides, for the first time, insight in the coordination of mushroom primary and secondary metabolism.

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Kim, Kyunghee, Mohammadamin Shahsavarani, Jorge Jonathan Oswaldo Garza‐García, et al. "Biosynthesis of kratom opioids." New Phytologist, July 30, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nph.19162.

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Summary Mitragynine, an analgesic alkaloid from the plant Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), offers a safer alternative to clinical opioids such as morphine, owing to its more favorable side effect profile. Although kratom has been traditionally used for stimulation and pain management in Southeast Asia, the mitragynine biosynthesis pathway has remained elusive. We embarked on a search for mitragynine biosynthetic genes from the transcriptomes of kratom and other members of the Rubiaceae family. We studied their functions in vitro and in vivo. Our investigations led to the identification of several reductases and an enol methyltransferase that forms a new clade within the SABATH methyltransferase family. Furthermore, we discovered a methyltransferase from Hamelia patens (firebush), which catalyzes the final step. With the tryptamine 4‐hydroxylase from the psychedelic mushroom Psilocybe cubensis, we accomplished the four‐step biosynthesis for mitragynine and its stereoisomer, speciogynine in both yeast and Escherichia coli when supplied with tryptamine and secologanin. Although we have yet to pinpoint the authentic hydroxylase and methyltransferase in kratom, our discovery completes the mitragynine biosynthesis. Through these breakthroughs, we achieved the microbial biosynthesis of kratom opioids for the first time. The remarkable enzyme promiscuity suggests the possibility of generating derivatives and analogs of kratom opioids in heterologous systems.

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Costa, A. L., M. F. Mendes, C. Furlan-Lopes, F. A. Bertazzo-Silva, A. Köhler, and J. Putzke. "First report of Zygothrica candens Burla, 1956 (Diptera, Drosophilidae) in mycophagic association with the mushroom Oudemansiella cubensis (Berk. and M.A. Curtis) R.H. Petersen, 2010 (Agaricales, Physalacriaceae) in southern Brazil." Brazilian Journal of Biology 82 (2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.267871.

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Cavanna, Federico, Stephanie Muller, Laura Alethia de la Fuente, et al. "Microdosing with psilocybin mushrooms: a double-blind placebo-controlled study." Translational Psychiatry 12, no. 1 (2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41398-022-02039-0.

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AbstractThe use of low sub-perceptual doses of psychedelics (“microdosing”) has gained popularity in recent years. Although anecdotal reports claim multiple benefits associated with this practice, the lack of placebo-controlled studies severely limits our knowledge of microdosing and its effects. Moreover, research conducted in standard laboratory settings could fail to capture the motivation of individuals engaged or planning to engage in microdosing protocols, thus underestimating the likelihood of positive effects on creativity and cognitive function. We recruited 34 individuals starting to microdose with psilocybin mushrooms (Psilocybe cubensis), one of the materials most frequently used for this purpose. Following a double-blind placebo-controlled experimental design, we investigated the acute and short-term effects of 0.5 g of dried mushrooms on subjective experience, behavior, creativity (divergent and convergent thinking), perception, cognition, and brain activity. The reported acute effects were significantly more intense for the active dose compared to the placebo, but only for participants who correctly identified their experimental condition. These changes were accompanied by reduced EEG power in the theta band, together with preserved levels of Lempel-Ziv broadband signal complexity. For all other measurements there was no effect of microdosing except for few small changes towards cognitive impairment. According to our findings, low doses of psilocybin mushrooms can result in noticeable subjective effects and altered EEG rhythms, but without evidence to support enhanced well-being, creativity and cognitive function. We conclude that expectation underlies at least some of the anecdotal benefits attributed to microdosing with psilocybin mushrooms.

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Wood, Elisabeth. "Psychedelic Sensationalism: An Analysis of the Schedule Classification of Psilocybin." Vanderbilt Undergraduate Research Journal 13, no. 1 (2023). http://dx.doi.org/10.15695/vurj.v13i1.5403.

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In 1970, the United States Drug Enforcement Administration passed the Controlled Substances Act. This statute classified and banned a variety of drugs including psilocybin, the psychoactive component found in Psilocybe Cubensis (also known as "Magic Mushrooms"). Though psilocybin was known to possess many medical benefits and cause no serious side effects, the Controlled Substances Act designated it as one of the most dangerous drugs, earning it a Schedule I classification. This meant possession and use incurred the highest level of legal punishment, and psilocybin could not be used under any circumstances, including in a medical setting. Based on biochemical properties alone, psilocybin does not fit the criteria to be a Schedule I drug, which suggests some other factors must have contributed to its legal classification. This paper analyzes primary and secondary sources to explore the anthropological and political motives that may have influenced psilocybin's schedule classification. The evidence that psilocybin's reputation in the eyes of the government was damaged due to its association with hippies and the counterculture movement of the 1960s and 1970s. This paper asserts that drug regulation was used as a form of social control that aimed to stifle the progressive ideals of the youth counterculture movement and reinforce conservative American ideals.

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