Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Cognition factor”

This study has two parts: Part I discusses the limitations of difference scores and exploratory factor analysis for representing speed of information-processing stages in the context of a reanalysis of a study by Vernon (1983). Vernon interpreted the differences between objectively measured reaction times on various simple cognitive tasks as components of speed of information processing. Correlations were calculated among these differences and subjected to exploratory factor analysis. The factors obtained from this analysis were interpreted by Vernon in terms of short-term and long-term memory processing constructs. The use of difference scores, however, implies an additive model allowance for random error, which correlations between these differences. that does not make leads to spurious The application of exploratory factor analysis to among these differences compounds uncover latent variables the problem because it admits many alternative interpretations which cannot be tested against one another for goodness-of-fit to the data. Confirmatory factor analysis addresses these problems. This thesis demonstrates that the correlations between the difference scores can be accounted for in terms of factors obtained from factor analysis of the original reaction time data. These factors lead to an alternative interpretation of the results which is contrasted with Vernon's interpretation. Part II of this study illustrates the use of confirmatory factor analysis with this kind of data. An attempt to test the assumptions of Vernon's difference score model with confirmatory factor analysis did not succeed because the implied model was too constrained for the statistical program we were using; consequently, the program could not find a starting solution. In order to demonstrate how confirmatory factor analysis can be used to test models of speed of cognitive processing, Part II partially replicates a study by Lansman, Donaldson, Hunt, & Yantis (1982). This research analyzed a simple cognitive reaction time task that was examined in detail by Vernon. Donaldson (1983) used the Lansman et al. data to compare difference scores and part correlational techniques with a general approach based on analysis of covariance structures to demonstrate how the components of cognitive processes can be explicated using confirmatory factor analysis.

Psychology
Ph.D.
Stress can disrupt a variety of cognitive processes, including learning and memory. Previous studies in rodents have demonstrated that central infusions of the stress-neuropeptide, corticotropin releasing factor (CRF), can disrupt mnemonic processes. However, where CRF is working within the brain to regulate cognition is largely underexplored. A candidate region for direct CRF regulation is the medial septum (MS), because this forebrain cholinergic nucleus is critical for spatial learning and CRF receptors are found on cholinergic neurons therein. We assessed whether administering CRF directly into the MS impaired spatial learning in male and female rats. We infused different doses of CRF or the vehicle, artificial cerebral spinal fluid, into the MS prior to testing on an object location task, which tests spatial learning, and a novel object recognition task, which does not test spatial learning. On the object location task, we found that, overall; CRF in the MS reduced time spent exploring the displaced object compared to the familiar object, suggesting that this manipulation impairs spatial reference learning. In addition, males were more sensitive to this effect than females, such that a low dose of CRF in the MS that had no effect in females disrupted object location learning in males. In the novel object recognition task, the CRF in the MS did not decrease preference for the novel object in either sex, suggesting that the effects of CRF in the MS are specific to spatial learning, which requires an intact hippocampus. Next, we assessed the receptor subtype involved by pretreating with a CRFR1 antagonist, prior to testing the effects of the high dose of CRF in the MS on spatial learning. We found that the CRFR1 antagonist recovered the spatial learning deficits similarly in both sexes. Lastly, we examined the influence of circulating ovarian hormones in regulating sensitivity of the MS to CRF by accessing estrous cycle stage, as well as, conducting ovariectomy and sham ovariectomy. We did not find an influence of ovarian hormones using any of these manipulations, suggesting that these hormones do not play a protective role against the impairing effects of CRF in the MS on spatial learning. Collectively, these studies reveal that CRF in the MS selectively impairs spatial learning, especially in males, highlighting an unexplored mechanism by which stress can regulate cognition. Clinically, these findings suggest that drugs which block the effects of CRF represent a viable therapeutic option to treat cognitive deficits that characterize certain stress-related psychiatric disorders.
Temple University--Theses

The Cache County Study on Memory in Aging, funded by the National Institute on Aging, studied longitudinal changes in memory and aging over 12 years’ follow-up in a population-based sample of 5,092 older adults in semirural Cache County, UT. Among the extensive interview procedures, researchers collected information regarding the participants’ demographics, health, genetic factors, diet, physical activity, and cognitive abilities. This study has allowed researchers to investigate how genetic and modifiable lifestyle factors interact to predict health, cognitive function, and psychological wellbeing in older adults. Diet and exercise are important lifestyle factors in maintaining cognitive health and psychological wellbeing throughout the lifespan, including late-life. The current investigation primarily focused on the link between these lifestyle factors and specific genes in predicting cognitive decline and risk for depression among older adults. Older adults are at risk for cognitive and mood changes as they age and certain genes may increase their vulnerability to these changes. However, it is possible that an older adult’s lifestyle behaviors regarding dietary pattern and physical activity may be protective against such genetic vulnerabilities. The genes investigated in this study are related to the production of a protein in the brain that promotes cell growth and survival. A better understanding of the relationship between lifestyle and genetic factors in late-life cognitive decline and depression may offer a better conceptualization of healthy aging and lead to more targeted diet and exercise recommendations. The present study found that engagement in moderate-vigorous physical activity was associated with slower cognitive decline whereas vigorous physical activity was associated with reduced risk for depression. Further, a specific gene was related to worse cognitive functioning among sedentary individuals. Alternatively, greater adherence to the dietary pattern investigated in our study did not reduce risk for depression and was beneficial for cognition in males only.

The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children is a relatively new instrument designed to measure the cognitive abilities of children ages 2 1/2 to 12 1/2. The battery was predominantly based upon Luria's theory of cognitive processing which proposes a simultaneous and sequential dichotomy for the analysis of information. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses have generally supported this theory. However, across different age groups and with special populations, analyses have been inconsistent.Few alternative structures for the battery have been tested, especially with special populations.The purpose of the present study was to assess the viability of a two factor structure based upon the modality of input for a group of students referred for learning difficulties. One hundred and twelve students, ages 7 to 12 1/2, who had been referred by teachers because of learning difficulties were used in the study. The thirteen subtests of the K-ABC were specified as being associated with a visual input factor, an auditory input factor, or both. Confirmatory factor analysis, as performed by the LISREL VI computer program, was then used to test this hypothesis. Unreasonable parameter estimates led to the rejection of the model for this sample. This lack of confirmation is discussed in terms of high correlations among estimates, misspecification of the model, sample homogeneity, and lack of independence among the subtests in terms of input modality. It was concluded that input modality was not a major factor in performance on the battery for this particular sample.

