Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Cross country”

The stylized fact of co-movement of lending and economic activity has been widely interpreted as evidence of a destabilizing feedback mechanism between the banking and real sectors, suggesting the special role of credit supply in amplifying financial and macroeconomic instability. Indeed, this “procyclicality” view significantly influences bank regulations internationally. Under the Basel III, the countercyclical capital buffer is exclusively designed to dampen the volatility of credit supply over the business cycle. The strong co-movement of lending and economic activity, however, is insufficient to confirm the existence of the procyclicality, given that both demand and supply of loans decline during economic downturns. If loan supply does not play a causal role, then any measure to strengthen lending capacity of banks would be ineffective in addressing this procyclicality issue. The literature, however, provides limited, otherwise inexistent, cross-country evidence to answer these fundamental questions. This research gap calls into question the sufficiency of international evidence to assess the effectiveness of the new capital measure, and more broadly, the regulatory reform. This cross-country econometric study covering 39 economies for the period 1990– 2009 examines these fundamental issues in detail. There are three main findings and policy implications. For banking stability, a significant procyclical pattern of loan supply exists, and such pattern is negatively associated with bank capital. These findings together support the view that the countercyclical capital buffers of Basel III could be effective tools for dampening loan volatility over the business cycle. For the regulatory reform, there is prevalent evidence that capital and liquidity are determinants of loan supply. This finding bears out the main Basel III argument that stronger capital and liquidity could strengthen the resilience of the global banking sector to macroeconomic shocks. For macroeconomic stability, empirical findings suggest a moderate macroeconomic effect of loan supply, particularly for developed economies. However, the finding does not imply a small impact of banking instability on the real sector. In fact, banking crises are estimated to have a larger independent negative effect on economic growth after controlling for the macroeconomic effect through impacts of banking crises on loan supply. There are two main policy implications of these findings. First, the main channel through which stronger capital and liquidity of banks help reduce macroeconomic instability would have an impact on reducing the likelihood of the occurrence of a banking crisis. Second, during non-crisis periods, bank regulations aiming at smoothing loan supply may have a relatively moderate impact on reducing macroeconomic instability. For policy to address banking procyclicality, the results show that aside from higher quantitative capital and liquidity requirements, more stringent definitions of capital could dampen loan supply procyclicality, which speaks in favor of recent policy initiatives to strengthen the quality of regulatory capital. More stringent bank regulations are also found to reduce loan supply procyclicality in countries with deposit insurance schemes. To reduce the propagations of loan supply shocks to the real sector, policy to improve the breadth of the stock market and the size of the domestic bond market would be useful.
published_or_final_version
Economics and Finance
Doctoral
Doctor of Philosophy

Traditionally, research on cross‐country skiing biomechanics is based mainly on experimental testing alone. Trying a different approach, this thesis explores the possibilities of using computational musculoskeletal biomechanics for cross‐country skiing. As far as the author knows, this has not been done before.

Cross‐country skiing is both fast and powerful, and the whole body is used to generate movement. Consequently, the computational method used needs to be able to handle a full‐body model with lots of muscles. This thesis presents several simulation models created in the AnyBody Modeling System, which is based on inverse dynamics and static optimization. This method allows for measurementdriven full‐body models with hundreds of muscles and rigid body segments of all major body parts.

A major result shown in the thesis is that with a good simulation model it is possible to predict muscle activation. Even though there is no claim of full validity of the simulation models, this result opens up a wide range of possibilities for computational musculoskeletal biomechanics in cross‐country skiing. Two example of new possibilities are shown in the thesis, finding antagonistic muscle pairs and muscle load distribution differences in different skiing styles. Being able to perform optimization studies and asking and answering “what if”‐questions really gives computational methods an edge compared to traditional testing.

To conclude, a combination of computational and experimental methods seems to be the next logical step to increase the understanding of the biomechanics of crosscountry skiing.

Traditionellt har biomekaniska forskningsstudier av längdskidåkning baserats helt och hållet på experimentella metoder. För att prova ett annat angreppssätt undersöks i denna avhandling vilka möjligheter som beräkningsbaserad biomekanik kan ge för längdskidåkning. Så vida författaren vet, har detta inte gjorts tidigare.

Längdskidåkning innehåller snabba och kraftfulla helkroppsrörelser och därför behövs en beräkningsmetod som kan hantera helkroppsmodeller med många muskler. Avhandlingen presenterar flera simuleringsmodeller skapade i AnyBody Modeling System, som baseras på inversdynamik och statisk optimering. Denna metod tillåter helkroppsmodeller med hundratals muskler och stelkroppssegment av de flesta kroppsdelarna.

Ett resultat som avhandlingen visar är att med en bra simuleringsmodell är det möjligt att förutsäga muskelaktiviteten för en viss rörelse och belastning på kroppen. Även om ingen validering av simuleringsmodellen ges, så visar ändå resultatet att beräkningsbaserad biomekanik ger många nya möjligheter till forskningsstudier av längdskidåkning. Två exempel visas, hur muskelantagonister kan hittas samt hur lastfördelningen mellan musklerna förändras då skidåkaren förändrar stilen. Att kunna genomföra optimeringsstudier samt fråga och svara på ”vad händer om”‐ frågor ger beräkningsbaserad biomekanik en fördel i jämförelse med traditionell testning.

Slutsatsen är att en kombination av beräkningsbaserade och experimentella metoder borde vara nästa steg för att addera insikt om längdskidåkningens biomekanik.

Report code: LIU‐TEK‐LIC‐2008:4. On the day of the defence date the status of article V was: Submitted.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the cross-country relationship between income inequality and selected socioeconomic variables reflecting the level of economic development. The first chapter introduces some theoretical approaches to income distribution and poses problems regarding income inequalities across countries. The second chapter surveys cross-country studies of income inequalities conducted by previous researchers. The third chapter covers statistical methodology. Chapter four analyzes statistical results of multiple regression. The final chapter is intended for summary, conclusion, and recommendations.

Neoclassical models imply convergence of the entire distribution, not just the mean income levels. In this paper, we analyze convergence in income inequality by using the considerably enlarged data bases, from the World Bank (Povcal) and the World Institute for Development Economic Research (WIDER). Convergence in gini indices of inequality is tested across 55 countries. We consider three sample subsets; one for the developing countries, second of the developed countries and third with all countries together. We test for convergence in gini indices over a period of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 years. Additionally we use cross-section (OLS),panel (GMM) and a novel OLS estimation methods. Our results uniformly indicate that inequality levels among developing countries converged. Evidence of convergence is weaker among developed countries. Developing countries appear to converge faster than developed countries.

Cette thèse a pour objet les différences de productivité entre nations. Un faible taux d'investissement, un faible niveau d'éducation, de longues distances, de mauvaises institutions. . . Tous ces facteurs ont été avancés dans la littérature récente et moins récente pour expliquer les origines des différences de productivité entre pays. Le consensus dans la littérature a ainsi évolué en conséquence. Aujourd’hui, les économistes s'accordent à dire que l'efficacité joue un rôle prépondérant. Cette thèse va à l'encontre des théories mono-causales du développement économique. Elle démontre qu'il existe une liste de facteurs de production qu'un pays se doit d'accumuler pour grimper l'échelle de la productivité, parmi lesquels on retrouve l'efficacité avec laquelle ces facteurs sont employés. Pris séparément, aucun de ces facteurs n'est une source d'explication suffisante des différences de productivité entre pays. Pris ensemble, ils constituent une explication convaincante
This thesis is about productivity differences. It is widely known, and will be found again to be true here, that cross-country differences in income per worker are enormous. Low investment, low education, long distances, trade barriers, bad institutions. . . . AII these factors have been put forward in the recent and less recent literature. The consensus among economists has been changing accordingly. The mainstream view today is that efficiency plays a big role. This thesis challenges mono causal theories of economic development. It shows that there is a list of relevant inputs that a country has to accumulate in order climb the productivity ladder, among which the efficiency with which these inputs are used. None of these inputs is by itself a leading cause for cross country productivity differences. Altogether they become a powerful explantation

