Gotowa bibliografia na temat „Coulombic electromagnetic forces”

This paper explores how the electromagnetic energies of the quarks within the nucleus affect the behavior of the nuclear force. By examining the electromagnetic energies and forces, many questions about nuclear behavior can be answered and many insights into the nucleus can be gained. Previous theoretical models for the nuclear force include only the Coulomb electric forces, but with a disregard of the electromagnetic characteristics of the quarks. By incorporating the electromagnetic energies and forces into nuclear theory, this model has been able to achieve predictions of binding energy better than any previous model, doing so by using only one variable instead of five. This model also directly unifies the nuclear force to the electromagnetic force.

AbstractThanks to their large sensitivity to electromagnetic fields, microelectromechanical systems are becoming attractive for applications in the THz band (0.1–10 THz). However, up to date all THz electromechanical systems couple electromagnetic fields to mechanical motion only through photothermal dissipative forces: such mechanism allows for sensitive detection but prevents applications that require coherent transfer of information. In this work, we present a THz electromechanical meta-atom where the coupling between an electromagnetic mode and the displacement of a metallic micro-beam is substantially controlled by a conservative Coulomb force due to charge oscillations in the nanometric-size capacitive part of the meta-atom. We present experiments, performed at room temperature, which allow distinguishing and precisely quantifying the contributions of conservative and dissipative forces in the operation of our electromechanical resonator. Our analysis shows that the Coulomb force becomes the dominant contribution of the total driving force for high-order mechanical modes. Such system paves the way for the realization of coherent THz to optical transducers and allows the realization of fundamental optomechanical systems in the THz frequency range.

We are developing plasma nanofabrication, namely, nanoand micro scale guided assembly using plasmas. We manipulate nanoand micro objects using electrostatic, electromagnetic, ion drag, neutral drag, and optical forces. The accuracy of positioning the objects depends on fluctuation of position and energy of a fine particle (= each object) in plasmas. Here we evaluate such fluctuations and discuss the mechanism behind them. In the first experiment, we grabbed a fine particle in plasma using an optical tweezers. The fine particle moves in a potential well made by the optical tweezers. This is a kind of Brownian motion and the position fluctuation can be caused by neutral molecule collisions, ion collisions, and fluctuation of electrostatic force. Among theses possible causes, fluctuation of electrostatic force may be main one. In the second experiment, we deduced interaction potential between two fine particles during their Coulomb collision. We found that there exist repulsive and attractive forces between them. The repulsive force is a screened Coulomb one, whereas the attractive force is likely a force due to a shadow effect, a non-collective attractive force. Moreover, we noted that there is a fluctuation of the potential, probably due to fluctuation of electrostatic force. These position and potential energy fluctuations may limit the accuracy of guided assembly using plasmas.

AbstractThe life cycles of grains in circumplanetary space are governed by various physical processes that alter sizes and modify orbits. Lifetimes are quite short, perhaps 102-104years for typical circumplanetary grains of 1 micron radius. Thus particles must be continually supplied to the circumplanetary complex, probably by the grinding down of larger parent bodies in collisions. Dust is eroded gradually through sublimation and through sputtering by the magnetospheric plasma but also is catastrophically destroyed through hypervelocity impacts with interplanetary micrometeoroids. Orbits evolve through momentum transfer (light drag, plasma or Coulomb drag, and atmospheric drag), and through resonant gravitational and electromagnetic forces. Plasma drag is generally the most effective evolution mechanism, with the possible exceptions of exospheric drag at Uranus and of electromagnetic schemes for some conditions. Since grains become charged (with typical electric potentials of a few volts), they undergo associated orbital perturbations: variable electromagnetic forces can cause the systematic drain of energy (orbital collapse) or, at specific (resonant) orbital locations can force large orbital inclinations/eccentricities. Solar radiation induces a periodic orbital eccentricity that can reach substantial values for 1 micron particles distant from the giant planets.

The aim of the study is to establish the conditions for synchrotron radiation based on significant differences between tangential and centripetal accelerations of electric charges. From the fact that electromagnetic radiation carries away energy, it follows that the energy of the radiating system changes during radiation. Related to this is the following well-known rule: a change in energy is equal to work done. Three relevant theorems are proved. Theorem 1 states that a tangentially accelerated electric charge emits electromagnetic waves. Theorem 2 states that a normally accelerated electric charge does not emit electromagnetic waves. It is a well-known circumstance that the centripetal force does not perform work (since the scalar product of orthogonal vectors must be equal to zero). The proofs of Theorems 1 and 2 are performed in terms of forces. For electric charges, the transition to the terms of accelerations is carried out in accordance with Theorem 3which states that an electric charge satisfies Newton's second law. The tangential acceleration of an electric charge leads to the emission of electromagnetic waves. Generalization of the phenomenon of radiation to acceleration in general, including. normal charge acceleration, is false. The cause of synchrotron radiation should be sought in the tangential acceleration due to Coulomb interactions between the beam charges.

