Rozprawy doktorskie: „Consideration (Law)”

1

Twyford, John. "The doctrine of consideration the role of consideration in contract modifications /". Sydney : University of Technology, Sydney. Faculty of Law, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/2100/286.

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Von, Alvensleben Philipp Carl. "Fundamental change of circumstances and the principle of 'causa finalis'". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/52278.

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Thesis (LLM)--Stellenbosch University, 2001.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: On the basis of a comparative analysis of the case law in Germany, England and South Africa dealing with fundamental change of circumstances, it is submitted that the underlying principle of this problem area is the idea of frustration of the contractual purpose (causa finalis). The problem of fundamental change of circumstances is directly connected with basic issues of legal theory such as the dichotomy between legal certainty and substantive justice, the role and limits of interpretation, the concretisation of principles, the adjudication of interests and the problem of value-judgements in the law which are of immediate influence on the understanding of the problem by judges and legal commentators. A broad perspective on the topic is necessarily indicated hereby. The thesis therefore starts off with an account of the role of purpose (causa finalis) in the history of legal philosophy, with a focus on developments in Germany. The continuing relevance of Aristotelian-Thomistic legal thinking is emphasized. The German and English case law dealing with fundamental change of circumstances is analyzed in an analogous manner. An account of the history and development of the doctrines dealing specifically with fundamental change of circumstances is given: the clausuIa rebus sic stantibus of the ius commune, the doctrine of WegJall der Geschaftsgrundlage in Germany and the doctrine of frustration of contract and common mistake in England. The crucial elements of the approach of the courts are restated. The positions of the two most influential German legal authors involved on opposite sides of the debate concerning the doctrine of WegJall der Geschaftsgrundlage are discussed. At the end of the discussion of English case law, the approach of the English courts is compared with that of their German counterparts, providing a basis for the development of the author's understanding of the concept causafinalis. Notwithstanding the fact that South African law does not recognize a doctrine dealing specifically with fundamental change of circumstances, and in spite of dicta to the effect that the English doctrine of frustration of contract is not part of South African law, it is submitted that the doctrine of frustration of contract has nevertheless strongly influenced the South African law of supervening impossibility and supposition, and has arguably become part and parcel of it. Likewise, cases of frustration of the contractual purpose due to a fundamental change of circumstances have been dealt with by means of other doctrinal devices such as common mistake. It is submitted, finally, that the famous and controversial issue of the role of causa in South African law should be reconsidered, since it may contribute to the understanding of the notion of contract, and assist in overcoming the current doctrinal crisis of the theory of contract.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Aan die hand van 'n vergelykende analise van die regspraak in Duitsland, Engeland en Suid- Afrika betreffende fundamentele verandering van omstandighede, word ter oorweging gegee dat die beginselonderliggend aan hierdie probleemgebied te vind is in die gedagte van verydeling van die kontraksoogmerk. Die probleem van fundamentele verandering van omstandighede staan in onmiddellike verband met basiese vrae van die regsteorie, onder andere die teenstelling tussen regsekerheid en substantiewe geregtigheid, die rol en perke van uitleg, die konkretisering van beginsels, die opweging van belange en die probleem van waarde-oordele in juridiese verband wat almal inspeel op die hantering van die probleem deur regters en kommentatore. Met die oog hierop is 'n breë invalshoek op die ondersoekveld gebiedend. Die ondersoek neem derhalwe as vertrekpunt 'n oorsig oor die rol van oogmerk (causa finalis) in die geskiedenis van die regsfilosofie met 'n besondere klem op ontwikkelinge in Duitsland. Die deurlopende belang van Aristoteliaans- Thomistiese denkwyses word beklemtoon. Die Duitse en Engelse regspraak betreffende fundamentele verandering van omstandighede word op 'n eenvormige grondslag ontleed. 'n Oorsig van die geskiedenis van leerstukke wat spesifiek verband hou met fundamentele verandering van omstandighede word aangepak, te wete die sg clausuia rebus sic stantibus van die ius commune en die leerstuk van Wegfall der Geschafstgrundlage in Duitsland en die leerstuk van frustration of contract en common mistake in Engeland. Die kemaspek van die benadering van die howe word uitgespel. Die botsende standpunte van twee van die mees invloedryke Duitse denkers in die teoretiese debat bied 'n breë konseptueie raamwerk vir die uiteindelike vergelyking van die Engelse regspraak met die van die Duitse howe en die ontwikkeling van 'n eie standpunt aangaande die begrip causafinalis. Die Suid-Afrikaanse reg erken nie 10 soveel woorde dat veranderende omstandighede as sodanig die bestaan van 'n kontrak raak nie, en in die besonder word die Engelsregtelike leerstuk van frustration of contract in vele regterlike dicta verwerp. Die ondersoek na die Suid-Afrikaanse respraak lei egter tot die gevolgtrekking dat die Suid-Afrikaanse reg aangaande onmoontlikwording van prestasie en die veronderstelling inderdaad in wesenlike opsigte deur die leerstuk van frustration beïnvloed is. Verydeling van die kontraksoogmerk ten gevolge van veranderende omstandighede geniet ook juridiese erkenning deur middel van . ander juridiese meganismes soos die leerstuk van gemeenskaplike dwaling. Die slotsom van die behandeling van die Suid-Afrikaanse reg is dat die berugte en omstrede rol van causa in die Suid-Afrikaanse Kontraktereg herwaardering verg.

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3

Spierings, Charlotte. "Unilateral conduct in English private law". Thesis, University of Oxford, 2013. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:72c0ec9c-f2fa-47cf-a3c6-03ce1dc3f041.

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This thesis explores the question how unilateral conduct can create, vary or discharge obligations in English private law and how unilateral conduct is regulated. First, it is explained that the reason for asking this question follows from the candidate’s background in a civil law jurisdiction, in which unilateral juridical acts are regarded a category of legally relevant behaviour. After observing the obstacles in English law to the recognition of the civil law concept of unilateral juridical acts, a number of examples of unilateral conduct are identified that create legal effect. The focus of the thesis is on examples of unilateral conduct that create, vary or discharge obligations. English law allows the creation of obligations by unilateral conduct only in very specific instances. It is observed that unilateral conduct can create or transfer property rights. The different approach is explained primarily by deeply rooted distinction in English law between words and acts. Subsequently, the thesis discusses how unilateral conduct is regulated. For some issues, notably interpretation, revocability and the intention to create legal effect, similar rules apply to the different examples of unilateral conduct. For other issues, especially mistake and form requirements, the rules diverge. It is concluded that unilateral conduct forms a category of legally relevant behaviour in English law. This category is divided in unilateral conduct that creates obligations, quasi-contractual unilateral conduct that varies or discharges obligations and unilateral voluntary property transactions. Whereas quasi-contractual unilateral conduct is closely related to contracts and should thus generally be regulated in a manner similar to contracts, the unilateral voluntary property transaction is a distinct concept, to which specific rules apply.

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4

Krebs, Thomas. "Failure of consideration : a comparative study". Thesis, University of Oxford, 1998. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.264584.

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Boardman, Charlotte Mary. "Considering consideration : a critical and comparative analysis of the doctrine of consideration in the Anglo-Canadian common law". Thesis, University of British Columbia, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/45660.

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The doctrine of consideration is widely regarded as one of the most problematic contract law doctrines present within the common law. For many years, there had been discussion about its possible removal, but recent times this discussion appears to have come to a virtual halt and little has been done to improve the current situation. It seems that many of the possibilities for the reform of the doctrine of consideration have already been explored by various reform committees and subsequently rejected. In order to re-open the discussion surrounding the problems caused by consideration, and to present further possibilities, this thesis explores a different approach to the reform of the doctrine; it focuses on the modification of contracts in the Anglo-Canadian common law, an area in which consideration has come to be a particular problem and identifies the ways in which the German civil law might act as an aid to the reform of the law in this area. In order to do this, the history of the doctrine of consideration and its German civil law equivalents is examined so as to identify common areas in their development. The reasons for the current need for the reform of the doctrine of consideration in the Anglo-Canadian common law, including its complexity, its use as a mask for the real reasons behind judicial decision-making and the common trend towards the harmonization of contracts law, are then identified. The German rules on the modification of contracts are subsequently identified using a modified functional comparative approach. These rules are then examined in order to determine the ways in which they differ from the Anglo-Canadian common law in the absence of a doctrine of consideration-the main difference being that there is no doctrine of consideration, nor anything comparable to it, within the German law. Finally, it is concluded that the German law would best be used as inspiration for a set of model laws, developed using both the Anglo-Canadian common law and the German civil law.