Why copy the best athletes? When you finally learn their technique, they may have already moved on. Using muscluloskeletal biomechanics you might be able to add the "know-why" so that you can lead, instead of being left in the swells. This dissertation presents the theoretical framework of musculoskeletal modeling using inverse dynamics with static optimization. It explores some of the possibilities and limitations of musculoskeletal biomechanics in cross-country skiing, especially double-poling. The basic path of the implementation is shown and discussed, e.g. the issue of muscle model choice. From that discussion it is concluded that muscle contraction dynamics is needed to estimate individual muscle function in double-poling. Several computer simulation models, using The Anybody Modeling System™, have been created to study different cross-country skiing applications. One of the applied studies showed that the musculoskeletal system is not a collection of discrete uncoupled parts because kinematic differences in the lower leg region caused kinetic differences in the other end of the body. An implication of the results is that the kinematics and kinetics of the whole body probably are important when studying skill and performance in sports. Another one of the applied studies showed how leg utilisation may affect skiing efficiency and performance in double-poling ergometry. Skiing efficiency was defined as skiing work divided by metabolic muscle work, performance was defined as forward impulse. A higher utilization of the lower-body increased the performance, but decreased the skiing efficiency. The results display the potential of musculoskeletal biomechanics for skiing efficiency estimations. The subject of muscle decomposition is also studied. It is shown both analytically and with numerical simulations that muscle force estimates may be affected by muscle decomposition depending on the muscle recruitment criteria. Moreover, it is shown that proper choices of force normalization factors may overcome this issue. Such factors are presented for two types of muscle recruitment criteria. To sum up, there are still much to do regarding both the theoretical aspects as well as the practical implementations before predictions on one individual skier can be made with any certainty. But hopefully, this disseration somewhat furthers the fundamental mechanistic understanding of cross-country skiing, and shows that musculoskeletal biomechanics will be a useful complement to existing experimental methods in sports biomechanics.
Varför ska man kopiera de som är bäst inom sin idrottsgren? När man väl har lärt sig deras teknik så har de antagligen redan gått vidare. Vore det inte bättre att öka sin förståelse så att man kan ligga i framkant, istället för i svallvågorna? Med biomekaniska simuleringar som ett komplement till traditionella experimentella metoder finns möjligheten att få veta varför prestationen ökar, inte bara hur man ska göra för att öka sin prestation. Längdskidåkning innehåller snabba och kraftfulla helkroppsrörelser och därför behövs en beräkningsmetod som kan hantera helkroppsmodeller med många muskler. Avhandlingen presenterar flera muskeloskelettära simuleringsmodeller skapade i The AnyBody Modeling System™ och är baserade på inversdynamik och statisk optimering. Denna metod tillåter helkroppsmodeller med hundratals muskler och stelkroppssegment av de flesta kroppsdelarna. Avhandlingen visar att biomekaniska simuleringar kan användas som komplement till mer traditionella experimentella metoder vid biomekaniska studier av längdskidåkning. Exempelvis går det att förutsäga muskelaktiviteten för en viss rörelse och belastning på kroppen. Detta nyttjas för att studera verkningsgrad och prestation inom dubbelstakning. Utifrån experiment skapas olika simuleringsmodeller. Dessa modeller beskriver olika varianter (eller stilar) av dubbelstakning, alltifrån klassisk stil med relativt raka ben och kraftig fällning av överkroppen till en mer modern stil där åkaren går upp på tå och använder sig av en kraftig knäböj. Resultaten visar först och främst att ur verkningsgradsynpunkt är den klassiska stilen att föredra då den ger mest framåtdrivande arbete per utfört kroppsarbete, dvs den är energisnål. Men ska en längdlöpare komma så fort fram som möjligt (utan att bry sig om energiåtgång) verkar det som en mer modern stil är att föredra. Denna studie visar också att för att kunna jämföra kroppens energiåtgång för skelettmusklernas arbete mellan olika rörelser så krävs det en modell där muskler ingår. Andra studier som presenteras är hur muskelantagonister kan hittas, hur lastfördelningen mellan muskler eller muskelgrupper förändras när rörelsen förändras samt effekter av benproteser på energiåtgång. Några aspekter av metoden presenteras också. Två muskelmodeller och dess inverkan på olika simuleringsresultat visas. En annan aspekt är hur muskeldekomposition och muskelrekryteringskriterium påverkar beräkningarna. Normaliseringsfaktorer för olika muskelrekryteringskriterium presenteras.
Beräkningsbaserad biomekanik inom längdskidåkningen - möjligheter och begränsningar

Cross-country skiing constitutes ancestral method for moving along in a snow environment.A number of techniques have been developed to facilitate this. Among these techniques, one of them; namely the Diagonal Stride Technique( DST) has been described by authors as an extension of walking and running. Most biomechanical research studies have analysed the DST as a sporting activity leaving the locomotor strategies poorly described. This relationship to walking and running and the involvement of a gliding phase make the DST an interesting locomotion which may reflect a locomotor adaptation of human to the environment. The overall purpose of the research undertaken in this work was to determine the strategies employed by skiers to progress along the ground in the DST. Different analytical approaches were used to test the research question: those involved cycle patterns, joint angular kinematics,coordination and mechanical analyses of different skiing conditions. The DST with poles was tested for two different speeds. In addition,the DST was investigated without poles. The description of the joints angular kinematics showed that specific movement patterns and segmental organisation were required for skiing with a reference to walking and running. The DST locomotion was mechanically similar to running but involved a gliding phase. The generation of forward displacement was carried out using an effective sequencing of hip extension and knee and ankle extension. Poles were reported to contribute to the generation of upper and lower body propulsion strategies. They were also supposed to increase the balance of the skier by providing additional supports. The increase of speed was achieved through faster limb movements without change in the joints range of motion. The overall conclusion of this work is that although the DST could be related to running, the skiers developed some specific body segmental organisations to progress along the ground,in response to the properties of the environment and of the material.

This thesis develops a multi-country model for China based on the New Open Economy Macroeconomics to study China's interactions with the United States, the Euro Area and the rest of the world. The model is estimated to identify heterogeneous structural characteristics of these economies using the Bayesian approach. Then the estimated model is simulated to find the international transmission of productivity improvements originated in each area. In particular, the model is applied to the modelling of heterogeneous external asset and liability positions and to analysis of the influences of international investment on the spillover effects of the shocks. Our model provides a comprehensive framework with heterogeneous structural features for open economy analysis between multiple countries, while the scale of the model is moderate and the identification is robust. In addition, our work broadens the family of general equilibrium models designed for the Chinese economy. Our estimation finds large heterogeneity of structural parameter values and policy functions between these economies. China and the US have more distorted consumption patterns than other areas, and the production of the Euro Area is more vulnerable to shocks. The monetary policy of China can be described by both interest rate and money quantity rules with different targets, while other economies generally follow interest rate rules. Simulations show that productivity improvements from the US and the EA have larger spillover effects than the improvements originated in China. The US can promote trade surplus by stimulating growth. For China, productivity increase cannot easily build up her international investment position further, due to the adjustment costs induced by her large net position. The valuation effects are significant under large gross positions. Such effects are caused by interest rate differentials more than by exchange rate movements.

Okun's Law postulates an inverse relationship between movements of the unemployment rate and the real gross domestic product (GDP). In this article we investigate Okun's law for 15 OECD countries and check for its structural stability. By using data on employment and the labor force we infer whether structural instability is caused either from the the demand side or the supply side. (author's abstract)
Series: Working Papers Series "Growth and Employment in Europe: Sustainability and Competitiveness"

The current study aims to investigate empirically the main incentives for mandatory and voluntary risk reporting (MRR and VRR) across the USA, the UK and Germany, each of which has a unique approach towards risk reporting. While the UK approach encourages more voluntary risk reporting above imposing risk rules, the German approach formally requires firms to provide risk information in a certain place in their annual report narratives. The US approach is a compromise between these two approaches; it obligates and encourages firms to provide more information about their risks mandatorily and/or voluntarily, respectively. Investigating the incentives for risk reporting in such set of countries answers the calls of some prior research (e.g., Linsley and Shrives, 2006; Dobler, 2008; Dobler, Lajili and Zeghal, 2011) to deepen our understanding of what motivates firms to disclose their risks. To this end, computerised content analysis and multilevel analysis (MLA) on a large scale (compared with previous work e.g., Linsley and Shrives, 2005, 2006; Abraham and Cox, 2007) are utilised. The results are produced in four cumulative contexts through Chapters Six to Nine. These results are consistent with managers’ incentives theories (discussed in Chapter Two) and prior risk reporting literature (discussed in Chapter Three and Chapter Four). Based on 15 firms in each country during 2007 and 2008, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) results reveal significant differences between a firm’s risk levels and its risk disclosure levels across the USA, the UK and Germany. The correlation results indicate that these differences are statistically correlated, supporting the main argument of the current study that differences in a firm’s risk levels should be reflected in their risk reporting practices (Chapter Six). Based on 1160 firm-years of non-financial firms of the FTSE all share index over 2005-2008, linear mixed model (LMM) results document that firms with higher levels of systematic and financing risks are likely to exhibit significantly higher levels of aggregated and voluntary risk reporting, whereas firms with high variability of stock returns or lower levels of liquidity are likely to exhibit significantly lower levels of aggregated and voluntary risk reporting. The current study also finds, however, that MRR is associated significantly and positively with firm size rather than with risk levels. The results also indicate that managers of firms exhibiting greater compliance with UK risk reporting regulations have greater incentives to disclose voluntary risk information (Chapter Seven). When the study extends the scope to the other two countries, different patterns of relations are found. Based on 1270, 1410 and 1005 firm-year observations over 2005 to 2009 in the USA, the UK and Germany, respectively, repeated measures multilevel analysis (RMMLA) results suggest that, in the USA, MRR is more sensitive to firm risk levels (total, systematic and liquidity risks) than is VRR, which is more correlated to other firm characteristics. The UK results suggest that VRR is more sensitive to firm risk levels (systematic and liquidity risks) than is MRR, which is dominated by firm size, among other firm characteristics. In Germany, however, both MRR and VRR are significantly related to risk levels (total, systematic, un-systematic, financing and liquidity risks) (Chapter Eight). Based on 3685 firm-year observations during the period between 2005 and 2009, and concerning both firm- and country-level analyses, repeated measures multilevel analysis (RMMLA) results support that variations in MRR can be attributed to differences in the legal systems (country characteristics) and in firm size (firm characteristics). The variations in VRR are more associated with firm characteristics, especially a firm’s risk levels across the USA, the UK and Germany (Chapter Nine). These results have many implications and support the respective regulatory approach adopted within each country by interpreting the extent to which either MRR or VRR is more or less sensitive to underlying risks.