In this paper, the solution to long standing problem of deriving Maxwell’s equations and Lorentz force from first principles, i.e., from Coulomb’s law, is presented. This problem was studied by many authors throughout history but it was never satisfactorily solved, and it was never solved for charges in arbitrary motion. In this paper, relativistically correct Liénard–Wiechert potentials for charges in arbitrary motion and Maxwell equations are both derived directly from Coulomb’s law by careful mathematical analysis of the moment just before the charge in motion stops. In the second part of this paper, the electrodynamic energy conservation principle is derived directly from Coulomb’s law by using similar approach. From this energy conservation principle the Lorentz force is derived. To make these derivations possible, the generalized Helmholtz theorem was derived along with two novel vector identities. The special relativity was not used in our derivations, and the results show that electromagnetism as a whole is not the consequence of special relativity, but it is rather the consequence of time retardation.

For a conductive, elastic matter in thermodynamic equilibrium the LORENTZ force, which includes the COULOMB force for charged systems, is the only macroscopic interaction between the electromagnetic field and the matter. If irreversible currents such as diffusion and ionic currents are observed, these currents and their coupling can dominate the behaviour. Then, to describe that system it is necessary to start with a macroscopic description, which remains valid outside of the equilibrium. A macroscopic description of these currents is used to deduce a very simple model for an electrolytic actuator.

It is argued that in the long wavelength limit of electromagnetic, far infrared, field optical response of an ultrafine metal particle threaded by uniform magnetic field can be properly modeled by equations of semiclassical electron theory in terms of the surface inertial-wave-like oscillations of free electrons driven by Lorentz restoring force. The detailed calculation of the frequency of size-independent gyromagnetic plasmon resonances computed as a function of multipole degree of electron cyclotron oscillations is presented. This spectrum is derived in juxtaposition with the canonical Mie's spectral formula for the surface plasmon resonances caused by the Coulomb-force-driven plasma oscillations of conduction electrons.

The Feynman path integral for regularized nonrelativistic quantum electrodynamics is studied rigorously. We begin with the Lagrangian function of the corresponding classical mechanics and construct the Feynman path integral. In the present paper, the electromagnetic potentials are assumed to be periodic with respect to a large box and quantized through their Fourier coefficients with large wave numbers cut off. Firstly, the Feynman path integral with respect to paths on the space of particles and vector potentials is defined rigorously by means of broken line paths under the constraints. Secondly, the Feynman path integral with respect to paths on the space of particles and electromagnetic potentials is also defined rigorously by means of broken line paths and piecewise constant paths without the constraints. This Feynman path integral is stated heuristically in Feynman and Hibbs' book. Thirdly, the vacuum and the state of photons of given momenta and polarizations are expressed concretely as functions of variables consisting of the Fourier coefficients of vector potentials. It is also proved rigorously in terms of distribution theory that the Coulomb potentials between charged particles naturally appear in the above Feynman path integral approach. This shows that the photons give rise to the Coulomb force.

AbstractEinstein’s Equivalence Principle implies that the Lorentz force equation can be derived from a geodesic equation by imposing a certain (necessary) condition on the electromagnetic potential (Trzetrzelewski, EPL 120:4, 2018). We analyze the quantization of that constraint and find the corresponding differential equations for the phase of the wave function. We investigate these equations in the case of Coulomb potential and show that physically acceptable solutions do not exist. This result signals an inconsistency between Einstein’s Equivalence Principle and Relativistic Quantum Mechanics at an atomic level.