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6

Šebeková, Veronika. "Srovnání institutů consideration a kauzy v smluvním právu". Master's thesis, Vysoká škola ekonomická v Praze, 2008. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-10347.

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This master thesis focuses on a comparison of two contract law institutes -- consideration and cause. While the former is an Anglo-American legal concept, the later is of civil law origin. The goals of this comparative study are as follows: 1. to analyze consideration and cause with the emphasis on the problematic aspects; 2. to compare the institutes with regard to their function in contracts formation; 3. to assess their reasonableness and consider alternative solutions which could better comply with the requirements of modern contract law. The structure of the paper corresponds to the above-mentioned aims.

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7

Katren, Scott E. "A consideration of those things belonging to the partnership of conjugal life an analysis of Canon 1135 /". Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 2002. http://www.tren.com.

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8

Seitz, Florian. "The infringement of prisoners' right to vote : an analysis of intentions and general principles in due consideration of recent judgements". Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/12663.

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Includes bibliographical references.
The right to vote is the most important and often even the only possibility of citizens to participate in a democracy’s governance. Generally accepted democratic principles like the electoral equality and the objective to include all citizens who have acquired their full age and are of sound mind in the decision-making process demand that disenfranchisement may - if at all - only occur in very exceptional cases. However, laws infringing prisoners’ right to vote are widespread and differ greatly among established democracies: While some states do not impose any restrictions on the right of prisoners to vote, others (like many states in the USA) exclude most or all of their detainees from taking part in elections, sometimes even after their release.1 Even though this phenomenon pertains to core issues of democratic principles as well as central human rights aspects, it has not been subject to noteworthy public debate for a long time. Due to several decisions of national constitutional courts and the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) within the last decade, felony disenfranchisement has gained more attention among legal academics. Still, most of this literature is limited to the specific arguments which have been brought forward in the particular court procedures. From my point of view, a holistic analysis which seeks to give a general recommendation whether or not to grant prisoners the right to vote – and if so, what restrictions may still be feasible – must not only focus on a national context, but has to consider legal philosophic and political issues, too. The long grinding debate which is going on in the British Parliament about the amendments demanded by Strasbourg’s European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) emphasises the practical necessity of such a study.

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9

Solanke, Oluwatosin Modupe. "Proposed amendments for consideration in the review of the copyright and trademarks protection for the digital environment in Nigeria". Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/13037.

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This thesis considers the manner in which Nigerian intellectual property law regulates the digital environment. The main question it asks is whether existing intellectual property law adequately balances and protects the rights of rightholders and users in the digital environment.

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Vartkessian, Elizabeth S. "Fatal distraction : does the Texas capital sentencing statute discourage the consideration of mitigating evidence?" Thesis, University of Oxford, 2011. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:61962e9e-12eb-47a0-9edb-cfd0dea1001b.

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Whether the capital sentencing statute in Texas provides a vehicle for jurors to give effect to mitigation evidence has been a critical factor when the United States Supreme Court has sought to determine its constitutionality. Unlike the majority of other American jurisdictions which maintain capital punishment as a penalty, Texas utilizes a particularly unique scheme which places an assessment of the defendant’s dangerousness at the center of the sentencing decision. Using data gathered from personally conducted interviews with forty-six former capital jurors and trial transcripts from each trial in which they served, this thesis demonstrates how the current sentencing scheme in Texas fails to provide jurors with an adequate vehicle for considering mitigation evidence. Beginning with an analysis of the process of jury selection this study examines the various ways in which the sentencing scheme is explained to potential jurors by the judge, prosecution, and defense attorneys. Of crucial importance is how the mitigation instruction is reconstituted by trial judges and prosecutors into an extension of the defendant’s potential future dangerousness. Emerging from this analysis is the central role that the interpretation of the sentencing statute by legal actors play in determining how jurors view the evidence presented throughout the trial, as well as what factors they believe they are legally permitted to consider in sentencing. The findings of this study strongly suggest that the focus of the sentencing scheme on the defendant’s dangerousness inhibits jurors’ ability to view mitigation evidence unrelated to the crime as mitigating. Thus, the Texas capital sentencing statute in its application appears to prevent jurors from giving effect to personal mitigation, an essential element of a constitutionally satisfactory death penalty statute.

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11

Addison, Henry 1955. "Consideration with regard to global navigation satellite systems (G.N.S.S.) of the establishment of a legal framework". Thesis, McGill University, 1996. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=27441.

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Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) are a key technology underpinning the International Civil Aviation Organization's (ICAO's) communications, navigation, surveillance/air traffic management concept. The fact the de facto GNSS, the Global Positioning System (GPS) is a military system owned, operated and controlled by the United States raises many legal and institutional issues for civil aviation.
This thesis will discuss the nature of GPS/GNSS as a global utility, ICAO's evolutionary path toward a civil GNSS (ie one independent from GPS) and trace the development of the institutional debate within ICAO. Reliance on navigation by GNSS in terms of the principle of State sovereignty over territorial airspace and the Chicago Convention will be considered. The three major institutional issues in respect of a GPS based GNSS (ie charging, non-discriminatory access and liability) will be examined.
This thesis will also examine past and present State practice in respect of radionavigation systems of an international character in considering whether a legal framework for GNSS is necessary, and if so what form it is likely to take. The conclusions reached on these issues will be summarised in the final chapter.

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12

Holz, Marcella. "Children in the Mavrovouni Camp : A Consideration of a Possible Violation of Article 3 ECHR". Thesis, Malmö universitet, Malmö högskola, Institutionen för globala politiska studier (GPS), 2021. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-42746.

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This thesis aims to define the scope of Article 3 ECHR, concerning children with traumas in registration and identification camps. The interpretation of the scope of Article 3 ECHR is based on a case study of the cases Khan v France and J.R. and Others v Greece. The result of the case study in conjunction with relevant legislation is applied to the Mavrovouni camp in Lesvos, Greece. The normative approach in this thesis is combined with hermeneutic analysis. The case study shows that inadequate housing conditions are unlikely to violate Article 3 ECHR. Nonetheless, the threshold of Article 3 ECHR is broader when children are subject to the conditions. Children are internationally recognized as more vulnerable, especially when they are traumatized. In conclusion, it is to say that a violation of Article 3 ECHR can be made out in the Mavrovouni camp concerning children that live in the camp.

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Bjornberg, Karin. "Rethinking human security : taking into consideration gender based violence". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/71706.