The increased competition has forced companies to understand the strategic importance of their business processes such as procurement processes. In order to ensure operational excellence, competitiveness and cost-effectiveness of their processes, many companies are standardizing their business processes. Previous researches indicate that companies can achieve many kinds of benefits by conducting Business Process Standardization (BPS). Still, it is useful and often necessary to maintain also some variability in business processes. The optimal trade-off between uniformity and variability determines the extent of standardization and depends on the internal and external environment. This research has been conducted in a case company that has recently merged with another company. In order to gain synergy benefits also at process level, case company’s Operational Procurement is aiming at standardizing working methods and practices related to purchase-to-payment (P2P) process and purchasing methods. As a part of simultaneous P2P process review, this research focuses on cross-country standardization of working methods and practices. The research has been carried out using constructive approach. At the beginning of research, previous literature concerning Business Process Management (BPM), BPS and managing of operational procurement process is presented. Then, based on the workshops, recap meetings, interviews and quantitative analysis, the most important cross-country differences in working methods and practices are recognized. By applying and combining the findings of literature research with empirical data, this research analyses identified differences further and determines the appropriate extent of standardization. In order to achieve desired level of standardization, this research proposes concrete standardization activities that should be conducted in case organization. During empirical research, a great number of cross-country differences were identified. Thus, as a result of this research, many recommendations for actions are presented for case company. By conducting recommended standardization activities, case company’s Operational Procurement is able to eliminate three kinds of deficiencies: process waste, lack of systematic procedures and guidelines, and limited utilization of ERP systems. Three kinds of recommendations were given: proposals for changing the way of working or thinking, proposals for making changes in the ERP systems, and proposals for conducting more detailed researches. By utilizing the results and recommendations of this thesis, case organization can standardize its operational procurement process and improve the process performance for instance in terms of efficiency, quality, transparency, uniformity and consistency. Since the internal and external environment has a great influence on appropriate extent of standardization, the findings of this research are not generalizable as such. However, the basic structure of this study can be applied in other organizations that are aiming at standardizing their business processes
Lisääntynyt kilpailu on pakottanut yritykset ymmärtämään liiketoimintaprosessiensa kuten hankintaprosessien strategisen merkittävyyden. Varmistaakseen prosessiensa operatiivisen erinomaisuuden, kilpailukyvyn ja kustannustehokkuuden, monet yritykset standardoivat liiketoimintaprosessejaan. Aikaisemmat tutkimukset osoittavat, että liiketoimintaprosessien standardoimisella voidaan saavuttaa monenlaisia hyötyjä. Kaikesta huolimatta on hyödyllistä ja usein välttämätöntä säilyttää myös jonkin verran vaihtelevuutta liiketoimintaprosesseissa. Optimaalinen kompromissi yhdenmukaisuuden ja vaihtelevuuden välillä määrittää standardoinnin laajuuden ja riippuu organisaation ulkoisesta ja sisäisestä ympäristöstä. Tämä tutkimus on toteutettu kohdeyrityksessä, joka on vastikään fuusioitunut toisen yrityksen kanssa. Saavuttaakseen synergiahyötyjä myös prosessitasolla, kohdeyrityksen operatiivinen hankinta pyrkii standardoimaan työskentelymenetelmiään ja -käytäntöjään P2P (purchase-to-payment) prosessiin ja hankintamenetelmiin liittyen. Osana samanaikaisesti toteutettavaa P2P prosessin tarkastelua, tämä tutkimus keskittyy työskentelymenetelmien ja -käytäntöjen standardoimiseen maiden välillä. Tutkimus on toteutettu konstruktiivisen tutkimusotteen avulla. Tutkimuksen alussa esitellään aiempaa kirjallisuutta, jossa käsitellään liiketoimintaprosessien johtamista ja standardoimista sekä erikseen operatiivisen hankintaprosessin johtamista. Tämän jälkeen hyödynnetään työpajojen, yhteenvetopalaverien, haastattelujen ja kvantitatiivisen analyysin avulla kerättyjä tietoja ja tunnistetaan merkittävimpiä maiden välisiä eroja työskentelymenetelmissä ja -käytännöissä. Soveltamalla ja yhdistelemällä kirjallisuustutkimuksen löydöksiä empiiriseen aineistoon, tunnistettuja eroja analysoidaan pidemmälle ja määritellään asianmukainen standardoinnin laajuus. Halutun standardointitason saavuttamiseksi tämä tutkimus antaa suosituksia konkreettisista toimenpiteistä, jotka tulisi toteuttaa kohdeorganisaatiossa. Empiirisen tutkimuksen aikana tunnistettiin suuri määrä maiden välisiä eroavaisuuksia. Tämän vuoksi myös tutkimuksen tuloksena kohdeyritykselle esitettäviä toimenpide-ehdotuksia on lukuisia. Toteuttamalla suositellut standardointitoimenpiteet, kohdeyrityksen operatiivinen hankintatoimi voi poistaa kolmenlaista vajavaisuutta: prosessin hukkaa, systemaattisten menettelytapojen ja ohjeistusten puutetta, sekä ERP järjestelmien riittämätöntä hyödyntämistä. Kohdeyritykselle annetaan kolmenlaisia suosituksia: suosituksia työskentely- ja ajattelutapojen muuttamiseksi, suosituksia ERP järjestelmään kohdistuvista muutoksista, sekä suosituksia tarkempien tutkimusten toteuttamisesta. Hyödyntämällä tämän tutkimuksen tuloksia ja annettuja suosituksia, kohdeorganisaatio voi standardoida operatiivista hankintaprosessiaan ja parantaa prosessin suorituskykyä esimerkiksi tehokkuuden, laadun, läpinäkyvyyden, yhtäläisyyden ja johdonmukaisuuden suhteen. Koska organisaation sisäisellä ja ulkoisella ympäristöllä on suuri vaikutus asianmukaiseen standardoinnin laajuuteen, tämän tutkimuksen tuloksia ei voida yleistää sellaisenaan muihin organisaatioihin. Tutkimuksen perusrakenne on kuitenkin sovellettavissa muissa organisaatioissa, jotka pyrkivät standardoimaan liiketoimintaprosessejaan