This thesis is an inquiry into the creative processes of poetry and poetic expression in documentary. The practice-based element is a 60 minute video about a poet living in Exeter, UK, called James Turner. The documentary is entitled, The Knotweed Factor. This written element of the thesis contextualises the investigation as a discourse on blindness and visual impairment. There are few representations of blindness and/or visual impairment (VI) in The Knotweed Factor. Rather, the documentary is concerned with how visual information (e.g., filming a poet) is translated non-visually (e.g., the sound of the poem being recited). It also addresses the issue of how the non-visual is translated into the visual. I argue in this text that blindness/VI is marginalised in visual studies/culture. This is unfortunate because blindness/VI studies provides valuable context for understanding the dynamics of sound and vision in creative media, which is a central concern of The Knotweed Factor. The rationale for taking this approach is as follows: During the editing, it was noticed that Turner (who is sighted) provides a kind of unprompted audio description (AD) of events in his environment to the audience, as if he is participating in a radio documentary. This raised questions, not only about the ekphrastic possibilities of his technique, but also about the potential to contextualise such scenes as a disquisition on blindness/VI. Blindness/VI is an important and under-theorised element of visual studies/culture (VS/C). Many films, plays, animations, documentaries, and television programmes are audio described. AD enables the blind/visually impaired (also VI) to comprehend and enjoy visual action. It is suggested here that AD theory is an insufficient model for critically reflecting on the creative processes in The Knotweed Factor. This is because the field is presently more concerned with practicability than with aesthetics. It seemed more helpful to address the broader question of how blindness/VI is positioned in VS/C. Doing so has highlighted instances of exclusion and marginalisation in VS/C. In the course of the video production, it was discovered that the interaction of dreams, memories, and ideas (the mindscape) informs the temporal creative process. Most analytical models within VS/C (e.g., Deleuze) offer a dialectical approach to understanding creativity. Henri Bergson, however, proposes a theory of multiplicity, which considers the interplay of phenomenological creativity of the mindscape as a homogenous, multifaceted process, in place of a dialectical one. Martha Blassnigg interrogates Bergson’s responses to audiovisual media and argues that Bergson’s multiplicity formula is more useful for understanding these processes, both for artist and audience. Blassnigg interprets Bergson’s theory as a universality of idea communication. This thesis considers what the universality of audiovisual experience implies for blindness/VI studies. It does so by contextualising the written research as a discourse on VS/C. In The Knotweed Factor, the emotions, sounds, and visual ideas, memories, and dreams which inform James Turner’s creativity are conveyed to the audience in two ways: 1) By sound (Turner’s recitations, interviews, and conversations), and 2) by the documentary’s abstracted audiovisualisations of Turner’s poetry and mindscape. For Turner, the ‘image’ is a personalised, innate phenomenon. It is ephemeral, intangible imagination. Turner’s experience (audiovisualised in The Knotweed Factor) is compared in this written part of the thesis to pre-Socratic ideations of image-making. It is argued that for many cultures, the image was (and for some remains) an emanation of spirit or idea. In other words, the image was considered a transcendent force, and the ‘soul’ of the image eternal and universal. This transcendence is considered in this written element of the thesis as a bridge between the present academic gap in the fields of blindness/VI studies and visual studies/culture. In this text, The Knotweed Factor serves as a case-study to test how non- and minimal-visual elements of audiovisual art and media are positioned in VS/C. Constructed here is a history of the interpretation of blindness and the image, from pre-Socratic aesthetics to the Enlightenment, where ideas concerning the phenomenology of blindness and visual impairment were transformed into epistemological inquiries. This approach enables the researcher to reflect critically on the aesthetics of The Knotweed Factor, using the framework of the non-visual (in this case recited poetry) to test and interrogate the visual (i.e., ‘poetically’ visualised poetry).

Previous empirical studies have been inconsistent in the identification of cognitive differences between LD and EH children on psychoeducational assessment batteries. Furthermore, studies using multivariate procedures such as discriminant analysis have failed to verify the basic underlying assumption of homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices of the groups. Homogeneity of covariance can be assessed by comparing factor structures of the two groups.The purpose of this study was to investigate the cognitive differences between LD and EH children on a psychoeducational assessment battery Including the WISC-R, WRAT, PIAT, PPVT, and DVMI, typically used to identify the two exceptionalities. Differences In factor structures were investigated in an effort to clarify group differences in cognitive functioning, and to investigate the utility of multivariate analyses such as discriminant analysis with these two groups of children.The subjects were 1165 public school children, aged 6 to 16, referred for assessment and subsequently classified and served in special LD and EH programs. Four and five factor solutions were compared using the congruence coefficient to determine statistical similarities. The first three factors of each solution, Verbal Concepts, Verbal Achievement, and Visual Perceptual Reasoning, were found to be statistically similar in construct and interpretation. These results suggest that If the use of multivariate procedures in studying LD and EH group differences is limited to cognitive performance in the areas of verbal concepts, reading and spelling achievement, and visual perceptual reasoning skills, the results can be accepted as valid. The discriminant analysis would not likely be violating the homogeneity assumption.Differences were found in factor structures Involving the order of the factors extracted in terms of importance In explaining variance. Also, statistically significant differences were found between the factors Involving Math, Visual Motor, and Sequential skills, suggesting that multivariate analyses using these factors would likely violate the homogeneity assumption.Results indicate the presence of heterogeneity in the matrices of LD and EH children, and suggest caution in the interpretation of multivariate statistical analyses with these children. Violation of the assumption of homogeneity can invalidate statistical findings and their application to the study of group differences.

Childhood Sexual Assault (CSA) can be considered as any act which exposes a child to, or involves a child in sexual processes beyond his or her understanding or contrary to accepted community standards. Because, by definition, CSA occurs at a critical period during which assumptions about self, others and the world are being formed, and has the potential to dramatically affect key physical and psychological processes.