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ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The human security concept challenges the traditional view of state security. The very essence of human security means to respect human rights. The Commission on Human Security did not focus on women as a special area of concern in the 1994 Human Development Report. The report does not recognise that being subject to gender hierarchies increases women’s insecurity and that women experience human security differently from men and shows that the human security concept does not include gender based violence (GBV) because there is no specific attention paid to issues that predominantly pertain to women. This study is conducted from a feminist perspective. It is reflexive research and based on standpoint theory. The data is gathered through analysis of secondary data and primary data, collected through interviews. GBV in South Africa tends to be continuous and the perpetrator is most likely to be a spouse or partner. Studies show that women are seen as being dependent on and weaker than men. Many men view women’s rights legislation as a challenge to the legitimacy of men’s authority over women. Women who try to be more independent in their relationships are regarded as threats and violence against them becomes a way for men to show control. The criminal justice system in South Africa has made progress in protecting women from GBV but myths, stereotypes and social conventions still prevent women from receiving justice. Traditionally, the state regards what happens in the private sphere as outside its responsibility. The public/private dichotomy challenges state regulations and norms which is evident in the case of domestic violence. It is often argued that GBV has remained imperceptible because it takes place in the private sphere. However, this research indicates that due to the socio-economic situation in South Africa, the abuse is often publicly known by those in the immediate environment as people live in informal housing. This research shows that a human security framework that targets GBV has to be developed for those who bear its consequences. When women are not viewed as subjects, issues that mainly affect them remain invisible. It is necessary that analysis of human insecurity starts from the conditions of women’s lives. Many women in South Africa live highly traumatic lives. Fighting GBV requires that we know the victims of GBV and let them decide what they need to feel secure. Creating human security requires that other threats which contribute to GBV, such as poverty, gender stereotypes and prejudice are also addressed. GBV has become an epidemic in South Africa and is a permanent constraint in women’s lives and impacts society as a whole. The security of the state rest on the security of women and as long as the state fails to treat GBV as a serious crime and protect women the state is more likely to use violence on a larger scale against its citizens.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Menslike Veiligheidskonsept daag die tradisionele siening van staatsveiligheid uit: die kerbetekenis van Menslike Veiligheid is om menseregte te respekteer. Die Kommissie op Menslike Veiligheid het nie op vroue as ‘n spesiale area van kommer gefokus in die Menslike Ontwikkelingsverslag van 1994 nie. Die verslag het daarin gefaal om te erken dat die realiteit van geslags-hiërargieë vroue se insekuriteit verhoog, en dat die ervaring van menslike sekuriteit van mans en vroue verskil. Hierdie navorsing sal toon dat die menslike veiligheidsbegrip nie in staat is om geslags-gebaseerde geweld (GGG) in ag te neem nie, aangesien daar geen spesifieke aandag verleen is aan vraagstukke wat hoofsaaklik op vroue betrekking het nie. Hierdie studie is vanuit 'n feministiese perspektief gedoen. Die navorsing is reflektief en op standpunt-teorie gebaseer. Die data is deur die analise van sekondêre data, asook die gebruik van primêre data i deur middel van onderhoude ingesamel . GGG in Suid-Afrika is geneig om oor ‘n uitgerekte tydperk plaas te vind en die mees waarskynlike oortreders is ‘n eggenoot of lewensmaat. Navorsing toon dat gemeenskappe geneig is om vroue as swakker en afhanlik van mans te sien. Wetgewing op die regte van vroue word deur vele mans as ‘n uidaging van hul legitieme superioriteit, ten op sigte van vroue, gesien. Vroue wat dus onafhanklikheid in hul verhoudings probeer uitoefen, word as bedreigings gesien en geweld word gebruik om hulle “in hul plek te hou”. Die Suid-Afrikaanse kriminele regstelsel het al vordering gemaak in terme van die beskerming van vroue teen GGG, maar mites, stereotipes en sosiale konvensies belemmer steeds die volle gang van die gereg. Die staat het in die verlede die private sfeer as buite sy jurisdiksie gesien. Die openbare/private sfeer digotomie bied uitdagings vir staatsregulering en vir die implementering van regulasies , en dit word veral duidelik in die geval van huishoudelike geweld. Daar word aangevoer dat aangesien GGG in die private sfeer plaasvind, dit onsigbaar bly. Hierdie navorsing het egter bevind dat GGG in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks dikwels in die openbare gemeenskapsfeer (deur diegene in die onmiddelike omgewing) opgemerk word, omdat baie mense in Suid-Afrika informele nedersettings woon.Hierdie navorsing het verder bevind dat ‘n GGG raamwerk vir menslike veiligheid ontwikkel moet word wat diegene wat die gevolge van GGG dra insluit. Indien vroue nie spesifiek as navorsingssubjekte geag word nie, bly faktore wat hulle spesifiek beïnvloed onsigbaar. Dit is belangrik dat analise van menslike insekuriteit begin om die omstandighede van vrouens se lewens in ag te neem. Vroue in Suid-Afrika leef in hoogs traumatiese omstandighede. In die bestryding van GGG is dit belangrik dat die slagoffers van GGG in ag geneem word en dat dit hulle toelaat om dit duidelik te maak wat hulle onveilig laat voel. Die skep van menslike veiligheid vereis dat bedreigings wat bydra tot GGG, naamlik armoede, geslagstereotipes en vooroordeel , ook aangespreek word. GGG in Suid-Afrika het ‘n epidemie geword, en plaas ‘n permanente beperking op vroue se lewens. Dit het ook ‘n blywende impak op die samelewing as ‘n geheel. Die veiligheid van die staat rus op die veiligheid van vroue. Solank as wat die staat versuim om GGG te bekamp en as ‘n ernstigge misdaad te erken, en vroue nie die beskerming van die staat geniet nie, is daar ‘n hoër moontlikheid vir die gebruik van geweld deur die staat teen sy eie burgers op ‘n groter skaal.

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Spoor, Alexander. "A consideration of the fault standard in a claim for additional compensation under s 56(1) of the Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Disease Act". Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/20803.

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From initially placing the burden of injury almost exclusively on the injured employee, growing social awareness of the inherent risks in the workplace has seen an ever increasing willingness to hold the employer liable.1 This was initially driven by the courts, but developments were soon overtaken by the work of political activists and trade unions, which placed great pressure on business and the state to find more equitable systems of worker protection.2 This culminated in what is so often referred to as a new balance3 being struck in the form of comprehensive legislation to protect workers. In South Africa, this comprehensive legislation is the Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act 3 of 1993 ('the COIDA'). The COIDA extinguishes an employee's common law rights to sue the employer for damages4 and instead introduces a no-fault system of compensation in which the employee is guaranteed an amount of compensation, when the harm from the accidents or occupational disease arises in the workplace.5 The compensation payable is in most situations significantly less to that which could be claimed at common law, being capped at a maximum of the total pecuniary loss to an employee.6 The employer thus avoids the risks associated with the possibility of costly damages claims while being obliged to fund the legislative compensation scheme through a tariff system. The tariffs payable are dependent on the risks associated with the class of industry and the safety record of the individual business.7 THE COIDA in recognition of the need to discourage employers from maintaining unsafe workplaces preserved a common law like8 fault based entitlement to what is termed 'increased compensation' under s 56 of the COIDA. 9 The significance of the provision lies in the ability of an injured employee or their dependents to claim back the difference between the no-fault compensation paid and their respective pecuniary loss.10 While potentially having a dramatic impact on the compensation received the section is completely underutilised.11 The reasons for this underutilisation are said to lie in potential claimants either being ignorant of the provisions or unable to institute claims.12 This thesis will examine the interaction between the law that regulates workmen's compensation and one aspect of how this modern system of law deals with the age old problem of negligently caused harm in the workplace. In particular, it argues that another important reason why claims for increased compensation are underutilised is because the common law defence of contributory negligence is said to apply to a claim for increased compensation. The result of this is that laws, which have since been abolished with the passing of the Apportionment of Damages Act 34 of 195613 ('the ADA') continue to apply in this one statute. The result is that cases developed over a century ago, which involved law on hobbled donkeys and steam powered trains, continues to have a major influence on whether a claim for increased compensation is successful or not.14 As will be shown, this position is untenable and a new interpretation of the provision for increased compensation is required.

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Deonandan, Nirvana. "Insurance warranties in South Africa: consideration of reform of the law on insurance warranties in South Africa and why there is a need for such reform". Master's thesis, Faculty of Law, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/31556.

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Aim The overall aim of this dissertation is to consider reform of warranties in the area of insurance law in South Africa. In considering the main aim of this dissertation, the current law relating to insurance warranties in South Africa and other jurisdictions will be analysed in order to demonstrate why the South African position is unsatisfactory in its current form and therefore in need of reform as well as ideas on how the current law can be reformed. Thesis It will be argued that the South African law on insurance warranties is in need of reform to address unsatisfactory aspects of it indicated in recent judgments and by academic commentators and that such reform should, in broad terms, take account of consumerism and eliminate the harsh and unfair effects associated with the interpretation and implementation of warranties.

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Ivanauskas, Šarūnas. "Konsensualizmas sutarčių teisėje". Master's thesis, Lithuanian Academic Libraries Network (LABT), 2007. http://vddb.library.lt/obj/LT-eLABa-0001:E.02~2006~D_20070108_121539-18499.

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Consensualism (Lat. Consensus ad idem – agreement to the same thing, common opinion) means that the will of contracting parties is regarded to be the most important in a contract in contract law. Due to this reason mutual rights and duties can be set only by the actions of capable contracting parties. The principle of consensualism is at the core of Contract law. It claims to regard the intentions and the will of the parties rather than certain parts of a contract, while interpreting the contract. In cases where during the interpretation of contracts differences between the real intentions of the parties and the meaning of linguistic text of the contracts occur, priority should be given to the general and genuine intentions of the contracting parties. In this case formalism is negated, while formalism, being contrary to consensualism, instead of giving the priority to the will of parties, gives it to the outward form of that will’s expression. Despite formalism in contract law occurs more seldom nowadays, in some cases it is not enough for contracting parties just to come to an agreement in order to have a valid contract. Sometimes the certain form of its expression is needed too. This diploma work deals with peculiarities of the principle of consensualism in contract law. The main aspects discussed in the paper are: the importance of the principle of consensualism interpreting the contracts within the Continental and Common law systems, relation between consensualism and... [to full text]

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17

Venter, Cindy Michelle. "An assessment of the South African law governing breach of contract : a consideration of the relationship between the classification of breach and the resultant remedies". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/49835.