Reliability requirements for power systems have been constantly increasing, as customers of electric power desire high power availability. In order to improve continuity of supply in medium voltage (MV) networks, utilities in many countries in Europe, North/South America and Oceania use resonant earthing and allow the operation of the network during a single phasetoearth fault for periods from several seconds up to several hours, since the earthfault current at the fault point in such systems is considerably reduced and is unlikely to damage equipment or create hazardous voltages for people or livestock. Due to the neutral potential displacement during the phasetoearth fault, the healthy phases can rise up to 1.73 times the nominal values in the entire network, overstressing insulation and increasing the probability of a second fault from another phasetoearth fault somewhere in the network. The situation of two simultaneously active phasetoearth faults on different phases at different locations in a network is commonly called a crosscountry or doubleearth fault. The current through the earth then becomes many times higher than in case of a single phasetoearth fault in a resonantearthed network. Few studies about CrossCountry faults in MV systems have been done so far, particularly with real fault data and simulations. This thesis has as main objectives to: improve understanding of how crosscountry faults behave in resonantearthed systems; show how the double fault situation can be analytically calculated; and study what difficulties these faults can pose to traditional distance protection. This is done by: analyzing recordings of real faults, obtained from utilities in Scandinavia; modelling the fault situations analytically; simulating such systems with real system data; and examining in particular how faultedphase selection and distance protection behave during these faults. The developed mathematical model was compared with a simple simulated system. The results showed that the modelling produces accurate results. Analysis of the real faults showed that crosscountry faults cannot be equated directly to more traditional singlephase or doublephase faults on particular feeders, since voltages and currents can behave in atypical manners. Finally, during the comprehensive simulations of such network, limitations of traditional distance protection were identified. Phasetophase loops can face difficulties in properly detecting crosscountry faults even when one of the two simultaneous faults is relatively close to the measuring point. Phasetoearth loops can only be reliable when faults are solid or with very low resistance and in conditions where zero sequence current is present, while for multiple infeeds can also face difficulties.
Kraven på elkraftsystemets pålitlighet ökar hela tiden, då kundernas krav på tillgänglighet hela tiden stiger. Som ett led i att förbättra leveranssäkerheten på mellanspänningsnivån har ett flertal elnätsbolag i Europa, Nord och Sydamerika samt Oceanien börjat använda spoljordning. Genom detta kan jordfel under drift tillåtas, på allt ifrån sekundbasis till timmar. På detta sätt undviks driftavbrott vid jordfel. Spoljordning gör att jordfelsströmmen reduceras vilket minimerar risken för person, djur och egendomsskador. Under ett enfasigt jordfel höjs spänningen i de två opåverkade faserna till maximalt 1.73 gånger den nominella spänningen, detta i hela det aktuella nätet. Spänningshöjningen riskerar att ge skador på isolaringen, vilket gör att risken för uppkomsten av ett andra jordfel någonstans i samma nätavsnitt ökar. Att två enfasiga jordfel på olika platser inträffar samtidigt i samma nät, kallas dubbelt jordfel, på engelska crosscountry fault. Strömmen genom jord i ett spoljordat nät blir i detta fallet mycket högre än för ett enfasigt jordfel. Än så länge har bara ett fåtal studier med verkliga data och simuleringar gällande dubbla jordfel på mellanspänningsnivå utförts. Detta examensarbete syftar till att: förbättra förståelsen för hur dubbla jordfel uppkommer i spoljordade nät; beskriva hur dubbla jordfel kan beräknas analytiskt; och visa på vilka svårigheter dubbla jordfel kan ge för distansskydd. Detta görs genom: att analysera verkliga fel uppkomna i Skandinavien; analytisk modellering av dessa situationer; simulering med data från verkliga elnät; undersökning av hur felbehäftade delar och dess distansskydd beter sig vid fel. Den utvecklade matematiska modelleringsmetoden är jämförd med ett enkelt system som var simulerat, och resultaten av jämförelsen visar att modellen ger ett överensstämmande och noggrant resultat. Analysen av verkliga fel visar att dubbla jordfel inte direkt kan likställas med traditionella enfas- eller tvåfasfel för ett och samma utgående fack, då spänning och strömmar kan ha olika beteende. Avslutningsvis kunde begränsningar hos traditionella distansskydd upptäckas, tack var en omfattande simulering av nyss nämnda elnät. Fas- fas slingan kan se svårigheter att detektera dubbla fel även när ett av dessa två är nära till mätpunkten. Fas- jord slingan är endast pålitlig när felresistansen är försumbar, eller i fall där felresistansen är låg, samt i fall när nollföljdsströmmen är närvarande. Flera felströmsinmatningar kan likaså ställa till svårigheter.

Cross-country skiing has developed to become one of the most competitive winter sports, where a skier can win by fractions of seconds. Joint efforts between ski technicians and scientist have allowed the development of methodologies to prepare the ski surface, yet much of the knowledge up to date is based on the experience of the technicians.  In this sense, much attention is focused on the ski base, given that the friction at the base is an important factor that will define how fast a ski can glide. Ski base preparation is an extensive procedure, due to the several parameters that have to be taken into account. Much disagreement has risen regarding the best way to optimize the base. Thus, a complete characterization of the ski base can help to provide some clarity on the factors that affect friction.   This work presents the results of the characterization of the ski base through the preparation process by observing and measuring different aspects, using characterization techniques such as LOM, optical profilometry, contact angle, DSC and XCT. The results suggest that the mechanical machining of the surface can influence wax retention and hydrophobicity. Furthermore, it is seen that wax is present after the first waxing step, despite the constant brushing and scraping. No major changes were observed for the crystallinity. Finally, the amount of graphite on the surface was quantified. This is hoped to be helpful for ski technicians and athletes alike to improve the performance of their skis.

Most of the world's equipment is produced in a small number of rich countries. In 1996, countries in the top decile of cross-country income distribution produced 61% of world equipment and countries in the bottom decile produced only 0.2%. Rich and poor countries also differ in their dependence on imports for equipment. In 1996, poor countries imported more than half of their equipment. Structures, on the other hand, are largely domestically produced. World pattern of production and trade in equipment and structures is potentially an important determinant of composition of capital across countries. The composition of capital differs significantly across rich and poor countries. In 1996, equipment constituted over 21% of the capital in 5 richest countries and only 8% in 5 poorest countries. While equipment capital-output ratio was a factor of more than 6 between rich and poor countries, structures capital-output ratio was less than a factor of 2. In this dissertation, I determine the quantitative relationship between international trade and cross-country capital composition. I, then, utilize the results on this relationship to examine the implications for economic development. The starting point of my analysis is a multi-country model of trade in capital goods. There are three tradable sectors: equipment, structures and intermediate goods. Countries differ in their average level of productivity in each of the tradable sectors. International trade is subject to bilateral iceberg costs, which comprise of tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade. The theoretical model implies that the composition of capital is a function of country-specific productivity parameters and bilateral trade costs. I structurally estimate these parameters to match the pattern of bilateral trade in a sample of 76 countries. Equipped with country specific productivity parameters and trade costs, I determine the quantitative relationship between international trade and cross-country capital composition. The calibrated model generates capital composition differences consistent with the data. Variation in log equipment to output ratio is 1.09 in data and 1.26 in the model. The model also generates cross-country differences in investment rate, income per worker and prices consistent with the data. Through counterfactual exercises, I study the gains associated with reductions in trade costs. If all trade costs are eliminated, poor countries' welfare would increase by 39% and rich countries' welfare would increase by only 8%. If barriers only to equipment trade are eliminated, poor countries' welfare gain would be 9% and rich countries' welfare gain would be 1.4%. Reductions in barriers to flow of capital goods facilitate a more efficient allocation of the world stock of capital goods across countries and hence, are quantitatively important for economic development.

The aim of the research is to explain the causes underlying the great differences in the adoption of hybrid electric vehicles between France and Italy. The research proposes a model for explaining the existing gap, which includes findings from previous studies and which attempts to go beyond that by introducing other key variables. In order to fulfill the analysis, a survey is delivered to drivers of both countries for evaluating their purchase intention.

This doctoral thesis consists of three empirical research papers, in which intergenerational links and their effects on economic outcomes are investigated. The first paper, titled "Intergenerational Transmission of Human Capital in Europe: Evidence from SHARE", extends the previous literature on the intergenerational transmission of human capital by exploiting variation in compulsory schooling reforms across nine European countries over the period 1920-1956. My empirical strategy follows an instrumental variable (IV) approach, instrumenting parental education with years of compulsory schooling. I find some evidence of a causal relationship between parents' and children's education. The magnitude of the estimated effect is large: an additional year of parental education raises the child's education by 0.44 of a year. I also find that maternal schooling is more important than paternal schooling for the academic performance of their offspring. The results are robust to several specification checks. The second paper, titled "Living Arrangements in Europe: Whether and Why Paternal Retirement Matters", uses retrospective micro data from eleven European countries to investigate the role of paternal retirement in explaining children's decisions to leave the parental home. To assess causality, I use a bivariate discrete hazard model with shared frailty and exploit over time and cross-country variation in early retirement legislation. Overall, the results indicate a positive and significant influence of paternal retirement on the probability of first nest-leaving of children residing in southern European countries, both for sons and daughters. By contrast, there is no evidence of significant effects on children living in northern and central European countries. I then discuss the potential mechanisms by which paternal retirement may affect children's nest-leaving. I find that the increase in children's nest-leaving around paternal retirement does not seem to be driven by changes in parents' budget constraints. Rather, one must probably look for channels involving negative externalities in preferences between parents and children. Finally, the third paper, titled "The Effect of Divorce Risk on the Wealth and Retirement Security of Households", quantifies the effects of divorce risk on couple's retirement well-being in Europe using changes in divorce laws occurred between the late 1970s and the 2000s. Across countries and over time, the ground for divorce shifted from mutual consent to unilateral choice. This "divorce revolution'' allows for the use of a quasi-experimental design that exploits the time and country variation in these laws to identify the empirical relationship between divorce risk and couple's economic security in retirement. By employing a unique dataset that contains complete marital history for different European countries, combined with features of divorce legislation across countries and over time, I can quantify their effects on the cohort of married couples born over the period 1920-1957.
Il presente lavoro e' costituito da tre articoli accademici, di natura empirica, focalizzati sul tema dei legami intergenerazionali e sui loro effetti su una serie di economic outcomes. Il primo capitolo, "Intergenerational Transmission of Human Capital in Europe: Evidence from SHARE", estende la precedente letteratura sul meccanismo intergenerazionale di trasmissione di capitale umano sfruttando la variazione nelle leggi di istruzione obbligatoria in nove Paesi Europei tra il 1920 e il 1956. La strategia empirica e' basata su un approccio a variabili strumentali, in cui l'istruzione dei genitori viene strumentata utilizzando gli anni di istruzione obbligatoria. Trovo evidenza di una relazione causale tra istruzione dei genitori e istruzione dei figli. L'ampiezza del coefficiente stimato e' grande: un anno addizionale nell'istruzione dei genitori aumenta l'istruzione dei figli di 0.44 anni. Trovo inoltre evidenza che l'istruzione materna e' piu' importante dell'istruzione paterna sulla performance accademica dei figli. I risultati sono robusti rispetto ad una serie di robustness checks. Il secondo paper, "Living Arrangements in Europe: Whether and Why Paternal Retirement Matters", usa dati retrospettivi di undici Paesi Europei con l'obiettivo di studiare il ruolo del pensionamento del padre sulla decisione dei figli di lasciare la casa dei genitori. Per quanto riguarda l'identificazione, uso un modello hazard bivariato con shared frailty e sfrutto la variazione over time e cross-country nelle riforme pensionistiche. Nel complesso, i risultati indicano un effetto positivo e significativo da parte del pensionamento del padre sulla probabilita' che i figli escano di casa per la prima volta nei Paesi del Sud Europa., sia per i figli maschi sia per le figlie femmine. Al contrario, non c'e' evidenza di effetti significativi per i figli che vivono nei Paesi del Nord e del Centro Europa. Discuto poi i meccanismi tramite cui il pensionamento del padre puo' influenzare l'uscita di casa dei figli. Trovo che l'aumento nell'uscita di casa dei figli al momento del pensionamento del padre non sembra essere guidato da modifiche nel vincolo di bilancio dei genitori. Piuttosto, uno dovrebbe probabilmente guardare ai canali che riguardano le esternalita' negative nelle preferenze tra genitori e figli. Infine, il terzo paper, "The Effect of Divorce Risk on the Wealth and Retirement Security of Households", quantifica gli effetti associati al rischio di divorzio sul retirement well-being della coppia in Europa usando le leggi sul divorzio avvenute tra la fine del 1970 e gli anni 2000. La ragione del divorzio e' passata da mutual consent a unilateral choice. Questa "divorce revolution" permette quindi di ricorrere ad un quasi- experimental design che sfrutta variazione over time e cross-country per studiare la relazione empirica tra rischio di divorzio e il retirement security della coppia. Utilizzando un dataset che contiene informazione sulla marital history per differenti Paesi Europei, e sfruttando le leggi sul divorzio over time e cross-country, sono in grado di quantificare il loro effetto sulle coorte delle coppie nate tra il 1920 e il 1957.