Growth hormone (GH) stimulates growth and metabolism but also displays profound effects on the central nervous system (CNS). GH affects neurogenesis and neuroprotection, and has been shown to counteract drug-induced apoptosis in the brain. Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS), mainly abused for their anabolic and performance-enhancing properties, can cause several adverse effects, such as cardiovascular complications, sterility, depression, and aggression. GH and AAS are both believed to interact with several signaling systems in the CNS. The aim of this thesis was to further investigate the impact of GH and AAS on neurochemistry and cognitive functions. Recombinant human GH (rhGH) and the steroid nandrolone decanoate (ND) were administered, separately and in combination with each other, to male rats. The results demonstrated that administration of GH improved spatial memory, assessed in a water maze test. Furthermore, GH induced alterations of the GABAB receptor mRNA expression, density, and functionality in the brain, for example in regions associated with cognition. GH also altered the mu opioid peptide (MOP) receptor, but not the delta opioid peptide (DOP) receptor functionality in the brain. Thus, some of the GH effects on cognition may involve effects on the GABAB receptors and MOP receptors. ND, on the contrary, seemed to induce impairments of memory and also altered the GABAB receptor mRNA expression in the brain. Furthermore, ND lowered the IGF-1 plasma concentrations and attenuated the IGF-1, IGF-2, and GHR mRNA expression in the pituitary. In addition, significant effects of GH and ND were found on plasma steroid concentrations, organ weight, as well as body weight. In conclusion, this thesis contributes with further knowledge on the cognitive and neurochemical consequences of GH and ND use. The findings regarding ND are worrying considering the common use of AAS among adolescents. GH improves memory functions and affects signaling systems in the brain associated with cognition, hence the hypothesis that GH can reverse drug-induced impairments is further strengthened.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, San Diego and San Diego State University, 2007.
Title from first page of PDF file (viewed May 30, 2007). Available via ProQuest Digital Dissertations. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 116-127).

The present study was designed to empirically validate six theoretically derived cognitive domains (verbal memory, visual memory, working memory, attention-concentration, executive functions, and visuospatial abilities) assessed by a comprehensive battery of neuropsychological tests used in the Geriatric Memory Clinic at the University of North Texas Health Science Center in Fort Worth, Texas. The study examined the extent to which various cognitive dimensions are tapped by this battery in a heterogeneous geriatric sample of 114 patients with cognitive impairments. The proposed six-factor model of cognitive functioning has not been supported. Further exploratory factor analysis arrived at a five-factor solution. Factor pattern of the 23 tests supported the following five dimensions: memory, executive control, attention, visuospatial abilities, and cognitive flexibility.

Drug dependence is a serious and increasing problem in our society, especially among adolescents. The use of the large variety of substances available can result in a range of physiological and psychological adverse effects on individuals and negative consequences on the society overall. Several different types of drugs induce neurotoxicological damages, which in turn can generate impairment in for example the reward system and affect cognitive parameters.  The drug gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is usually considered a harmless compound among abusers, but has now shown to be highly addictive. Furthermore, GHB can cause memory impairments in both humans and animals. On the contrary, growth hormone (GH) and its main mediator insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) have recently been suggested to improve memory and learning in several studies. The hormones exhibit certain neuroprotective capabilities and have also previously been demonstrated to reverse opioid induced apoptosis in hippocampal cells. These effects and the fact that GHB is shown to increase GH secretion, which attracted considerable attention among body builders, led us to initiate studies on GHB and its impact on relevant systems in the central nervous system (CNS). Thus, the main purpose of the present investigation was to elucidate some of the underlying mechanisms that could account for the effects exerted by GH and GHB in the CNS. We found that a) GH affects the density and functionality of GABAB-receptors and opioid receptors in the male rat brain, b) GHB induces cognitive deficits and down-regulates GABAB-receptors, c) GHB treatment creates an imbalance between the endogenous opioids Met-enkaphalin-Arg6Phe7 (MEAP) and dynorphin B and increases the levels of MEAP in regions of the brain that are associated with drug dependence, and d) GHB affects the expression of IGF-1 receptors but not the plasma levels of IGF-1. In conclusion, the present work demonstrates that GH interacts with both opioid and GABAB-receptors in the male rat CNS and that GHB has an impact on brain regions associated with cognition and the development of dependence. These observations may be of relevance in many aspects related to addiction and might be translated into humans.

As mindfulness is often synonymous with equanimity, the intensity of competitive mixed martial arts serves as an ideal domain in exploring the underlying cognitive process of mindfulness in enhancing performance. Within the past two decades, interest has peaked in the positive outcomes that mindfulness produces in alleviating negative symptoms in health and clinical settings. Little research exists however in exploring the cognitive processes involved in producing the potential benefits of performance enhancement. The aim of the study was to gain a better understanding of the underlying cognitive processes involved in the workings of mindfulness; exploring whether increased levels of mindfulness would be positively correlated with increased martial arts ability. Using correlational analysis and standard multivariate regression, the participating fighters’ (n=46) levels of mindfulness were analysed in relation to their mixed martial artist’s ability. Results from correlational analysis showed that overall mindfulness was positively correlated with mixed martial arts ability, as a result confirming the study’s primary hypothesis. Results from standard multivariate regression further identified a fighter’s age as being a significant predictor for mixed martial arts ability.
Mini dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria 2016.
Psychology
MA
Unrestricted

The field of entrepreneurship is rapidly advancing and matures as a discipline that receives substantial amount of attention. One popular area of research in the discipline of entrepreneurship is to investigate one’s intent to start a business, which is entrepreneurial intention. This is an important construct that warrants ongoing research because entrepreneurial intention is not only a great predictor of entrepreneurial behavior but also an important step in the process of becoming an entrepreneur. The present study, based on a sample of 321 subjects along with 264 observers, makes five contributions to the entrepreneurship literature. First, I examined the psychometric property of entrepreneurial take-over intention and found that it is a construct different from entrepreneurial start-up intention. Second, the results demonstrated that risk propensity and proactive personality are positive predictors of entrepreneurial start-up and take-over intentions, whereas cognitive ability is a negative predictor of entrepreneurial start-up and take-over intentions. Rebelliousness is a positive predictor of entrepreneurial take-over intention and also has an inverted U-shaped relationship with entrepreneurial take-over intention. Third, entrepreneurial self-efficacy mediates the relationship between three individual traits (i.e., emotional intelligence, risk propensity, and proactive personality) and entrepreneurial start-up and take-over intentions. Need for cognition mediates the relationship between two individual traits (i.e., cognitive ability and proactive personality) and entrepreneurial start-up intention. Fourth, 2D:4D ratio (a proxy measure for prenatal testosterone exposure level) negatively predicts risk propensity. There also exist two two-step mediations from 2D:4D ratio to both entrepreneurial start-up and take-over intentions through risk propensity and entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Fifth, the results suggest that observer ratings of individual traits only contribute modest incremental validity above and beyond self-reported ratings of them in predicting entrepreneurial start-up and take-over intentions. I discuss implications, limitations, and future directions informed by the present study.