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Thesis (LLM)--University of Stellenbosch, 2005.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The South African system of breach of contract recognizes several distinct forms of breach. each encompassing its own set of requirements. Before one is able to determine the outcome and accordingly the rights of each contracting party in respect of an alleged breach of contract. the factual situation must be fitted into one of the recognized forms of breach. This has resulted in a highly complex system of breach of contract and resultant remedies. The existence of a direct relationship between the form of breach present in a factual situation and the remedies available to the innocent party is a fundamental premise of South African law and one that is often accepted without much investigation. This thesis investigates the extent of this interdependence and to establish whether this intricate system is necessary from a practical and a theoretical point of view. To this end. the thesis examines the less complex system of breach of contract as embodied in the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods C·CISG'·) which has been widely adopted in international trade. and which has provided a template for the reformation of various national systems of law. This study concludes that the South African approach to breach of contract and remedies is in need of reform. and that a unitary concept of breach could provide a basis for both a simplification and modernization of our law.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Suid-Afrikaanse Kontraktereg erken verskeie verskyningsvorms van kontrakbreuk, elk met sy eie besondere vereistes. Ten einde die uitkoms van probleemsituasies waarin kontrakbreuk beweer word te bepaal en derhalwe die regte van die betrokkenes uit te kristalliseer. moet die feitestelonder die een of ander vorm van kontrakbreuk tuisgebring te word. Hierdie benadering het 'n besonder komplekse stelsel van kontrakbreuk en remedies tot gevolg. 'n Fundamentele uitgangspunt van die Suid-Afrikaanse stelsel is dat daar Il direkte korrelasie bestaan tussen die tipe van kontrakbreuk wat in 'n bepaalde geval teenwoordig is en die remedies waarop die onskuldige party kan staatmaak. Hierdie siening, wat meerendeel sonder bevraagtekening aanvaar word, vorm die fokuspunt van hierdie ondersoek. Die oogmerk is om die praktiese nuttigheid en teoretiese houbaarheid van die benadering vas te stel. As 'n vergelykingspunt neem die tesis die vereenvoudigde sisteem van kontrakbreuk beliggaam in die Verenigde Nasies se Konvensie aangaande die Internasionale Koopkontrak ("CISG"). Hierdie verordening geniet wye erkenning in die Internasionale Handel en het alreeds die grondslag gevorm van verskeie inisiatiewe vir die hervonning van Il aantal nasionale regstelsels. Die gevolgtrekking is dat die Suid-A frikaanse benadering tot kontrakbreuk en die remedies daarvoor hervorming benodig en dat die opvatting van 'n sg uniforme kontrakbreuk as 'n basis kan dien vir die vereenvoudiging en modernisering van ons reg.

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Bremkamp, Till. "Causa : Der Zweck als Grundpfeiler des Privatrechts /". Berlin : Duncker & Humblot, 2008. http://d-nb.info/991116933/04.

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Sandgathe, Tracey Layne. "Environmental impact assessment and the promise of eco-pragmatism : a consideration of the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act". Thesis, University of British Columbia, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/32451.

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Because of the potential for development to have negative environmental impacts, one of the most important questions addressed by environmental law and policy is whether and how to allow development to proceed. In Canada this question is answered primarily through environmental impact assessment ("EIA"). At the federal level, EIAs are required under the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, S.C. 1992, c. 37 ("CEAA") for certain types of proposed projects and activities. Although CEAA's purposes include fostering both a healthy environment and economy, the Act does not provide any instruction on how to balance or choose between these goals in situations where both goals cannot be served. In 1999 Professor Daniel Farber developed a methodology he refers to as 'eco-pragmatism' in an attempt to create a means by which society's competing (and often contrary) values can be balanced and satisfactory trade-offs arrived at. In this thesis the differences between CEAA and eco-pragmatism are explored and consideration is given to whether eco-pragmatism might assist in resolving the value conflicts that often characterize EIAs. Of particular interest is whether Farber's approach might improve the CEAA framework and assist CEAA decision-makers in determining whether proposed projects should be approved. It is argued that although eco-pragmatism is useful, it is not adequate if the ultimate goal is environmental protection that is sustainable into the future. Both CEAA and eco-pragmatism focus on the mitigation of negative environmental effects, rather than on achieving long-term environmental gains or observing a minimum environmental standard. Accordingly, both arguably have the effect of slowing the erosion of environmental quality, but each fails to observe some sort of environmental 'bottom line' that would impose an ultimate limit on negative impact. It is suggested that an ultimate limit is a necessary (albeit difficult) element of environmental law.
Law, Peter A. Allard School of
Graduate

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20

Thompson, Craig Howard. "The consideration and improvement of the sustainability performance monitoring framework for South African water boards". Thesis, Rhodes University, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1018916.

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The South African Constitution ensures the right to adequate water, health services and a healthy environment (Government Gazette, 1996: 1251, 1255). Associated legislation and national strategies require that water resources and water services are rendered in a sustainable manner to ensure the rights enshrined in the Constitution are realised (Trialogue, 2010: 34; Government Gazette, 1998(c):11; Department of Water Affairs (DWA), 2003:9). South Africa is the 30th driest country in the world (DWA, 2013: iii), has impounded most of its surface water resources and has utilised 40 percent of the groundwater resource with remaining groundwater water quality uncertain (DWA, 2013:6-7). Despite achieving the basic water and sanitation Millennium Development Goals approximately 2.2 million and 4.5 million households still require access to basic services respectively (DWA, 2013:28-29). South Africa’s ten water boards play a key role in bulk water service provision. They supply 57 percent of the countries domestic water supply (DWA, 2013:19) and are required to provide sustainable water services (Government Gazette, 1997:35). The Department of Water Affairs (Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) as of June 2014) is mandated to monitor the performance of water boards and monitors of water boards through a Share Holders Compact (SHC) (Government Gazette, 1997: 50). The aim of the research is to achieve the following objectives: 1. Describe best practice for sustainability monitoring frameworks for water services. 2. Outline South Africa’s water services mandatory and voluntary requirements with regards to sustainability monitoring. 3. Evaluate South Africa’s current water services performance monitoring framework for water boards against findings from goals one and two. 4. Develop an improved framework for assessing South African water board’s performance in their compliance and sustainability journey. 5. Demonstrate the improved framework functionality with a sample of water boards audited performance data from the 2012/13 financial year. A qualitative normative theory evaluation research method was utilised to achieve first three objectives of the research. The objectives to first understand current best practice for sustainability monitoring frameworks and the mandatory requirements for water services sustainability monitoring frameworks in South Africa was achieved via an extensive literature review. The evaluation research method was used where South Africa’s current water services monitoring framework for water boards was evaluated for its adequacy to monitor sustainability compared with legislated requirements, national and international best practices (Hall et al, 2004: 55). Data collection for the evaluation research was sourced via documentation analysis. The 2012/13 water board audited annual reports, relevant national water services legislation, national and global water service sustainability monitoring best practices were critically reviewed. The review yielded a “thick description” of sustainability performance monitoring framework requirements that was used to evaluate the SHC (Holliday, 2002: 79). Despite the mandatory participation requirement for successful sustainability performance monitoring being met, the SHC was found to have inadequate aspects. It lacks an outcomes based approach, does not include environmental indicators, does not allow water board sustainability performance comparison and cannot indicate where individual water boards are on their sustainability journey. An improved sustainability performance monitoring framework for South African water boards is therefore proposed. This was developed with the assistance of an expert focus group drawn from multiple disciplines and organizations relevant to water board sustainability (Litosseliti, 2003: 8 and Hall et al, 2004: 51). The functionality of the framework is then demonstrated using 2012/13 audited performance data sourced from the annual reports of Overberg, Amatola, Rand and Umgeni Water boards. The proposed Water Services Sustainability Monitoring Framework (WSSMF) quantifies performance in terms of 10 water utility outcomes that are measured with 88 performance indicators that encompass the financial, social, environmental and governance dimensions of sustainability. The WSSMF demonstrated that the legislated intentions and best practice recommendations can be incorporated into an improved version of the SHC. Further refinement of the WSSMF is required. In depth engagement with DWS and all the water boards would promote the refinement of the indicator set, performance thresholds for indicators and indicator weighting. Further testing through a pilot project initiative would allow the WSSMF to be developed into a robust and adequate sustainability performance monitoring framework for South African water boards (Rametsteiner et al, 2011: 64; Muga and Mihelcic, 2008: 438; McAlphine and Birnie, 2005: 247 and van Leeuwen et al, 2012: 2192).

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21

Jerkenhag, Jim. "A Dissection of the Direct Link Test : An Analysis of the Enigmatic Concept of a 'Supply for Consideration'". Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-359697.