Thesis (Honors)--Ohio State University, 2005.
Title from first page of PDF file. Document formattted into pages: contains xi, 66 p.; also includes graphics. Includes bibliographical references (p. 65-66). Available online via Ohio State University's Knowledge Bank.

This study attempts to investigate the relationship between financial development and economic growth and also the empirical analysis examines Granger causality of this relationship. Time series models are applied for six countries with emerging markets and different types of financial system (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Tunisia, Morocco, Israel and Egypt).  For the pairwise combinations of financial development indicators and economic growth which do not have cointegrating relationships, Granger causality is applied within the vector autoregressive (VAR) model. When the variables have cointegrating relationship, Granger causality test is applied using the vector error correction model (VECM). The empirical results in the study case suggest that financial structure in some degree can explain economic growth indicator. Moreover the test results show weak dependence between financial development and economic growth. The Granger causality test indicates unidirectional Granger causality running from financial development and economic growth, reverse relationship and bidirectional Granger causality.

Cross country skiing is considered to be one of the most demanding sports in terms of endurance. Therefore the skiers are attractive subjects for physiological and biomechanical research whose interest has increased a lot during the 21 stcentury. The results are used to improve the mechanical knowledge about the body and to improve the capacity and technique for the competitors. The aim with this study is to implement a method for mechanical energy calculation in cross country skiing. This is based on data from 15 skiers using the double poling technique, where the potential, rotational and translational energies are calculated. The measurements are made in a lab using a treadmill with stepwise increased velocity. The system used is Vicon MX where the skiers wear re- ective markers, whose positions is calculated from data from infra-red light cameras. The positions of the joint centres are calculated used as input data to the program. Joint centres and marker data divide the body into segments where the energies of each segment are calculated and possible to sum up for the whole body. The results are examples of obtainable data from the model. It is possible to compare chosen subjects' total mechanical energy but also the energies and segments separately. The results can be used to analyse the dierent techniques to improve the capacity of the competitors.

In modern military operations, the usage of command, control and communication systems is ever increasing, where Geographical Information Systems are used to increase the commanders’ situational awareness. The use of cross-country movement models in a Geographical Information System can further aid commanders in their decision-making and narrow down possible advancements on the battlefield. This study’s purpose is to examine the Czech Republic’s available methods for presenting cross-country movement in a geographical information system, to recognize what procedures the Swedish Armed Forces have to conduct in the future to have equivalent or better ability in calculating and presenting cross-country movement.  In order to determine this, Swedish geodata has been analysed with a simplified Czech cross-country model and compared to an extended analysis made in the Czech Republic. The method for information gathering was literature studies in the field of geography and cross-country movement, collection of geodata from the Swedish authority Lantmäteriet and two interviews about Swedish geodata and the current situation with Geographical Information Systems in the Swedish Armed Forces. The result shows that the available digital elevation model over Sweden is not accurate enough and that the vegetation database is limited. However, the available geodata over soil is adequate enough in structure to use in cross-country movement models. The author’s suggestion for the Swedish Armed Forces is to determine domestic trafficability parameters and create models that consider Sweden’s specific geographical conditions, with use of similar models that the Czech Republic uses. Further research should focus on investigating necessary parameters and how the cross-country models can be incorporated in a command, control and communication system.

Introduction Researchers have, for decades, contributed to an increased collective understanding of the physiological demands in cross-country skiing; however, almost all of these studies have used either non-elite subjects and/or performances that emulate cross-country skiing. To establish the physiological demands of cross-country skiing, it is important to relate the investigated physiological variables to the competitive performance of elite skiers. The overall aim of this doctoral thesis was, therefore, to investigate the external validity of physiological test variables to determine the physiological demands in competitive elite cross-country skiing. Methods The subjects in Study I – IV were elite male (I – III) and female (III – IV) cross-country skiers. In all studies, the relationship between test variables (general and ski-specific) and competitive performances (i.e. the results from competitions or the overall ski-ranking points of the International Ski Federation (FIS) for sprint (FISsprint) and distance (FISdist) races) were analysed. Test variables reflecting the subject’s general strength, upper-body and whole-body oxygen uptake, oxygen uptake and work intensity at the lactate threshold, mean upper-body power, lean mass, and maximal double-poling speed were investigated. Results The ability to maintain a high work rate without accumulating lactate is an indicator of distance performance, independent of sex (I, IV). Independent of sex, high oxygen uptake in whole-body and upper-body exercise was important for both sprint (II, IV) and distance (I, IV) performance. The maximal double-poling speed and 60-s double-poling mean power output were indicators of sprint (IV) and distance performance (I), respectively. Lean mass was correlated with distance performance for women (III), whereas correlations were found between lean mass and sprint performance among both male and female skiers (III). Moreover, no correlations between distance performance and test variables were derived from tests of knee-extension peak torque, vertical jumps, or double poling on a ski-ergometer with 20-s and 360-s durations (I), whereas gross efficiency while treadmill roller skiing showed no correlation with either distance or sprint performance in cross-country skiing (IV). Conclusion The results in this thesis show that, depending on discipline and sex, maximal and peak oxygen uptake, work intensity at the lactate threshold, lean mass, double-poling mean power output, and double-poling maximal speed are all externally valid physiological test variables for evaluation of performance capability among elite cross-country skiers; however, to optimally indicate performance capability different test-variable expressions should be used; in general, the absolute expression appears to be a better indicator of competitive sprint performance whereas the influence of body mass should be considered when evaluating competitive distance performance capability of elite cross-country skiers.

This thesis deals with cross-country ski clothing for non-competitive women. Women in this category look for different clothing features in comfort and aesthetics than male top athletes, for whom cross-country skiwear today often seems to be designed. In this thesis the demands of these women have been mapped out by an interview with a reference group of users. The ergonomics of exercising in the winter outdoors are naturally a base for the collection. The collection consists of three functional layers of garments. Each layer has its own purpose and its specific style that reflects its function for the user. Knit materials are developed for thermal underwear and an insulating middle layer. The protecting outer garments were tested in real outdoor conditions. The spirit of the collection can be summarized as to mature femininity. The collection allows each skier to enjoy skiing as she best feels. The aim is to inspire more beautiful women to dust off their skis and enjoy nature.

Program: Konstnärligt masterprogram i mode- och textildesign

Uppsatsnivå: D

Thesis (M. Phil.)--Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 2004.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 33-35). Also available in electronic version. Access restricted to campus users.