Affect and cognition have traditionally been considered mutually exclusive domains and their study has evolved into two separate research fields. In recent years, however, there is increasing evidence of affective modulations of cognitive processes and interest in the study of affective cognition has grown. This thesis presents analyses of data collected in four mixed-design experiments between 2009 and 2011, which were designed to investigate affective memory and its electrophysiological correlates, individual differences in said affective memory and electrophysiological correlates, the time-course of affective memory and attentional disengagement from affective stimuli respectively. The first aim of the research presented here was to further understanding of how affective content influences picture processing and memory. Event-related potentials (ERPs) provide a valuable tool for the investigation of modulations of cognitive processes, as their excellent temporal resolution allows for the dissociation between different processes contributing to behavioural outcomes. Several important results for the study of affective cognition are reported: The late positive potential (LPP) was shown to be modulated differentially by affective content when compared to a behavioural attentional disengagement task. While the behavioural measure of attention replicated findings from participants’ self-report of arousal, LPP enhancement did not. This novel finding demonstrates that the affective modulation of the LPP cannot be used as an electrophysiological marker of slowed attentional disengagement as is common in the literature. In the domain of recognition memory, affective modulation of performance was shown to be time-sensitive, with effects developing faster for negative than for positive picture content. Affective pictures were associated with a less conservative response bias than neutral pictures but only negative pictures elicited better discrimination performance, driven by an increased in the rate of “remembered” as compared to merely familiar pictures. This was reflected in an increase of the ERP old/new effect for negative pictures in the 500 to 800ms time window, the purported correlate of recollection. The late right-frontal old/new effect between 800 and 1500 ms post stimulus onset was shown to be attenuated by affective content, supporting the interpretation of the late right-frontal effect as a correlate of relevance detection over a retrieval success interpretation. In combination, the findings add weight to the conclusion that affective content enhances memory through selective memory sparing for affective stimuli. Novel evidence for gender differences in affective cognition was found. Comparisons between female and male participants revealed that the affective modulation of the late right-frontal effect differs between the genders, underlining the importance of assessing and understanding gender differences as part of the study of affective cognition. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene val66met single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), a small genetic change that affects the functioning of BDNF, a protein that plays an important role in neuron growth, differentiation and survival, is shown here to also affect the interaction of affect and cognition. BDNF val66met genotype modulated the early “familiarity” old/new effect selectively in response to positive pictures. The present study clearly demonstrates the value of the ERP technique in the investigation of individual differences in affective and cognitive processing and the need to take such individual differences into account as part of the endeavour to fully understand the mechanisms of affective processing, cognition and affective cognition. A better understanding of the role of gender and genetic differences in the affective modulation of affective processing and memory will have important practical implications in fields where affect and cognition interact.

A considerable percentage of the UK population are overweight (BMI≥25kg/m2) or obese (BMI≥30kg/m2). However, despite living in the same culture and exposed to a similar “obesogenic” environment, some individuals gain weight while others do not (French et al., 1995). This variability in weight control has been suggested to be associated with individual differences in eating behaviours (French et al., 2012). Certain factors, such as motivation (hedonic hunger and hunger status) as well as cognition (impulsivity and memory) may have an impact on eating behaviours and their relationship with weight control. Thus, the objective of this thesis was to explore individual differences in eating behaviours and investigate their relationship with motivation, cognition and weight control. The first experiment (Chapter 2) investigated the relationship between eating behaviours, motivation (hedonic hunger) and food consumption during an ad-libitum buffet. This study suggests that restrained eating behaviour was associated with higher overall energy intake, greater energy intake from unhealthy foods and greater energy intake from both high and low energy dense foods. However, no interactions between restraint and disinhibition or hedonic hunger was seen. Following this, the second experiment (Chapter 3) examined whether eating behaviours, such as disinhibition, restraint and hunger, change during a weight loss and weight maintenance period and whether they could predict changes in weight during these periods. Indeed, the results suggest that lower baseline restraint could predict greater weight loss during a low-energy liquid diet and interventions which increase restraint and decrease disinhibition may be beneficial for longer term weight maintenance. The third experiment (Chapter 4) was designed to investigate whether motivation and cognition influences eating behaviours. The results suggest that hedonic hunger, restraint and impulsivity may lead to higher levels of disinhibited eating behaviour. This study was also able to replicate the findings of previous literature suggesting that episodic memory is negatively associated with BMI (Cheke et al., 2016). Finally, following on from the previous study results, the fourth experiment (Chapter 5) included a more diverse sample of participants including dieters. The results provide evidence that individuals on a diet have poorer episodic memory ability than those currently not on a diet. This study also extended previous results suggesting that hedonic hunger (but also episodic memory and hunger) are important factors in disinhibited eating. Hedonic hunger was also shown to be important in levels of hunger.