1. There is a crisis in economics. The discipline evolved in nineteenth century Europe and is difficult to adapt to modern conditions, even in the West, and particularly in alien cultures. Application of conventional economic analysis to economic activity in a culture as alien as traditional China highlights the biases in assumptions of the paradigm. 2. The concepts, models and vocabulary evolved over one hundred years ago predate important developments in the natural sciences. It is now necessary for economists to concede no goods can ever be 'produced', and they are not 'consumed' either. In clear terms matter is transformed, but is not created or destroyed (First Law of Thermodynamics). 3. When people transform matter, in lay language we say energy is 'used'. In a simple cottage industry, 'raw material' is transformed into a commodity in front of our eyes by the use of human energy and the release of energy from a 'fuel'. In modem complex economic activity, it is difficult or impossible to keep track of the processes from raw matter to transformed 'product' although the principle is the same. 4. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that in any transformation, energy is not created or destroyed, but becomes 'less available'. In short, entropy increases. This appears to work well for pure physics and chemistry, but its application to analysis of economic activity has only been notional. 5. There is a reason why economists borrowing terms from hard science experience difficulty. It is because physicists and chemists have addressed specific laboratory and engineering problems, but not the broader economic issues. The hypothesis gradually evolved in this research program that not only economic concepts and terms needed reworking, but those in physics as well. The definitions of energy as 'ability to do works and of entropy as 'unavailable energy' jar the logic of our commonsense. 6. The notion of 'available energy' was traced back to the phenomenon in physical chemistry known as exothermicity, or the release of energy during a chemical reaction. It was reasoned that while scientists had focussed on this phenomenon and measured it carefully they saw no need to ask where the energy came from, or to measure its transformation. From the perspective of analysing economic activity, the question was important. 7. It was hypothesised that the energy released from a fuel as electromagnetic radiation (mainly heat) was the residual of the set of coulombic forces within atoms that maintain the structure of shells of electrons around the protons. This idea in turn came from the presumption that molecular bonding is a residual of vectors of the set of coulombic forces within atoms, and the likelihood that in an exothermic reaction, after the reactants are said (by scientists) to 'seek equilibrium', product molecules have a portion of the coulombic forces 'left over' and not required to maintain their structures. An estimate was made of the coulombic forces extant in various fuels, and compared with the known data for their release of energy. 8. The idea was developed in detail. The concept we call in economics, 'production', and should call 'transformation' can only occur when forces locked within atoms are released as electromagnetic forces. (Gravitational forces exist because matter has been put 'there' by electromagnetic radiation). When 100 grams of dry grass fuel is burnt, about 2 megajoules of electromagnetic radiation are released. It was estimated that the coulombic forces between each electron and proton in that amount dry grass total 150 gigajoules (or giganewtons, since the reference is to forces). 9. Within the boundary of a simple economic activity, the ratio of aggregated coulombic forces locked up within atoms to the electromagnetic forces radiated out was estimated at the beginning of the activity, and then after a duration. The ratio of forces always tends towards 'evening out'. This measurement captures the entropy phenomenon which has been said by Georgescu-Roegen to be the basis of all economic activity. 10. At the roots of the economic paradigm founded by Adam Smith is the premise that the material world, as a set of substances, is a stage on which economic actors 'add value', bid prices up and down, and by their rational perception manage their livelihoods and surroundings well. From the findings of this research program it is contended that the surroundings of economic actors can be classed into two categories: locked up (coulombic) electromagnetic forces, and radiated electromagnetic forces. The former has a tendency to convert to the latter. All action, including all economic activity, and all life can be traced to a point in space and time where this conversion is (naturally) occurring. The phenomenon is analogous to a slope where water cascades, and gravitational potential energy converts to other (either useless or useful) forms of energy. To appreciate the nature of this phenomena, and to attempt to fathom its dimensions, sets our perceptions of ourselves as economic actors in a quite different and very humbling context.

The book of well-known Russian scientists systematically presents a new theoretical approach to studying nature's fundamental phenomena using the hypothesis of the physical vacuum, or the ether, as some environment in which all the processes develop. In the proposed studies, the ether is represented as some one-component continuous media that satisfies generally accepted conservation laws: of matter and momentum. From the appropriate two equations, a number of consequences are obtained to which a physical interpretation is given. For the first time, 150 years after studies of Faraday and Maxwell, it is shown that these single premises mathematically give basic physical laws established experimentally: the Maxwell equations, the Lorentz force, the Gauss theorem; the laws: Coulomb, Biot - Savard, Ampere, electromagnetic induction, Ohm, Joule - Lenz, Wiedemann - Franz, universal gravitation, and etc. Details of mechanisms of many processes, that seemed previously paradoxical, have been disclosed. A method of the model substantiation adopted in the mathematical modeling methodology allows to conclude that the presented mathematical model of the ether adequately describes electromagnetic and gravitational processes. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of hundreds of known and new experimental facts allows in the methodology of physics, as science summarizing the experiments data, to confirm a conclusion about the existence of the ether (physical vacuum). The content of the book is based on the works of authors done during the last fourteen years. Many results are published for the first time. The book is intended for specialists in the field of electrodynamics, electrical engineering, gravity and kinetics, as well as for graduate students and students, interested in the fundamental principles of these scientific directions. This book is unique in terms of the comprehensive consideration of the problem and the depth of its analysis.