This paper investigates the determinants of informality (tax evasion in particular) utilizing rich cross-country data of firm-level survey from the World Bank, and hypothesizing that competition is a significant factor determining tax evasion behaviors. Competition pressure is a key stimulus to induce questionable manipulations of tax reporting behaviors. However its effect works at a decreasing speed. It is also hypothesized that business obstacles facing firms such as tax administration and corruption play significant roles in explaining tax evasion. This paper further hypothesizes that firm characteristics such as size, age, ownership are important evasion determinants. Empirical results are found supporting these hypotheses above. The analysis controls for country-level effects, for instance the quality of the legal environment. Industry sectors are also controlled and found significant in explaining corporate tax evasion levels.

The main objective of the present work is to shed light on aspects concerning, on the one hand, health, health spending and intra-family cohesion (strength of family ties), and on the other hand, savings, demographics and preferences structure. Briefly, it includes three chapters, the first one dealing with the microeconomic problems of increased medical spending and longer life expectancy, in the general framework of the insurance markets, while the last two address the macroeconomic question of what are the main determinants of the international and intertemporal di¤erences in the national saving rates. Is it demographics, government spending, productivity growth or preferences? Over the years, there has been an increasingly important debate between economists and policymakers on individuals decisions after retirement, in terms of consumption and insurance, over the life-cycle. The first chapter focuses on features regarding consumption, health and health care expenditures related to age, namely incurred after the age of retirement by single individuals, from a microeconomic point of view. The aim is to explore the effects of uninsurable risk of health expenditures as well as the insurable risk of health status on consumption-insurance choice. Following this research line, I developed a model of consumption of goods and utility of being looked after, taking into consideration the existence of a formal insurance possibility and of an informal insurance arrangement provided by the family, besides out-of- pocket spending, in the integrated framework of the bequest motive. Using European data (SHARE) on three country groups, Mediterranean, Central European and Scandinavian, I estimated aggregate (representative agent) and disaggregate (for wealth subgroups) models, using a simulated life-cycle approach. More specifically, solving numerically the dynamic model by backward recursion and estimating the interest parameters using the Simulated Method of Moments (SMM), allowed me to simulate each individual's wealth, consumption, formal insurance, medical spending, health and mortality. With the simultaneous consideration of both risks, on health and medical spending, I found that the model can generate increasing precautionary savings (and consequently bequests) with age after retirement, and therefore fits well the data profiles. Furthermore, I found that the older, and so the sickest, the individuals will become, the more weight they are going to attach to the informal care. Finally, results illustrated that, both at the aggregate and disaggregate level, cohesion coe¢ cient, which represents the strength of family ties, displays an increasing age structure. In addition, estimates showed that individuals that benefit of higher cohesion coefficients are likely to display a certain health status transition in the years after retirement, resulting in a higher life expectancy as measured by the survival probabilities. Chapter 2 concentrate on the fact that national saving rates differ enormously across developed countries. But these differences obscure a common trend, namely a dramatic decline over time. France and Italy, for example, saved over 17 percent of national income in 1970, but less than 7 percent in 2006. Japan saved 30 percent in 1970, but only 8 percent in 2006. And the U.S. saved 9 percent in 1970, but only 2 percent in 2006. What explains these international and intertemporal differences? Is it demographics, government spending, productivity growth, or preferences? Our answer is preferences. Developed societies are placing increasing weight on the welfare of those currently alive, particularly contemporaneous older generations. This conclusion emerges from estimating three models in which society makes consumption and labor supply decisions in light of uncertainty over future government spending, productivity, and social preferences. The three models differ in terms of the nature of preference uncertainty and the extent to which current society can control future societies' spending and labor supply decisions. In the first model, there is only one society considered to rule forever. This society knows its current intertemporal preferences (discount factor) and current intratemporal preferences (age-specific weighting shares in utilities from consumption and leisure). However, it doesn't know the future intertemporal preferences (how its discount factor will evolve). The second model is a time-inconsistency variant of the first. Consequently, we allowed societies to rule for only one period, rather than put a single society forever in charge. Although today's society knows its future preferences, it controls future societies' consumption and leisure allocation decisions only indirectly via the amount of capital it leaves for the next period. In the third model, society has stable intertemporal preferences, but changing intratemporal preferences (time variant age-specific utility weights). The main results of all three models, based on modeling and estimating the discount factor and the utility weights for U.S., France and Italy, confirm the theory that in time society changed the preference structure towards assigning progressively more weight to the present generations with respect to the future ones (declining stochastic discount factor). Moreover, it also shows that in time, as far as preferences within the present generations are concerned, society evolved more and more towards a preference structure which assigns higher level of importance to the old generations with respect to the young ones. Indeed, we found the utility weights to follow a bell-shape pattern just for the first half of the existing age groups, while for the second one the curve is more flat, declining at a slower rate than it rose in the first half. In other words, society tends to allocate less importance to the young generations than to the old ones, and this pattern is accentuated in time. The last chapter is intended to offer an alternative answer to the question raised in Chapter 2, relative to which are the main factors that determine the national saving rate of a country. It does so by estimating a finite-horizon overlapping generation model of consumption choice for the U.S., where in each period of time, government and households decide together what is to be consumed and saved. The novelty consists in modelling societies preference for young, old and unborn generations separately. Another new feature consists in considering a four stochastic dimension model, where besides uncorrelated technology and government spending shock, I included positively correlated societies preferences for young and for old generations. To this purpose, I estimated a set of parameters consistent with the structure of the modelled economy, evaluating their measurements based on demographics and preferences. It is registered that when an age-specific utility weights structure and stochastic society' preferences towards young and old generations are introduced, the model achieve a good empirical performance. In this respect, results clearly confrm the main idea of Chapter 2 that, in time, society tended progressively attributed more importance to the old generations with respect to the young or future ones and accentuated this tendency over the years. In order to extend this study, further research can be done by replicating the analysis for France and Italy.

The main objectives of this work were to investigate Geographical Information Systems techniques for modelling a cross-country trafficability. To accomplished stated tasks, reciprocal relationships between the soil deposits, local hydrology, geology and geomorphology were studied in relation to the study area in South-Eastern Sweden.

Growing awareness of nowadays users of GIS in general is being concentrated on understanding an importance of soil conditions changed after cross-country trafficability. Therefore, in this thesis, constructing of the Soil Knowledge Database introduced to the genuine geological soil textural classes a new, modified geotechnical division with desirable for off-road ground reasoning measurable factors, like soil permeability, capillarity or Atterberg’s consistency limits.

Digital Elevation Model, the driving force for landscape studies in the thesis, was carefully examined together with the complementary datasets of the investigated area. Testing of the elevation data was done in association to the hydrological modelling, which resulted with the Wetness Index map. The three distinguishable soil wetness conditions: dry, moist and wet, were obtained, and used consequently for creation of the static ground conditions map, a visible medium of soils susceptibility to for example machine compaction.

The work resulted with a conceptual scheme for cross-country trafficability modelling, which was put into effect while modeling in GIS. As a final outcome, by combining all processed data together, derivatives were incorporated and draped over the rendered 3D animating scene. A visually aided simulation enabled to concretized theoretical, hypothetical and experimental outcomes into one coherent model of apprised under Multicriterial Evaluation techniques standardized factor maps for ground vehicle maneuverability. Also further steps of research were proposed.

This study analyzes the relationship between financial development and income inequality by using panel data of 60 developing and developed countries for the period 2000-2010. We find evidence for the linear negative relationship between financial development and income inequality which asserts that financial development reduces income inequality. We also find evidence supporting Kuznets inverted u-shaped hypothesis on development-income inequality link, except that for the developed countries where we find evidence for u-shaped hypothesis. It is also concluded that the panel is stationary without unit root, indicating that shocks on income inequality is not persistent.

This study focuses on the female labor force participation rate (LFPR). Cross-country fixed effect analysis of fifty-six countries shows that female LFPR increases with income and education level. Moreover, average schooling years for males is a good fit for female LFPR especially in the low income countries with low education level. Average schooling years for females is a good fit for female LFPR especially in the high income countries with high education level. Higher female tertiary enrollment ratio is significant for higher female LFPR. On the other hand, Turkey has a lower level of female LFPR than the predicted level. Low female education explains the lower female LFPR of Turkey than the countries with similar income level. However, female LFPR has a declining trend in time even if income and education level improves. Institutional background of Turkey indicates the negative impact of urbanization on participation rates. However, under different growth and education scenarios, Turkey can reach higher levels until 2030. Employment policies especially focused on higher education is essential to reach the targets.