Despite the overwhelming evidence for atrophy of the NGF-dependant Basal Forebrain Cholinergic neurons during aging, there is no persuasive evidence towards a decrease in NGF and/or NGF mRNA content in the brain of aged animals. Previous experiments from our laboratory have shown that NGF is released as a precursor protein and cleaved into the mature form in the extracellular space under the influence of a complex protease cascade. These recent findings have lead us to propose that any alterations in levels and/or activity of this maturation/degradation cascade might affect NGF's biological activity and perhaps lead to cognitive impairments in a subset of aged rats. To investigate this possibility, we measured protein and mRNA levels of the protease cascade players (NGF, pro-NGF, tPA, plasminogen, plasmin, MMP-9, neuroserpin). We found significantly decreased levels of both pro-NGF protein and NGF mRNA, but no difference in the remaining elements of the protease cascade, when comparing aged impaired (Al) to the aged unimpaired (AU) animals. Our second objective was to investigate whether animals trained in the Morris Water Maze would preserve their cognitive status in two additional behavioral paradigms, the Novel Object Location (NOL, spatial memory) and Novel Object Recognition (NOR, nonspatial memory) tasks. We found that both AU and AI animals in the MWM were impaired in the NOL when compared to the young controls, with the AI animals performing significantly worse than the AU in this particular task. In the NOR tasks, AI animals performed significantly worse compared to both young and AU animals. In conclusion, further experiments are required to better understand the implication of the complex protease cascade involved in NGF's maturation and degradation as well as its effect on memory of aged animals. In addition, because the segregation of animals (aged impaired/unimpaired) is a crucial step in aging research, we now have additional behavioral paradigms (NOL/NOR) that confirm the cognitive status of these animals.

Kinesiology
Ph.D.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD), an age-related neurodegenerative disorder, progresses across a continuum of severity that leads to serious neurological dysfunction and eventually death. Initially manifesting as mild impairment in cognition and executive function, AD eventually leads to serious disturbances in memory, decision-making, language, mobility and sensing the environment. AD affects approximately 27 million people worldwide, over 5 million in the United States alone, and is one of the most debilitating diseases that costs society billions of dollars annually and is a primary cause of death in the elderly. Pharmacological treatments produce only moderate symptomatic benefits and do not attenuate or prevent the progression of AD with some medications associated with increased symptomatic behavior such as decreased motor function and increased likelihood of falls. Conversely, research utilizing animal models indicates exercise may play an important role to attenuate AD symptoms and delaying AD onset as regular aerobic activity increases the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, a peptide that plays a major role in neural function, neural plasticity, and attenuation of neuritic plaque; a ß-amyloid derived plaque that is recognized as the primary cause of neural degradation associated with AD. To examine this exercise hypothesis, participants (N = 19; mean age 85.5 ±5.2 years) completed a single treatment, regular walking activity over time (30-min per day, 3 days per week for 12 weeks), with pre-test post-test evaluations undertaken utilizing valid research instruments designed to measure cognition, executive function, and motor capabilities in persons with AD. T-test with repeated measures ANOVA with various categorical variables as between-group factors were used to test the hypothesis. Analysis of change indicated significant change occurred in Cognitive function [t(18) = 5.74, p < .001], Balance [t(18) = 7.43, p < .001], and Mobility [t(18) = 3.82, p < .001], with no significant change in Activities of Daily Living (t[18] = 1.48, p < .156). A significant decrease in the number of falls was also found (z = 2.392, p < .017). No main effect was associated with AD stage, gender, or education level. The results of this study indicate regular aerobic activity enhances neural function in persons with AD, thus supporting the exercise hypothesis which posits regular aerobic exercise attenuates AD symptoms and delays AD onset. While the results provide important evidence regarding the impact of aerobic exercise on neural function in the AD populations, further research is necessary to identify the mechanisms by which brain-derived neurotrophic factor is induced with exercise and to examine the effectiveness of different exercise modalities (e.g., specificity, duration, and intensity) on neural function in the AD population.
Temple University--Theses

A relatively new phenomenon in learning research called highlighting occurs when participants show a seemingly irrational preference to attribute a stronger cue-outcome association to a later presented perfect predictor when it is paired with an imperfect predictor than that of an earlier presented perfect predictor paired with the same imperfect predictor (Kruschke, 1996). Current research suggests that the highlighting effect depends on the ability to learn to shift attention away from an irrelevant cue toward a more relevant cue in order to reduce errors in causal judgment and preserve an earlier formed association (Kruschke, 2003). Much research has suggested that older adults have difficulty disengaging attention from irrelevant information, which could be problematic in the highlighting procedure (Cohn, Dustman, & Bradford, 1984; Tipper, 1991; Mutter, Naylor, & Patterson, 2005). However, the results of the current experiment suggest that older adults can learn attentional shifts in order to guide associative learning and reduce errors in causal judgments. These data prove to be a problem for many models of associative learning (e.g., Mackintosh, 1975; Rescorla & Wagner, 1972; Van Hamme & Wasserman, 1994), but support a model proposed by Kruschke (2006).

Factor H is a newly identified phenomenon which describes a constellation of attributes of the new graduate nurse reflecting personality traits, intellectual abilities, and clinical judgment. In a previous pilot study conducted by this researcher nurse managers and experienced Registered Nurse (RN) preceptors described characteristics demonstrated by new graduate nurses demonstrating Factor H and the new graduate nurse's ability to transition quickly and successfully into the RN role in the acute care environment. There is currently no instrument available to measure this phenomenon. The specific aim of this research was to develop and psychometrically test a scale designed to identify the presence of attributes of Factor H in the new graduate nurse. The Sims Factor H Assessment Scale (SFHAS) was developed and piloted with a sample of one hundred one new graduate nurses within three months of completing the their nursing program at one of three nursing schools in central and south central Indiana. Evidence of content validity was demonstrated through the use of the Content Validity Index conducted with a panel of four experts. Evidence of face validity was demonstrated through interviews with a group of new graduate nurses, nurse managers, and experienced RN preceptors. Principle Axis Factoring with Varimax rotation was used to demonstrate evidence of construct validity and the scale was found to have a single component which was identified as nursing personality. Evidence of criterion-related validity was demonstrated utilizing analysis of the SFHAS and the criterion scale for personality traits (NEO-FFI). Evidence of internal consistency reliability was demonstrated through analysis of inter-item correlations, Cronbach's coefficient correlations, and item-total correlations. Test re-test reliability using interclass correlation was also conducted to demonstrate stability of the scale. The SFHAS was found to be reflective of nursing personality and not general mental ability or clinical judgment. Use of the SFHAS will allow organizations to evaluate the nursing personality of the new graduate nurse for fit into the work environment. Further study is recommended to gain clarity around the attributes which support successful transition of the new graduate nurse into practice in the acute care environment, also known as Factor H.