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How does one know whether a service is supplied against payment? While the answer to that question appears to be self-evident, it is, in fact, the sole reason for a host of court procedures across the world of VAT. Indeed, the underlying concept of a supply for consideration has eluded and continues to elude courts and practitioners. This is in part due to the wide range of transactions that are arguably such that they cannot be categorised as a supply for consideration (i.e., a supply against payment). It is, e.g., not obvious how to treat the transaction happening when a by-passer gives a few coins to a street musician, considering that it is debatable whether the coins constitute payment for a music service or a gift given out of sympathy. As an attempt to elucidate the concept of a supply for consideration, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) has developed the so called direct link test, consisting of four criteria. The test is applied in cases where the nexus between a supply and a consideration is indefinite or called into doubt. Given that the CJEU is the supreme interpreter of EU law, the direct link test has consequently become a standardised test in all 28 Member States of the EU. In other jurisdictions, such as Australia and New Zealand, there stands no equally established test to resolve the question of a nexus. More so, the courts of these jurisdictions do not necessarily adhere to the same notions as the CJEU. Against this background, the criteria of the direct link test have been analysed as well as compared to the notions prevailing in other jurisdictions. Following the comparative studies, it stands evident that there are, in some instances, radically different understandings of what kind of transactions that constitute a supply for consideration. These differences exist between courts of different jurisdictions as well as courts of the same jurisdiction. Certainly, there will always be disagreements in respect of legal queries; however, by virtue of the comparative studies, divergences of a more conceptual nature have been unearthed. In turn, these conceptual divergences demonstrate the existence of fundamentally different perceptions of the concept of a supply for consideration within the world of VAT. In light of the analysis, the author has concluded that the direct link test is appropriate for the purpose it is meant to serve. That said, the actual application of the test leaves room for improvement, which may to some extent be sought in the rules and notions prevailing in other jurisdictions and in the comments and critiques put forward by scholars.

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Teague, Ian Graeme. "The role of the public interest in competition law a consideration of the public interest in merger control and exemptions in South Africa and how the public interest plays a more important role in the competition laws of South Africa and of developi". Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/4568.

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Teague, Ian Graeme. "The role of the public interest in competition law: a consideration of the public interest in merger control and exemptions in South Africa and how the public interest plays a more important role in the competition laws of South Africa and of develop". Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/4569.

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This paper considers the role accorded to, and importance of, the public interest objectives of the South African Competition Act[1] (the Act). The aim of this paper is not to critique these objectives or to consider what role these objectives have played in South African competition jurisprudence in the eleven years since the enactment of the Act, but to accept such objectives and specifically consider what effect has been given to them in the other provisions of the Competition Act that expressly deal with the public interest, [2] and to argue that the competition authorities should not be too eager to diminish the importance of these sections, but that the public interest should play an important role in the competition law of South Africa and other developing nations, and as such, that the South African competition authorities should recognise this.

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Bluffstone, Zoe. "Seeking Redemption in a World of Waste: A Comparative Analysis of Bottle Deposit Systems and Campaigns and a Consideration of Their Comprehensive Sustainability". Oberlin College Honors Theses / OhioLINK, 2016. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=oberlin1462983935.

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Mullinder, Louis. "A comparative study of the criminalisation of the violation of a corpse in context of traditional medicine in subequatorial Africa including consideration of customary law". Diss., University of Pretoria, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/60072.

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This discourse is a comparative study of the criminalisation of the violation of a corpse in context of traditional medicine in subequatorial Africa, including consideration of customary law and seeks specifically to examine whether the use of body parts for medicine falls within the paradigm of traditional medicine as opposed to professed any use in witchcraft. The question of any possible cultural defence for the violation of a corpse in traditional medicine is also examined. Regard has been given to relevant legislative precepts in subequatorial Africa including any common-law position, any statutory legislative precepts, including constitutional law, for the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Gabonese Republic, the Kingdoms of Lesotho and Swaziland, the Republic of the Congo, the Republics of Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and the United Republic of Tanzania. In the Republic of South Africa, the violation of a corpse is a common-law crime, which sees its origins historically in Roman law and Roman-Dutch law. It has been found that the penal codes of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Gabonese Republic, the Republics of Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania criminalise acts of violation on any corpse, but are applicable only to perpetrators and not to end-users, except for the Republic of Rwanda and the possessors of body parts for the Republic of Burundi. In the Republic of South Africa any removal of or trade in any body part in contravention of any law is also a criminal offence. Research has not found any specific reference to the violation of a corpse for the Kingdoms of Lesotho and Swaziland, the Republic of the Congo, the Republics of Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe in extant legislative precepts, but all subequatorial African constitutions provide for the right to life. Case law relating to the violation of a corpse for traditional medicine purposes has been found only for the Republic of South Africa, for the then-Rhodesia and the Republic of Botswana. In most of the subequatorial African countries, customary law is valid only insofar as it does not conflict with the constitutions of the majority of countries, with the exceptions of the constitutions of the Gabonese Republic, the Republic of Congo and the United Republic of Tanzania for which no provision for customary law in the constitutions of these countries has been found. In the Republic of South Africa, customary law, or a cultural defence is not condoned in instances of murder for body parts according to case law. Since research has discovered only a paucity of case law relating to the crime of violating a corpse in traditional medicine circumstances, it has not been possible to ascertain whether such use is widespread within traditional medicine, or confined to specific instances only. This discourse concludes that the legal position of the crime of violating a corpse for the use of body parts in traditional medicine in the Republic of South Africa should not be reviewed to accommodate such use, but that all relevant legal precepts should be reviewed and changed purposefully to provide for clarification for the specificity of this crime and to oppose any perception of such practices and beliefs in traditional medicine as being justified in any manner.
Mini Dissertation (MPhil)--University of Pretoria, 2017.
Public Law
MPhil
Unrestricted

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26

Miron, Alina. "Le droit dérivé des organisations internationales de coopération dans les ordres juridiques internes". Thesis, Paris 10, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014PA100165/document.

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Le droit des organisations internationales a été le lieu d’une belle querelle d’école entre les détracteurs et les adeptes de la normativité relative. Il en va de même des rapports de systèmes, qui divisent la doctrine entre les monistes (en voie de disparition), les dualistes et les non-alignés. Aborder le thème du traitement du droit dérivé par les ordres juridiques internes c’est prendre le risque de s’égarer dans ces tourbillons doctrinaux. Si l’on accepte que le point de vue du juge interne est pertinent pour la détermination de la force normative du droit dérivé, on comprend que le premier débat semble dépassé : le juge admet que le droit institutionnel est du droit, qu’il soit obligatoire ou non. Se pose dès lors la question de la capacité de ce droit à être source de droits et obligations dans l’ordre interne. On remarque qu’à cette fin, l’ensemble des ordres juridiques examinés exige l’incorporation des actes institutionnels, mais aussi que les juges internes accordent de la place à des formes de reconnaissance des effets des actes institutionnels déconnectées de l’incorporation. Ces tendances convergentes démontrent à la fois que le clivage monisme/dualisme n’est pas décisif, mais aussi que la pensée dualiste ne reflète pas fidèlement les modalités d’interaction entre les ordres juridiques dans le monde pluraliste. La reconnaissance participe d’un principe de coordination et non pas de séparation des ordres juridiques, qui se prolonge par ailleurs dans les solutions aux conflits normatifs, ainsi que dans les modalités et les effets du contrôle, par les juges internes, des normes institutionnelles
The law of international organisations has been the theatre of passionate academic debate between the detractors and the disciples of the relative normativity. The same can be said about the relations between the legal orders, which divide the doctrine into monists, dualists and non-aligned. Analysing the topic of the place of institutional law in domestic legal orders is taking the risk of losing one’s way in these doctrinal whirls. If we take for granted that the point of view of the domestic judge is relevant for appreciating the normative force of institutional law, we may say that the first debate seems outdated : the domestic judge recognizes that the law produced by international organisations is law, whether is binding or not. The following question is to what extent the norms thus produced may be source of rights and obligations in the internal legal orders. The entire range of legal orders examined requires for institutional law to be incorporated for that purpose. The domestic judges leave nonetheless the door opened to other forms for taking into account some of the legal effects of institutional acts. These convergent tendencies show both that the monist/dualist divide is immaterial for the legal status of these acts and that the dualist doctrine does not accurately reflect the modalities of interaction between the legal systems in the world of pluralism. The recognition of unincorporated legal norms, which triggers consequences in terms of conflict of norms and judicial review of institutional law, stands in favour of a model of coordination and not of separation of the legal orders

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27

Meintjes-van, der Walt Lirieka. "The domestic worker some considerations for law reform". Thesis, Rhodes University, 1993. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1003198.