In the 60’s, the first article identifying the relationship between output growth and unemployment were released, with the purpose of providing a tool for US authorities to estimate the effect of labour policy on output. This article, presented by Arthur Okun, came to lay the foundation for the commonly known empirical relationship, named Okun’s law. However, since the 60’s, the world has gone through political and economic shocks, such as the oil crisis, fall of the berlin wall, the crisis of the 90’s, the financial crisis and crisis of 2008. These events open up the question: has the relationship changed? This study focuses on 21 OECD countries for the time period 1991-2016, with the purpose to identify their respective relationship between output growth and unemployment, namely their Okun coefficient. The test that will be performed calculates the marginal effects of respective country to observe differences. Further, this study aims to give the reader a greater understanding of the complexity underlying the simple model Okun presented in the 60’s. This is done by investigating whether there are any differences in the coefficient for countries within the EU, compared to those out of the EU. To explain the complexity further we check whether factors that affects labour market rigidity, such as union density, create differences in the Okun coefficient. The results from the study shows that the Okun coefficient differs between different countries. They also show that countries belonging to the European Union has a lower Okun’s coefficient on average. Finally, the results show that countries with a union density of over 75 % have a lower coefficient on average.

This paper analyses how corruption in a host country affects the amount of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) it receives. It discusses a model in which FDI is explained by GDP, corruption and the distance between the host country and the origin of capital. It then runs a regression comparing FDI from developed to 46 developing countries, which shows that corruption is a significant variable and it does have a negative effect on total FDI. It then compares if there are any difference depending on the origin of Capital, comparing USA, Europe and Japan. Capital from USA is the most sensitive to corruption. It also shows that capital from Europe is the least responsive to distance, as a factor of explaining FDI. The paper also runs a base mark estimation of what could be expected if corruption levels changed. We can see that if Dominican Republic would have reduced the level of corruption to that of Uruguay, it could have increased the average FDI per year, from 0,8% of GDP to 1,4%. If Argentina, who has a higher FDI over GDP than expected given its level of corruption, would have reduced its level of corruption to the level of Chile, it could have increased the FDI over GDP from 2% to 3,6%. The implications of the results of this paper are that public policies should aim to reduce corruption levels because they have a negative effect on FDI and on the living standard.

This thesis investigates recent cross-country patterns of income inequality. A unique dataset is constructed using World Bank and OECD data sources for a sample of 124 countries over the 1980 to 2010 period. Analyses of this dataset reveal three distinct sets of results. First, in terms of the spatial distribution of world income inequality, we find (i) pockets of high levels of inequality in South and Central America along with (ii) clusters of low inequality in Western European countries, particularly in Scandinavian countries. Over the period of study, significant increases in levels of inequality are registered for Russia and North America (especially in Canada and the US). Despite continued high levels of inequality in South America, inequality in the region appears to be receding, if only ever so slightly. Second, regression results support the contention that the Kuznets hypothesis is still relevant today. This finding is also robust to different measures of inequality. Finally, in terms of the determinants of cross-country patterns of inequality, estimates from panel regression models reveal that not one but multiple factors are driving cross-country patterns of income inequality. The level of economic development, age dependency, public sector expenditures and manufacturing activity are all identified as key determinants of international income inequality.
Cette thèse étudie les tendances récentes de l'inégalité du revenu à l'échelle mondiale. Une base de données unique est construite à l'aide de données provenant de la Banque Mondiale et de l'OCDE pour un échantillon de 124 pays sur la période 1980 à 2010. L'analyse de ces données révèle trois résultats distincts. Tout d'abord, en termes de la distribution spatiale de l'inégalité du revenu dans le monde, on retrouve (i) des concentrations de niveaux élevés d'inégalité en Amérique du Sud et Centrale ainsi que (ii) des concentrations de niveaux faibles d'inégalité en Europe occidentale, en particulier dans les pays scandinaves. Au cours de la période d'étude, des augmentations significatives du niveau d'inégalité sont enregistrées pour la Russie et l'Amérique du Nord (notamment au Canada et aux États-Unis). Malgré la persistance de niveaux élevés d'inégalité en Amérique du Sud, les inégalités du revenu dans la région semble être en recul, si ce n'est que très légèrement. Deuxièmement, les résultats d'analyses de régression démontrent que l'hypothèse de Kuznets est toujours d'actualité. Ces résultats sont robustes à différentes mesures d'inégalité. Enfin, en ce qui concerne les déterminants de l'inégalité, les modèles de régression de panel révèlent que plusieurs facteurs sont derrières les tendances observées. Le niveau de développement économique, le ratio de dépendance d'âge, les dépenses du secteur public et le niveau d'activité manufacturière sont tous des déterminants importants de l'inégalité du revenu à l'échelle internationale.

This study evaluated the training adaptations in female adolescent cross-country runners over two training seasons. Although the effects of endurance training in this population are understood, the specific adaptations resulting from pre-season and in-season training are not clear. The physiological changes occurring over these two training seasons in 10 female runners (15.7 ± 0.8 yrs, 165.6 ± 5.6 cm, 53.8 ± 6.1 kg) were assessed. Maximal exercise responses were measured during a continuous graded exercise test and submaximal exercise responses were quantified at 7 and 8 mph. Isokinetic muscle strength was assessed at four movement speeds (60-240°/sec) and muscle power was calculated using vertical jump height. Body composition also was assessed. HR at maximal and submaximal exercise declined during pre-season training and then increased during in-season training. Blood lactate [BLa] measurements at 7 and 8 mph decreased following summer training. Whole body bone mineral content (BMC) and bone mineral density, and femoral head BMC increased. In conclusion, it appears that high volume, low intensity training lowers [BLa] with no corresponding change in oxygen utilization in highly trained female adolescents. Running also appears to have a positive impact on bone mass in female adolescents.
School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

Esse trabalho busca verificar se há relação entre a política monetária conduzida por um grupo de países e as suas instituições, especialmente aquelas ligadas ao setor público. A partir da estimação de uma regra de politica monetária comum para um grupo de países, regredimos coeficientes de reação das autoridades monetárias a desvios da inflação da meta e do hiato da atividade em métricas de instituições. Encontramos relações significativas entre a condução de política monetária e as instituições dos países, bem como potenciais determinantes das instituições, em vários casos.
This paper seeks to verify if there is a relationship between the monetary policy conducted by a group of countries and their institutions, especially those related to the public sector. From the estimation of a common monetary policy rule for a group of countries, we regressed the reaction coefficients of the monetary authorities to deviations from inflation target and activity gap on institutional metrics. We find significant relationships between conducting monetary policy and country institutions, as well as potential determinants of institutions, in several cases.

Cross-country (c.c.) skiing is a complex sport discipline from both physiological and biomechanical perspectives, with varying course topographies that require different proportions of the involved sub-techniques to be utilised. A relatively new event in c.c. skiing is the sprint race, involving four separate heats, each lasting 2-4 min, with diverse demands from distance races associated with longer durations. Therefore, the overall aim of the current thesis has been to examine the biomechanical and physiological factors associated with sprint c.c. skiing performance through novel measurements conducted both in the field (Studies I-III) and the laboratory (Studies IV and V). In Study I sprint skiing velocities and sub-techniques were analysed with a differential global navigation satellite system in combination with video recording. In Studies II and III the effects of an increasing velocity (moderate, high and maximal) on the biomechanics of uphill classical skiing with the diagonal stride (DS) (Study II) and herringbone (HB) (Study III) sub-techniques were examined. In Study I the skiers completed the 1,425 m (2 x 712 m) sprint time trial (STT) in 207 s, at an average velocity of 24.8 km/h, with multiple technique transitions (range: 21-34) between skiing techniques (i.e., the different gears [G2-7]). A pacing strategy involving a fast start followed by a gradual slowing down (i.e., positive pacing) was employed as indicated by the 2.9% faster first than second lap. The slower second lap was primarily related to a slower (12.9%) uphill velocity with a shift from G3 towards a greater use of G2. The maximal oxygen uptake ( O2max) was related to the ability to maintain uphill skiing velocity and the fastest skiers used G3 to a greater extent than G2. In addition, maximal speed over short distances (50 and 20 m) with the G3 and double poling (DP) sub-techniques exerted an important impact on STT performance. Study II demonstrated that during uphill skiing (7.5°) with DS, skiers increased cycle rate and cycle length from moderate to high velocity, while cycle rate increased and cycle length decreased at maximal velocity. Absolute poling, gliding and kick times became gradually shorter with an elevated velocity. The rate of pole and leg force development increased with elevated velocity and the development of leg force in the normal direction was substantially faster during skiing on snow than previous findings for roller skiing, although the peak force was similar in both cases. The fastest skiers applied greater peak leg forces over shorter durations. Study III revealed that when employing the HB technique on a steep uphill slope (15°), the skiers positioned their skis laterally (“V” between 25 to 30°) and planted their poles at a slight lateral angle (8 to 12°), with most of the propulsive force being exerted on the inside forefoot. Of the total propulsive force, 77% was generated by the legs. The cycle rate increased across all three velocities (from 1.20 to 1.60 Hz), while cycle length only increased from moderate to high velocity (from 2.0 to 2.3 m). Finally, the magnitude and rate of leg force generation are important determinants of both DS and HB skiing performance, although the rate is more important in connection with DS, since this sub-technique involves gliding. In Studies IV and V skiers performed pre-tests for determination of gross efficiency (GE), O2max, and Vmax on a treadmill. The main performance test involved four self-paced STTs on a treadmill over a 1,300-m simulated course including three flat (1°) DP sections interspersed with two uphill (7°) DS sections. The modified GE method for estimating anaerobic energy production during skiing on varying terrain employed in Study IV revealed that the relative aerobic and anaerobic energy contributions were 82% and 18%, respectively, during the 232 s of skiing, with an accumulated oxygen (O2) deficit of 45 mL/kg. The STT performance time was largely explained by the GE (53%), followed by O2 (30%) and O2 deficit (15%). Therefore, training strategies designed to reduce energetic cost and improve GE should be examined in greater detail. In Study V metabolic responses and pacing strategies during the four successive STTs were investigated. The first and the last trials were the fastest (both 228 s) and were associated with both a substantially larger and a more rapid anaerobic energy supply, while the average O2 during all four STTs was similar. The individual variation in STT performance was explained primarily (69%) by the variation in O2 deficit. Furthermore, positive pacing was employed throughout all the STTs, but the pacing strategy became more even after the first trial. In addition, considerably higher (~ 30%) metabolic rates were generated on the uphill than on the flat sections of the course, reflecting an irregular production of anaerobic energy. Altogether, a fast start appears important for STT performance and high work rates during uphill skiing may exert a more pronounced impact on skiing performance outdoors, due to the reduction in velocity fluctuations and thereby overall air-drag.