El dolor és el resultat de la interacció de factors físico-biològics, psicològics i socials segons el model biopsicosocial. Aquesta tesi doctoral es centra en els aspectes psicològics específicament en els factors cognitius (el catastrofisme davant el dolor, les creences respecte al dolor i la fusió cognitiva). Per a mesurar la dimensió cognitiva en els joves de forma adequada és necessari disposar d’eines apropiades i validades. Inclou 4 estudis, 3 avaluen les propietats psicomètriques de qüestionaris autoinformats en escolars catalans (estudi I: l’escala de catastrofisme al dolor per a nens; estudi II: la versió revisada del qüestionari pediàtric d’actituds davant el dolor; estudi III: el qüestionari de fusió cognitiva) i un l’altre (estudi IV) explora les associacions entre la fusió cognitiva i algunes variables associades al dolor. L’estudi I i III usaren un procediment de retrotraducció per desenvolupar les versions catalanes d’aquests qüestionaris. L’estudi II ha desenvolupat una versió modificada del qüestionari pediàtric d’actituds davant el dolor. Les conclusions més importants d’aquesta tesi són: 1. L’escala de catastrofisme al dolor per a nens ha mostrat puntuacions fiables i vàlides en escolars catalans. L’estructura factorial original de 3 factors ha estat replicada. 2. La versió pediàtrica revisada del qüestionari d’actituds davant el dolor ha presentat unes puntuacions amb una fiabilitat adequada per a totes les escales exceptuant l’escala de Cura Mèdica i una bona validesa de criteri excloent les escales de cura mèdica, medicació i emoció. L’estructura original de 7 factors ha estat confirmada. 3. El qüestionari de fusió cognitiva ha presentat puntuacions vàlides i fiables quan s’ha utilitzat en adolescents catalans. 4. La fusió cognitiva s’ha observat associada amb la intensitat del dolor , la discapacitat i el catastrofisme. També s’ha vist que actuava de mediador entre el catastrofisme al dolor i la discapacitat.
El dolor es el resultado de la interacción de factores físico-biológicos, psicológicos y sociales según el modelo biopsicosocial. Esta tesis doctoral se centra en los aspectos psicológicos específicamente en los factores cognitivos (el catastrofismo ante el dolor, las creencias respecto al dolor y la fusión cognitiva). Para medir la dimensión cognitiva en los jóvenes de forma adecuada es necesario disponer de herramientas apropiadas y validadas. Incluye 4 estudios, 3 evalúan les propiedades psicométricas de cuestionarios autoinformados en escolares catalanes (estudio I: la escala de catastrofismo ante el dolor para niños; estudio II: la versión revisada del cuestionario pediátrico de actitudes ante el dolor; estudio III: el cuestionario de fusión cognitiva) y el otro (estudio IV) explora las asociaciones entre la fusión cognitiva y algunas variables asociadas al dolor. Los estudios I y III usaron un procedimiento de retrotraducción para crear las versiones catalanas de estos cuestionarios. El estudio II ha desarrollado una versión modificada del cuestionario pediátrico de actitudes ante el dolor. Les conclusiones más importantes de esta tesis son: 1. La escala de catastrofismo al dolor para niños ha mostrado puntuaciones fiables y válidas en escolares catalanes. La estructura factorial original de 3 factores ha sido replicada. 2. La versión pediátrica revisada del cuestionario de actitudes ante el dolor ha presentado puntuaciones con fiabilidad adecuada para totas las escalas (exceptuando la escala de Cuidados Médicos) y buena validez de criterio excluyendo las escalas de Cuidados Médicos, Medicación y Emoción. La estructura original de 7 factores ha sido confirmada. 3. El cuestionario de fusión cognitiva ha presentado puntuaciones válidas y fiables cuando se ha utilizado en adolescentes catalanes. 4. La fusión cognitiva se ha demostrado asociada con la intensidad del dolor, la discapacidad y el catastrofismo. También se ha observado que actuaba de mediador entre el catastrofismo y la discapacidad.
According to the biopsychosocial model of pain, pain is the result of the interaction between biological/physical, psychological and social factors. In this Dissertation we focus on the psychological domain and specifically on the cognitive factors of pain catastrophizing, pain beliefs and cognitive fusion. Suitable, validated tools for assessing these cognitive constructs are needed in order to properly evaluate the cognitive dimension of pain in young people. This Dissertation includes 4 studies, three of which examine the psychometric properties of self-report questionnaires (Study I: the Pain Catastrophizing Scale for Children, PCS-C; Study II: the revised version of the Pediatric Survey of Pain Attitudes, Peds-SOPA; Study III: the Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire, CFQ). Study IV explores the associations between cognitive fusion and certain pain-related variables. Study I and Study III used a back translation procedure to create the Catalan versions of these scales. Study II created a new version of the Pediatric Survey of Pain Attitudes. The most important conclusions of this Dissertation are: 1. The PCS-C, one of the most common questionnaires for evaluating catastrophizing in children and adolescents, showed reliable and valid scores when used with Catalan schoolchildren. The original three-factor structure with 13 items was confirmed. 2. The Peds-SOPA is one of the main scales for evaluating the pain beliefs of children and adolescents. The scores from our revised version demonstrated adequate reliability for all scales (except for Medical Cure) and good criteria validity for most scales (except for Medical Cure, Medication and Emotion). The original Peds-SOPA seven-factor structure has been confirmed. 3. The CFQ, a brief measure of cognitive fusion, has shown valid and reliable scores when used with Catalan adolescents.