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This thesis examines ways in which domestic workers in South Africa could be included within the scope of existing industrial legislation. At present the legal position of a work force of 862 000 is regulated by the common law contract of service. Socio-economic factors form the background of this investigation,which first sets out to determine whether the common-law contract of employment is capable of equitably regulating the employment relationship. The fallacy of the assumption that individuals agree on the terms of exchange in the employment contract on the basis of juridical equality, and the tenuous nature of the common-law employment relationship in the case of domestic workers are revealed. In the absence of any current statutory minima the employment contract is used to deprive domestic workers of what little protection they enjoy at common law. The two ways in which the individual employee's conditions of service can be protected from terms favouring the stronger of the two contracting parties are discussed. These are collective bargaining and statutory regulation. Difficulties experienced by domestic workers in respect of collective bargaining, whether they be included under the Labour Relations Act or not, are indicated. Proposals for including domestic workers under the Basic Conditions of Employment Act are evaluated in the light of legislation in the United States of America, Zimbabwe, Swaziland and Namibia. Ways of minimum-wage fixing are investigated, and it is concluded that the provisions of the Wage Act could be adapted for domestic workers. The 'unfair labour practice'concept is examined and the implications of its application for the domestic labour sector evaluated. It is recommended that the concept 'fairness' in the Labour Relations Act should apply to domestic workers, but that a code of practice be drafted to provide conceptions of 'fairness' as guidelines for employment behaviour. It is suggested that the parties refer disputes to mediation before being granted access to a Small Labour Court established for this purpose. In conclusion a draft code of practice is presented, as a basis for negotiation at a forum representative of the major actors in the domestic labour arena.

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Sabo, Joseph Michael. "We Hold These Truths to Be Self-Evident: The Need for Animal Rights in the United States of America". Kent State University Honors College / OhioLINK, 2012. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ksuhonors1335815050.

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Foy, Valencia Pierre Claudio. "Legal system and nature. Considerations on Law and nature". Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2015. http://repositorio.pucp.edu.pe/index/handle/123456789/115998.

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From some reflections on the man (culture) nature relationship, the paper arrives at a set of more specific considerations about nature and the legal system. These will allow sustaining some of their legal expressions: natural resources heritage, commons, and ecosystem, among others. To conclude, the theme of nature as subject will be discussed, complementing the discussion with the topic of the legal system and animals.
A partir de unas reflexiones sobre la relación hombre (cultura) naturaleza, se arriba a un conjunto de consideraciones más específicas sobre el sistema jurídico y la naturaleza, las cuales permitirán sustentar algunas de sus expresiones jurídicas: recursos naturales patrimonio, commons, ecosistema entre otras. Finalmente se discute el tema de la naturaleza como sujeto, complementando la discusión con el asunto del sistema legal y los animales.

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30

Peters, Edward N. J. "Preliminary procedural considerations in the application of ecclesiastical penalties". Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 1988. http://www.tren.com.

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31

Zizic, Bojana. "Copyright infringement occurring over the internet, choice of law considerations". Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 2000. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp01/MQ54498.pdf.

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Peters, Edward N. "Preliminary procedural considerations in the application of ecclesiastical penalties". Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN) Access this title online, 1988. http://www.tren.com/search.cfm?p029-0147.

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33

Meskin, Shayan. "Shelby County: Voting Discrimination and its Constitutional Considerations". Scholarship @ Claremont, 2017. http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cmc_theses/1725.

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Racism has been perpetuated in America since slavery. Central to this notion is the United States’ history of racism perpetuated via its political system which subjected minorities - African-Americans in particular - to the oppressive wrath of governmental policies for centuries. As the country grew more intolerant of slavery, the Civil War lead to the Reconstruction Amendments which abolished slavery and intended to give African-Americans an opportunity to exercise new civil and political rights. The opponents of Reconstruction, particularly from the Deep South, were ideologically opposed to these changes and sought to encumber blacks by targeting their right to the franchise. Racial discrimination in politics took the guise of literacy tests and other excessive measures. The era of postbellum segregation and racially discriminatory legislation ensured that blacks and other minorities would not be given the equal treatment they had been denied since slavery. Slavery was over, but racism persisted. By the hands of southern state legislatures, discrimination evolved, as African-Americans would face extensive impediments in exercising their right to vote for over a century. But as the mid-20th Century Civil Rights Movement gained steam, Congress passed the Voting Rights Act (VRA) in 1965 with the hope of finally putting an end to this effective discrimination. The most polarizing facet of the VRA was the section 5 “preclearance” provision because it treated states differently; it was buttressed by the section 4 “coverage formula” which designated which states would be subject to this differential treatment; while the section 3 provisions established a constitutional safety valve emboldening the more vulnerable facets of the legislation. The VRA was momentous in reducing voting rights infringement aimed at minorities. Yet today, that legislation is no more. The Court’s decision in Shelby County v. Holder (2013) provides a simplistic appraisal of the VRA. Exhibiting dubious jurisprudence illuminated through examination of an earlier case, Northwest Austin Municipal Utility District No. 1 v. Holder (2009), Robert’s opinion undermines the values personified by the Reconstruction Amendments and leaves the nation’s protection of the franchise more vulnerable to backsliding than it has been for decades.

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Lindkvist, Mari, i Cecilia Karlsson. "Kan uttagsbeskattning ske på mervärdesskatteområdet vid underpristransaktioner? : Svensk rätt i förhållande till EG-rätt". Thesis, Jönköping University, JIBS, Commercial Law, 2008. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-1087.

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EG-rätten är en egen rättsordning som har företräde framför den nationella rätten, vilket innebär att medlemsstaterna har en skyldighet att följa EG-rätten. Förverkligandet av målet om att skapa en inre marknad inom EG förutsätter ett gemensamt system för mervärdesskatt. Flera direktiv har antagits för att harmonisera mervärdesskatten inom gemenskapen.

Mervärdesskatt är en generell konsumtionsskatt som skall bäras av slutkonsumenten. Ett avdragssystem säkerställer att skattebördan vältras framåt för att slutligen belasta slutkonsumenten. En skattskyldig person som förvärvar varor till sin verksamhet medges därmed avdrag för ingående mervärdesskatt. Vid uttag eller användning av dessa varor för privat ändamål skall den skattskyldiga personen behandlas som en slutkonsument. Motsvarande regler återfinns även när en skattskyldig person tillhandahåller tjänster för privat ändamål. Uttagsbeskattning skall ske för att förhindra att en skattskyldig person uppnår en otillbörlig fördel genom att undvika beskattning på den egna konsumtionen. Uttagsbeskattning sker genom att transaktionerna likställs med tillhandahållande av varor och tjänster mot ersättning.

Enligt uttagsbestämmelserna i mervärdesskattelagen aktualiseras uttagsbeskattning när en skattskyldig person tillhandahåller en vara eller en tjänst utan ersättning eller mot en ersättning som understiger självkostnadspriset för den tillhandahållna varan eller tjänsten. I målet Gåsabäck från år 2005 konstaterar EG-domstolen att uttag för privat ändamål inte kan föreligga, enligt artiklarna 16 och 26.1 b i mervärdesskattedirektivet, när en skattskyldig person tillhandahåller varor eller tjänster mot en faktisk ersättning och detta även när ersättningen understiger självkostnadspriset för den tillhandahållna varan eller tjänsten. Således är mervärdesskattelagens uttagsbestämmelser inte förenliga med EG-rätten. Trots domen i målet Gåsabäck beslutar Skatterättsnämnden i ett förhandsbesked från år 2007 att uttagsbeskattning skall ske, enligt artikel 26.1 a i mervärdesskattedirektivet, när en skattskyldig person låter de anställda använda företagets personbilar mot en symbolisk ersättning. Skatterättsnämnden anser att beslutet inte strider mot EG-rätten eftersom det är fråga om användning av en vara i rörelsen och inte, såsom i målet Gåsabäck, tillhandahållande av en tjänst. Frågan är om förhandsbeskedet strider mot EG-rätten. Omständigheter i målet Gåsabäck tyder på att uttagsbeskattning aldrig kan aktualiseras när en ersättning utgår för en transaktion.

The European Community, EC, constitutes a new legal order, the European Community law, EC law. In situations of conflicts between national law and Community law, the EC law has supremacy, which means that the Member States are obliged to follow the EC law. The attainment of the objective of establishing an internal market within the EC presupposes a common system of value added tax, VAT. Several directives have been admitted for harmonising the VAT in the Community.

VAT is a general tax on consumption, where the final consumer carries the burden of the tax. A deduction system ensures that the tax burden is brought forward until it reaches the final consumer. If the taxable person has been able to deduct input VAT on purchase of goods used for his business and then apply or use those goods for his own private use, the taxable person will be treated as a final consumer. Similarly, the taxable person will be treated as a final consumer when he supplies services for his own private use. To ensure that taxable persons do not take unfair advantage by avoiding tax on self-consumption, the transactions shall be treated as supplies of goods or services for consideration. The purpose of treating the transactions as supplies of goods or services for consideration is to ensure that VAT is a tax on final consumption.