Vid tidpunkten för disputationen var följande delarbeten opublicerade: delarbete 5 inskickat

At the time of the doctoral defence the following papers were unpublished: paper 5 submitted

A Work Project, presented as part of the requirements for the Award of a Masters Degree in Management from the NOVA – School of Business and Economics
Interlocking directorates have historically represented an important characteristic of the Italian corporate network. Pyramidal groups and low developed capital markets have fostered this phenomenon. Nevertheless, the Italian interlocking directorates have registered earlier erosion than in other countries. Analyzing the ties between the 250 largest Italian firms, this work reveals that the major forces shaping the structure of the Italian interlocking directorates are the long-term commitment of banks in financing private companies, the level of shareholder protection and the role of the state in the economy. Cross-country comparisons sustain the first two results, while the effects of state intervention remain ambiguous.

Governmental and philanthropic efforts alone are not sufficient to eradicate poverty. The world needs new frameworks that enable sustainable development by integrating the economic, social and environmental dimensions, and social entrepreneurship is of great interest because it has the capacity for facilitating societal change by fostering innovative ways to address social inequality, unemployment, and climate change. Precisely because social entrepreneurship lays at the intersection of the business and nonprofit worlds, it is a complex phenomenon, and there are many unknowns regarding how the convergence of these dimensions can be understood and managed at cross-national levels.

To investigate this phenomenon, this study used a mixed-methods sequential explanatory design to investigate the correlates of social entrepreneurship among a sample of 55 countries for which sufficient data existed. Specifically, regression analysis was first used to identify the significant socioeconomic factors that explained variation in social entrepreneurial activities both broadly and narrowly defined; then, through in-depth individual interviews with government officials and focus groups composed of social entrepreneurs, the study explored how the quantitative findings manifested in the social entrepreneurial activities in Colombia and Mexico.

Results from the regression analysis revealed the existence of different correlates for the broad and narrow definitions of social entrepreneurial activity. For example, social entrepreneurial activity broadly defined was positively associated with a well-educated labor force and the stock of immigrants, and negatively associated with long-term unemployment and the growth of carbon dioxide emissions. Narrowly defined social entrepreneurial activity, however, was positively associated with taxes on income, profit and capital gains, and the perceived standard of living in a country, while negatively associated with the growth of carbon dioxide emissions. The cases of Colombia and Mexico added detail on how these factors manifest themselves through the characteristics of the entrepreneur, business, and ecosystem.

In addition to making practical and theoretical contributions to the field of social entrepreneurship by identifying and validating the socioeconomic factors that correlate with the social entrepreneurial activity in countries, the study may help governments manage social entrepreneurship more efficiently and effectively, improving the rate of return on the resources invested in this activity.

Mestrado em Economia
O presente estudo tem como objectivo aferir o impacto da dimensão relativa do sector público na corrupção do país. A base de dados compreende uma selecção de 26 países para um período de 11 anos, 1995 a 2005, o que permite a estimação de um painel de dados. Conclui-se que o aumento dos gastos públicos relativos ao PIB resultam numa diminuição do Índice de Percepção de Corrupção (IPC), e o aumento das receitas fiscais relativas ao induzem aumento do IPC.
This work aims to measure the impact of the public sector relative size in a country corruption level. The database comprises 26 countries for 11 years period, from 1995 to 2005. The data allows for the estimation of a panel data. It is concluded that an increase in public spending relative to the GDP results in a decrease in the corruption perception index (CPI), while an increase of tax revenues relative to the GDP causes a higher CPI.

This work describes the development of a custom sit ski for US Ski Team paralympian Greg Mallory from concept through prototype fabrication. The ski consists of a custom seat molded specifically for the athlete, carbon fiber leaf springs, and a custom binding attachment system compatible with NNN style cross country bindings. The sit ski is designed to maximize poling power through the use of an upright rather than reclined seating position, allowing for increased utilization of core muscle strength. The springs were designed based on information gathered by a custom National Instruments data acquisition system, and stiffness analysis was conducted using Castigliano’s theorem applied to classical laminate theory.

Economic theory suggests that numerous factors are affecting entrepreneurship (demographic, political, cultural, geographical, and economical). There has been a lot of research on this topic, and many factors have been identified as individually related to the level of entrepreneurship in a region or country. However, despite the fact that a large number of factors have been identified as individually related to new firm formation (NFF), no one has been able to give a definitive an-swer as to which factors are the most important for increased NFF and economic growth (Calido-ni et al. 2007). And differences across countries remain unexplored. (Freytag & Thurik 2007). This study takes a stab at both of these largely unexplored areas; trying to ascertain which vari-ables, out of 22 selected, appear to be the most relevant determinants of firm formation across countries today. Data on firm formation across countries from the WB‟s Entrepreneurship Survey was used to construct three measure of entrepreneurship. Stepwise regression was used to esti-mate the most significant variables. Three different measures of “entrepreneurship”, three mod-els, all yielded four significant variables in multivariate regression, some were overlapping be-tween the models for a total of eight variables found especially significant. One finding is particu-larly interesting in relation to Sweden; The cost of enforcing contracts was found to be one of the most important determinants of NFF, and since Sweden has relatively high costs of enforcing contracts; the combination of these two observation leads to a policy suggestion: If Sweden wants to increase NFF it should decrease the costs of enforcing contracts.

Nurse job satisfaction is a hot topic in China because Chinese hospitals are suffering from lower nurse job satisfaction nowadays. The purpose of this dissertation was to investigate the nurses’ perception of job satisfaction attributes and how it varies with age and educational level.

A questionnaire was developed to collect necessary data both from China and Sweden. Samples consisted of three regional hospitals in Ningbo China and one in Sweden, 150 and 46 respondents respectively to present Chinese nurses and Swedish nurses.

Results show that both age and educational level are related to nurse job satisfaction. However, age and nurse job satisfaction are U-shaped related, and educational level and nurse job satisfaction are inverted U-shaped related. Second, intrinsic job characteristics are as important as extrinsic job conditions on nurse job satisfaction. Third, age and intrinsic job characteristics are negatively correlated, while age and extrinsic job conditions are not linear related. In addition, intrinsic job characteristics and extrinsic job conditions show the same importance level among different age groups except for the age group over 50. Fourth, educational level does not affect nurse perception of the importance level of both intrinsic job characteristics and extrinsic job conditions. Finally, although Chinese nurses place the same importance level of job satisfaction factors as Swedish nurses do, the level of job satisfaction are quite different between those two groups.

Key words: nurse job satisfaction, intrinsic job characteristics, extrinsic job conditions, China, Sweden

Mobile telecommunications industry has experienced high growth rates for the recent 30 years. Accordingly, forecasting the future of mobile telecommunications services is important not only for mobile operators but also for all stakeholders in this industry ranging from handset manufacturers to vendors. In this thesis, the diffusion of mobile telecommunications services in 20 countries from different regions around the world is examined for the period of 1981 to 2010 with special emphasis on Turkey, in order to address the uncertainty in optimal model selection. The Gompertz, logistic and Bass models are fitted to the observed data of mobile phone penetration by means of nonlinear least squares. The fitness accuracies of the models are evaluated based on root mean square error (RMSE). Empirical results show that S-shaped growth models are capable of explaining the diffusion of mobile telecommunications services. The findings also suggest that there is no superior model in defining the diffusion process and the most suitable model is country dependent. Finally, we observe that the diffusion in late entrant countries appears to be faster than pioneer countries and peak demands in mobile telephones occur during the period of 1999 to 2006, which suggests a remarkable multinational learning effect and significance of the transition into digital technology.