Le Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) est impliqué dans les processus cognitifs impliquant l'hippocampe et les structures corticales. Cette étude avait pour but d’analyser les effets postopératoires sur l’expression du BDNF dans ces structures cérébrales.Ainsi, les effets d’une anesthésie de courte durée au propofol, d’une chirurgie mineure et du lipopolysaccharide (LPS) sur l'altération de l’expression du BDNF ont été analysée dans l'hippocampe et le cortex de deux modèles de rongeurs nocturnes et diurnes, correspondant respectivement des jeunes rats Sprague Dawley mâles et des Arvicanthis ansorgei.Dans un premier temps, la rythmicité nycthémérale de l’expression du BDNF a été analysée.Les quantités de BDNF présentes dans le cortex et l'hippocampe ont été déterminées par une technique ELISA. Il s’est avéré que, dans l'hippocampe et le cortex de rat et d’A. ansorgei, le BDNF suit une rythmicité sur 24 heures. La quantité de BDNF atteint un maximum à ZT5(i.e., 5 heures après le début de l’exposition à la lumière). Dans un deuxième temps, les effets sur l’expression du BDNF ont été analysés après administration de propofol et/ou LPS, ainsi que lors d’une chirurgie légère. Parallèlement,l’impact de ces traitements sur la mémoire a été testé à l’aide d’un test d'évitement passif.Nos résultats indiquent que la quantité de BDNF est régulée positivement dans l'hippocampe et le cortex de rats lorsque les animaux ont subit une anesthésie de courte durée au propofol en présence ou absence de LPS. A l’opposé, une chirurgie mineure (sous anesthésie propofol)n’a aucun effet sur les quantités de BDNF.En conclusion, ces études mettent en évidence des effets majeurs d’une anesthésie sur l’expression du BDNF, ainsi que les effets protecteurs du propofol sur la neuroinflammation induite par le LPS
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is involved in cognition and hippocampus and cortical structures are important in cognition. The present study was designed to analyse the post-operative effects on BDNF. For this purpose, we examined the effects of short duration propofol anaesthesia, LPS and minor surgery on the BDNF protein alteration in the hippocampus and cortex.Young male Sprague Dawley rats were used in all experiments except Arvicanthis ansorgei which were used to study the circadian rhythmicity of BDNF protein as model for diurnal rodents. The quantity of BDNF protein present in the cortex and hippocampal supernatants was determined with an ELISA technique. Memory was tested by fear conditioning using the classic fear conditioning preparation (passive avoidance apparatus).The major finding on BDNF protein in control conditions is that the BDNF protein followed a circadian rhythmicity during the 24 hours of day in the rat’s hippocampus and cortex. The concentration of BDNF protein has been observed to reach a maximum at ZT5 (5 hours afterthe light on period) whether the animals were nocturnal or diurnal. In addition, we found that BDNF protein amount is up regulated in the hippocampus and cortex of rats when they were submitted to short duration propofol anaesthesia, as well as LPS and no effect when minor surgery under propofol anaesthesia was performed.In conclusion, these studies illustrate the dramatic effects of post-operative conditions and neuroinflammation induced by LPS on cognition and the potential mechanism involved. This study also suggests the protective effects of the short duration propofol anaesthesia against neuroinflammation induced by LPS

The purpose of the present study was to examine cognitive abilities and problem solving processes of young and older adults. Specifically, three areas of inquiry were investigated: possible age-related differences in problem solving cognitive abilities, possible differences in cognitive processes used during problem solution, and possible differences in determinants of problem solving cognitive processes.

One of the biggest challenges for the modern society is that of climate change. Despite the growing accumulation of scientific evidence that points towards a strong need for action to be made regarding anthropogenic (human made) climate change, there is a lack of unity in what actions are needed and an outspread passivity amongst both establishments and the public. The reason behind this is attributed to lack of belief in anthropogenic climate change, and lack of pro-environmental attitudes amongst the public. Furthermore, these issues have been found to relate to identity related beliefs and attitudes that conflict with pro-environmental beliefs and attitudes, where political orientation has proven to be a strong factor. One way of dealing with these issues could be through informational influences. By presenting people to information shaped in different ways, one could increase the belief in anthropogenic climate change and pro-environmental attitudes. This study examined the relationship between three different informational influences, and its potential effect on climate change beliefs and attitudes. Furthermore, this study examined the relationship between demographic factors such as age, gender and political orientation with regards to their potential effect on climate change beliefs and attitudes. 449 participants completed a survey with intent to measure the potential effects informational influences and demographic factors had on climate change beliefs and attitudes. Despite that indications where found, no significant results could be identified for the informational influences. All demographic factors had some significant effect on climate change beliefs or attitudes, where political orientation was the strongest influencing factor. This relates to earlier research and further implications were discussed for future studies.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorder (BD) are psychiatric diseases that affect behavior and impair cognition. A gene important to these disorders is the brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) which is involved in processes controlling neuroplasticity. Previous studies have suggested that BDNF expression levels have to be finely regulated for normal mental health and cognition. This study therefore aimed to identify cis-regulatory elements that regulate BDNF promoter IV (BP4), which plays a role in mood and cognition, and investigated how polymorphisms in these cis-regulatory elements might alter BP4 activity contributing to MDD and BD. BP4-LacZ transgenic mice and primary neuron cultures were used to show that BP4 was active in the hippocampus, cortex and amygdala and responded to PKC, KCl and Wnt signaling activation. Using comparative genomics, two highly conserved regions were identified, BE5.1 and BE5.2, which contain the rs10767664 and rs12273363 polymorphisms respectively. Reporter gene assays in primary cultures derived from these brain structures showed that BE5.1 and BE5.2 were responsible for “filtering” or “gating” the effects of different combination of activated signal transduction pathways on BP4. Thus, BE5.1 increased BP4 response to forskolin in cortical cultures while abolishing BP4 response to PMA in hippocampal cultures. Similarly, BE5.2 permitted BP4 response to KCl and combined forskolin and PMA treatment, but not individual forskolin and PMA treatment nor LiCl in cortical cultures. Significantly, the minor allele of rs12273363, which has been associated with MDD and BD susceptibility, acted as a more potent repressor of BP4 response to neuron depolarization by KCl and PKA/PKC activation in different primary cultures. The possible relevance of these findings to the role of altered BDNF expression in MDD and BD are discussed.