According to the Swedish VAT act, the application of goods or services for private use is to be understood to mean supplies of goods or services either free of charge or for a consideration which is less than the cost price of the goods or services supplied. In the case Gåsabäck 2005 the European Court of Justice concludes that supplies of goods and services that are effected for an actual consideration can not be regarded as an application of goods or services for private use according to articles 16 and 26.1 b of the VAT directive. This is also applied if that consideration is less than the cost price of the goods or services supplied. Consequently, the Swedish VAT act is inconsistent with the EC law. In a prelimi-nary decision of 19 January 2007, the Skatterättsnämnden decides that the use of goods forming part of the assets of a business shall, according to article 26.1 a of the VAT directive, be treated as a supply of services for consideration, although an actual consideration is paid for the transaction. The Skatterättsnämnden consider that the decision is consistent with the EC law since there are not the same services as in the case Gåsabäck. The question is if the decision is inconsistent with the EC law. Circumstances in the case Gåsabäck indicates that transactions that are effected for an actual consideration can never be regarded as an application of goods or services for private use.

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Hürl, Kay-Uwe. "Legal and technical considerations of space debris". Thesis, McGill University, 2000. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=33358.

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This thesis deals with the technical and legal measures presently available to combat space debris. Space debris is not as far out as it sounds. The issue is real and may become severe if no action is taken.
Focusing on existing legal instruments, this study shows their inadequacy in addressing space debris. As space debris was not considered an actual or a legal problem at the time of drafting, the provisions of international space law fail to provide solutions in certain areas.
Recommendations for the future are made. Considering the increase in outer space activities, solutions for the space debris threat are a necessity. Developing technology will only solve some of the problems as the amount of space debris proliferates in collisions of existing debris. Therefore, legal challenges will also be faced, some of which are discussed herein.

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Zhou, Jia Lei. "EU water law : the right balance between environmental and economic considerations?" Thesis, University of Macau, 2005. http://umaclib3.umac.mo/record=b1637070.

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Marinoble, Mark Anthony. "Considerations in Building an Elementary Makerspace Lab". Diss., Virginia Tech, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/88851.

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Globalization and technology have placed a recognizable pressure on both employers and educational institutions. Entry-level employees must be adaptive, innovative, collaborative, and have strong problem-solving and communication skills. To prepare students for the future workforce, schools must revisit existing practices and find new ways to foster innovation as the gap between the new skills students need verses what is being taught in public schools continues to grow (Bybee et al, 2006; Wagner, 2012). One way to increase students' interest and skills in STEM education is by incorporating makerspaces into schools. Makerspaces are physical spaces where people have opportunities to build and construct objects based on their own personal interests. Makerspaces foster the innovative ideas and skills students need upon graduation. This qualitative case study investigates why educational leaders decided to launch a makerspace lab and how school leaders established a model makerspace lab at an elementary school. The purpose of this study was to document and describe the change process connected with the implementation of the makerspace lab, how leaders navigated various obstacles, perceptions of the change process, and lessons learned from educators. The findings show that school leaders experienced a novel concept after visiting an extraordinary model makerspace program which demonstrated a unique approach to developing the innovative capacity of young learners. These experiences created a transformational moment in school leaders that motivated them to be change agents and launch their own makerspace lab. School leaders developed community partnerships with an engineering university, a Fortune 500 company, an education community foundation, and a large school district to make this work possible. Together, these educational and business collaborators created a model elementary makerspace model that is one of the first of its kind on the east coast and currently services students from other schools in the region. The findings further discuss the importance of community partnerships, inviting other schools to participate, having a model program to emulate, having the right people, and how a school initiative became a district opportunity.
Doctor of Education
Globalization and technology have pressured both employers and educational institutions to change. Entry-level employees must be adaptive, innovative, collaborative, and have strong problem-solving and communication skills. To prepare students for the future workforce, schools must revisit existing practices and find new ways to foster innovation as the gap between the new skills students need verses what is being taught in public schools continues to grow (Bybee et al, 2006; Wagner, 2012). One way to increase students’ interest and skills in STEM education is by incorporating makerspaces into schools. Makerspaces are physical spaces where people have opportunities to build and construct objects based on their own personal interests. Makerspaces foster the innovative ideas and skills students need upon graduation. This qualitative case study investigates why educational leaders decided to launch a makerspace lab and how school leaders established a model makerspace lab at an elementary school. The purpose of this study was to document and describe the change process connected with the implementation of the makerspace lab, how leaders navigated various obstacles, perceptions of the change process, and lessons learned from educators. The findings show that school leaders experienced a novel concept after visiting an extraordinary model makerspace program which demonstrated a unique approach to developing the innovative capacity of young learners. These experiences created a transformational moment in school leaders that motivated them to be change agents and launch their own makerspace lab. School leaders developed community partnerships with an engineering university, a Fortune 500 company, an education community foundation, and a large school district to make this work possible. Together, these educational and business leaders created a model elementary makerspace model that is one of the first of its kind on the east coast and currently services students from other schools in the region. The findings further discuss the importance of community partnerships, inviting other schools to participate, having a model program to emulate, having the right people, and how a school initiative became a district opportunity.

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38

Prendiville, Edmond. "Lay parish coordinators some canonical considerations on the implementation of canon 517, [par.] 2 of the revised code of canon law /". Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 1996. http://www.tren.com.

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Strauss, D. F. M. "The normative sense of the concept of law part ii - systematic considerations". Journal for New Generation Sciences, Vol 11, Issue 2: Central University of Technology, Free State, Bloemfontein, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/11462/640.

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Published Article
Modern philosophy left us with an unbridgeable divide between factual reality and the domain of values (normativity). This article first of all analyze modal norms, such as the principle of avoiding what is legally excessive. There are distinct but mutually cohering kinds of laws. The distinction between modal laws / norms and type laws / norms required an example from the domain of human society - John Locke and Adam Smith, whose ideas in practice gave birth to trade unionism and labour parties. The idea of an "invisible hand" (manifest in the "free market") operates with exact (natural) laws, such as supply and demand. When modal norms are distinguished from type norms it becomes clear that states and a business enterprises can act uneconomically by wasting their money although they ought to function in a way that is guided by economic considerations of frugality. As an example the well-known natural law of energy-conservation is explained as the embodiment of an analogical link between the physical aspect and the kinematic aspect which should rather be designated as the law of energy-constancy. Finally the problem of normativity is related to the coherence between the logical-analytical aspect and its coherence with the aspects of number and space - focused on the principle of the excluded middle and its implications for diverging schools of thought within twentieth century mathematics. The last subsection concludes with reference to the norms guiding technological developments and with an assessment of the meaning of technology.

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McGlynn, Thomas. "The deferral of infant baptism canonical and pastoral considerations /". Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 1986. http://www.tren.com.

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Itene, Moses Akpofure. "Problems of nuclear weapons disarmament in international law : legal challenges and political considerations". Thesis, University of Huddersfield, 2018. http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/34780/.

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This thesis explores the legal rationale and political considerations for nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation of nuclear weapons. Nuclear weapons are the most dangerous weapons on earth. Only one can destroy a city, with the potentiality of killing millions and affecting the lives of a whole generation through its lasting calamitous consequences and jeopardising the natural environment. Nuclear weapons are normally classified alongside with chemical and biological weapons as Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) and their danger surrounds their very existence. Disarmament has been axiomatically accepted as the best safeguard against their threat, but achieving the aim of disarmament has a tremendously difficult international, socio-legal and political challenge. There are about 22,000 nuclear weapons allegedly remaining in our world today and over 2,000 nuclear tests have been conducted to date. This is to check their functionality by the Nuclear Weapon States (NWS) and to demonstrate to real and potential enemies the potency of their nuclear forces. Consequently, International Law provides the framework within which States conduct their international affairs, usually accepting certain reciprocal constraints and regulating exceptions raised on nuclear weapons disarmament and for ensuring global peace. However, in as much as the NWS and their allies rely on nuclear weapons as legitimate security protective hedge for self-defence, efforts to ensure nuclear disarmament will invariably suffer from a fundamental contradiction and credibility deficit. This research, which unravels contemporary discourse on nuclear weapons disarmament, is burdened by the globally entrenched nuclear hegemony by the NWS and the looming danger of nuclear crisis across the world such as North Korea and other “rogue States” unbridled nuclear ambitions. The doctrinal legal research methodology is being used in analysing, synthesising and critiquing the legal and political issues associated with the research. The possession of nuclear weapons and reliance on nuclear deterrence are tangible evidence of nuclear proliferation. The more the world realises the global humanitarian consequences associated with nuclear weapons, the stronger the case and urgent steps needed against them. The nuclear technological threshold is rapidly growing, for political rather than technological purposes. This thesis therefore argues for more effective monitoring and compliance, together with greater enforcement of nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament commitments and obligations,especially in accordance with the provisions of the newly emerged Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons(TPNW)for the realisation of the desired objective of a nuclear free world. As part of the research findings, it is clear that any use of nuclear weapons would violate all the principles of International Humanitarian Law including jus ad bellum (when States are compelled to engage in warfare) and jus in bello (rules of engagement in war). This is as a result of the unthinkable humanitarian emergencies, catastrophic global consequences on the environment, climate, health, social order, human development and economic impacts nuclear weapons would potentially cause. According to the 2002 Rome Statute of International Criminal Court provisions, any use of nuclear weapons would amount to genocide (Article 6), crime against humanity (Article 7) and war crime (Article 8). Still from the research findings, both nuclear weapons and nuclear deterrence are arguably described as illegitimate instruments of State policies and they constitute instrumentalities of international lawlessness in the midst of earliest and contemporaneous legal instruments on nuclear disarmament. The fundamental recommendation arising from this research is that all States at all times need to comply with applicable international law on nuclear disarmament in conformity with the International Court of Justice Advisory Opinions on the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons and on the legality of use of nuclear weapons by a State in armed conflict. Significantly, all the Nuclear Weapon States should fulfil their commitments on the 13 practical steps towards disarmament outlined at the 2000 Non-proliferation Treaty Review and Extesion Confenece (NPTREC), for the actualisation of general and complete nuclear disarmament.

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Foy, Valencia Pierre Claudio. "Considerations weather on environmental relevant of international conventions". Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2014. http://repositorio.pucp.edu.pe/index/handle/123456789/116109.

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In the first part we introduce what we consider the main features of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (CMCC) and its context, in terms of prejuridical issues about climate diplomacy and general considerations about this convention. In the second part, we discuss some references in order to show the synergies between the international agreements and the CMCC and some other more specific legal instruments.
En la primera parte se elabora una caracterización de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático (CMCC) y su contexto en términos de consideraciones prejurídicas acerca de la diplomacia climática y de consideraciones generales sobre dicha convención. En la segunda parte se abordan, a modo de muestra, referencias sobre las sinergias entre compromisos internacionales y la CMCC y algunas derivaciones jurídicas más específicas.

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43

Sampaoli, Alessandro. "Freeconomics in the light of EU VAT Directive : Are free digital services supplied in exchange for personal data VAT taxable?" Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2020. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-412742.

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The digital economy is growing exponentially. Companies such as Facebook and Instagram base their business model on supplying services completely free of charge to billions of users. This model of business is called “Freeconomics”. These companies generate huge profits from the exploitation of personal data provided by Users. The peculiarity of this way of doing business, although this may seem absurd, is that the company's profit is directly proportional to the number of non-paying users. Such situations have given rise to discussions regarding the powerlessness of the tax system of states to levy tax on such profits. Regarding the indirect taxation, the question is even more difficult if one considers free digital services and personal data. Unfortunately, this flow of “digital” consumption remains completely out of a VAT assessment. Exclude a priori those transactions from being assessed for VAT purposes only because it could be arduous to assess the consumption would result in a violation of the principle of neutrality. Accordingly, issues related to the distortion of competition could also arise. The author of this thesis examines the assumption that between the Companies and the Users take place a reciprocal exchange of benefits in kind characterized by a synallagmatic relationship (quid pro quo) in the form of barter. The results of the analysis indicate that the transactions characterized by the supply of free digital services to Users in exchange for personal data - as described in the Business Reference Model - actually fall within the scope of Article 2 (1)(c) of the EU VAT Directive and therefore must be subject to indirect taxation.

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Taylor, Michael S. "Choosing an age for confirmation historical, theological, and canonical considerations /". Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 2002. http://www.tren.com.

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Valdivia, Rodrigo E. "Canonical considerations in the termination of lay employees". Online full text .pdf document, available to Fuller patrons only, 2000. http://www.tren.com.

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Hayes, Robert Emmet. "Theological-canonical considerations on the modification of parishes". Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 2002. http://www.tren.com.

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47

Leonavičiūtė, Simona. "Diplomatic asylum in the context of public international law". Master's thesis, Lithuanian Academic Libraries Network (LABT), 2012. http://vddb.laba.lt/obj/LT-eLABa-0001:E.02~2012~D_20120703_133030-41044.

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Every state may face a bid for protection in embassies or consulates from persons looking for a shelter in dangerous situations to their lives and safety. Even though diplomatic asylum is more peculiar to Latin America region, no State is prevented from such seekers. Practical examples show that diplomatic asylum helped to safe thousands of people in countries where instability of governments exist, during wars or in situations where no other alternative of protection was available. Grant of diplomatic asylum is a problematic issue because it raises question which value should prevail: inviolability of premises or non interference into internal affairs, protection of human rights or sovereignty of State. This master thesis attempts to find out what is the current position of diplomatic asylum in the context of public international law and on what grounds it could be granted in embassies and consulates. For this aim, the thesis is focused on the evolution and main features of diplomatic asylum, on its relation with regional and universal international law instruments, on dominating positions to diplomatic asylum in the case law. International treaties, state practice and various positions of legal writers were analyzed in order to reveal grounds for granting diplomatic asylum. In the States where diplomatic asylum is recognized, it is granted according to the existing legal regulation. In the States where diplomatic asylum is not considered as legal institute, it is granted on... [to full text]
Kiekviena valstybė savo ambasadose ar konsulatuose gali sulaukti asmenų prašančių prieglobsčio dėl gresiančio pavojaus gyvybei ar saugumui. Nors diplomatinis prieglobstis yra būdingesnis Lotynų Amerikos regionui, nė viena valstybė nėra apsaugota nuo tokio prašymo. Praktiniai pavyzdžiai rodo, kad diplomatinis prieglobstis padėjo išgelbėti tūkstančius gyvybių ten, kur vykdavo dažna politinės valdžios kaita, per karus, ar tokiose situacijose, kur nebuvo galima rasti jokios kitos apsaugos. Diplomatinio prieglobsčio suteikimas yra problematiškas klausimas, kadangi nėra aišku, kam turėtų būti teikiama pirmenybė: atstovybės patalpų neliečiamybei ar nesikišimo į valstybės vidaus reikalus principui, žmogaus teisių apsaugai ar valstybės suverenitetui. Šiuo magistro darbu siekiama išsiaiškinti diplomatinio prieglobsčio svarbą tarptautines teisės kontekste, kokie yra galimi pagrindai šiam prieglobsčiui suteikti. Šiam tikslui pasiekti, didelis dėmesys skiriamas diplomatinio prieglobsčio vystymuisi ir pagrindiniams bruožams, jo santykiui su regioniniais ir visuotiniais tarptautines teises dokumentais, dominuojančia pozicija teismų praktikoje. Pagrindams diplomatiniui prieglobsčiui rasti buvo analizuojamos tarptautinės sutartys, šalių praktika ir skirtingos autorių nuomonės. Tose šalyse, kur diplomatinis prieglobstis yra pripažįstamas, jis yra suteikiamas pagal esamą teisinį reguliavimą. Kitose šalyse, nepripažįstančiose diplomatinio prieglobsčio kaip teisinio instituto, jis yra suteikiamas... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]

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Basteyns, Margaret M. Wildeman. "Canon 517 [par.] 2 and the lay pastoral administrator some canonical considerations /". Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 2005. http://www.tren.com.

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Taruffo, Michele. "Considerations about the Precedent". IUS ET VERITAS, 2017. http://repositorio.pucp.edu.pe/index/handle/123456789/123387.

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In this article, the author tells us about the precedent along with its characteristics, as well as its role in the law. He tells us, also, about the situation of a precedent ruled by an International Court and its implications in the domestic law of each country. Likewise, he defines what is not a precedent and points us how effective is in the Law. Finally, he points us about the particularity and the universalism in the precedents, then he gave us his final thought of this theme.
En el presente artículo, el autor nos habla acerca del precedente y sus características, así como de su papel en el Derecho. Asimismo, profundiza la situación de un precedente emitido por una Corte Internacional y sus implicancias en el derecho interno de cada país. Asimismo, define qué no es un precedente y nos señala cuál es su eficacia en el Derecho. Finalmente, nos menciona acerca de la particularidad y el universalismo en los precedentes, para luego dar su reflexión final sobre el tema.

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Grevling, Katherine Deborah. "A comparative study of the policy considerations underlying the exclusion of improperly obtained evidence". Thesis, University of Oxford, 1990. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.306206.

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