En este estudio se contrasta un modelo para el estudio de la intención emprendedora entre académicos y académicas, particularmente, se pretende investigar la configuración de la intención emprendedora y sus antecedentes cognitivos más próximos, así como analizar el papel del género en la formación de tales intenciones. La muestra de estudio ha sido 500 de académicos responsables de proyectos de investigación en universidades españolas. Los resultados obtenidos señalan que el modelo de estudio explica un buen grado de variabilidad en la intención emprendedora. Además, la existencia de una actitud favorable hacia el emprendimiento es un componente esencial para que estos desarrollen en algún punto una intención para comprometerse en actividades emprendedoras. Por otra parte, dadas las diferencias encontradas en la configuración de la intención emprendedora entre académicos y académicas sugieren que las mujeres enfrentan un panorama que difiere al de los hombres.
This study tests a model for the study of entrepreneurial intention among academics, in particular, the aim of the study is to investigate entrepreneurial intention and its closest cognitive antecedents, also to analyze the role of gender in the formation of such intentions. The sample was formed by 500 academics in Spanish universities in who had been research projects leaders. Results show that the study model explains a high degree of variability in entrepreneurial intention. Moreover, the existence of a favorable attitude toward entrepreneurship was found to be an essential component for an academic to develop at some point an intention to engage in entrepreneurial activities. Moreover, given the differences in the configuration of entrepreneurial intention among scholars and academics, results suggest that women face a scenario that differs from men.

In the last decade, neurobiological studies have focused efforts on investigating the biological substrates (i.e., cerebral structures, neurotransmitters, and hormones) underlying parental attuned behavior to salient infant stimuli (i.e., infant cries), that plays an important role in child affective, social, and cognitive development (Venuti, 2007; Bornstein, 2002). Both human and animal studies have primarily focused on the neurobiology of mothers and have shown that subcortical and cortical cerebral structures such as the prefrontal cortex, thalamocingulate network, hypothalamus, amygdala, and substantia nigra are important in maternal motivation and attuned behaviors (Barrett & Fleming, 2010; Swain, Lorberbaum, Kose, & Strathearn,2007). However, there is a lack of literature concerning gender differences and only a few studies have investigated the sensitivity of response to infant stimuli in non-parent adults (Caria, de Falco, Venuti, Lee, Esposito, Rigo, Birbaumer & Bornstein, 2012; Glocker, Langleben, Ruparel, Loughead, Gur & Sachser, 2009; Parsons, Young, Kumari, Stein & Kringelbach, 2011; Montoya, Landi, Kober, Worhunsky, Rutherford, Mencl, Mayes & Potenza, 2012). In this research project we focused our investigations on mechanisms in human adults (parents and non-parents) involved in parental care, and in specific: (a) on neural mechanisms underlie BOLD response to infant vocalizations, crying in particular; (b) on brain changes (grey matter volume) occurring during the early postpartum period in new fathers. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), in the first study (second chapter) we looked at gender differences in resting-state brain activation associated with the cry condition at the default mode network (DMN) level in a sample of healthy adults (parents and nonparents). The design was balanced by parental status and gender. The DMN is preferentially activated when individuals are not involved in externally oriented tasks, namely during the mind wandering and it is deactivated during external goal-oriented activities. In the second longitudinal study (third chapter) we investigated in new fathers the GM volumes change amongst 2-4 weeks and 3-4 months postpartum in brain areas responsible for parental behaviors over time during the early postpartum period. Anatomical changes and their relationships with parenting behaviors have never been examined in human fathers despite the importance of paternal care for child development. In the third study (fourth chapter) we investigated, using fMRI and behavioral (Response Time RT) techniques, how the pattern of cerebral activation when listening to infant cry modulates concomitant behavioral tasks, which could require or not require the attention toward the cry stimuli, and thus affecting parental responsiveness.

In the last decade, neurobiological studies have focused efforts on investigating the biological substrates (i.e., cerebral structures, neurotransmitters, and hormones) underlying parental attuned behavior to salient infant stimuli (i.e., infant cries), that plays an important role in child affective, social, and cognitive development (Venuti, 2007; Bornstein, 2002). Both human and animal studies have primarily focused on the neurobiology of mothers and have shown that subcortical and cortical cerebral structures such as the prefrontal cortex, thalamocingulate network, hypothalamus, amygdala, and substantia nigra are important in maternal motivation and attuned behaviors (Barrett & Fleming, 2010; Swain, Lorberbaum, Kose, & Strathearn,2007). However, there is a lack of literature concerning gender differences and only a few studies have investigated the sensitivity of response to infant stimuli in non-parent adults (Caria, de Falco, Venuti, Lee, Esposito, Rigo, Birbaumer & Bornstein, 2012; Glocker, Langleben, Ruparel, Loughead, Gur & Sachser, 2009; Parsons, Young, Kumari, Stein & Kringelbach, 2011; Montoya, Landi, Kober, Worhunsky, Rutherford, Mencl, Mayes & Potenza, 2012). In this research project we focused our investigations on mechanisms in human adults (parents and non-parents) involved in parental care, and in specific: (a) on neural mechanisms underlie BOLD response to infant vocalizations, crying in particular; (b) on brain changes (grey matter volume) occurring during the early postpartum period in new fathers. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), in the first study (second chapter) we looked at gender differences in resting-state brain activation associated with the cry condition at the default mode network (DMN) level in a sample of healthy adults (parents and nonparents). The design was balanced by parental status and gender. The DMN is preferentially activated when individuals are not involved in externally oriented tasks, namely during the mind wandering and it is deactivated during external goal-oriented activities. In the second longitudinal study (third chapter) we investigated in new fathers the GM volumes change amongst 2-4 weeks and 3-4 months postpartum in brain areas responsible for parental behaviors over time during the early postpartum period. Anatomical changes and their relationships with parenting behaviors have never been examined in human fathers despite the importance of paternal care for child development. In the third study (fourth chapter) we investigated, using fMRI and behavioral (Response Time RT) techniques, how the pattern of cerebral activation when listening to infant cry modulates concomitant behavioral tasks, which could require or not require the attention toward the cry stimuli, and thus affecting parental responsiveness.

O Transtorno Bipolar (TB) tipo I é uma doença caracterizada por episódios de mania e depressão recorrentes com importante prejuízo do funcionamento global e comprometimento das funções cognitivas. Além disso, sabe-se que o número de episódios de humor patológico ao longo da vida pode também influenciar o funcionamento cognitivo destes sujeitos. Neste cenário, ocorreu a necessidade de se investigar marcadores genéticos para disfunção cognitiva no TB com o objetivo de estudar este fenômeno. Dentre os potenciais genes responsáveis por influenciar a cognição destacam-se os polimorfismos funcionais do fator neurotrófico derivado do cérebro (BDNF), da catecol-O-metiltransferase (COMT), da apolipoproteína-E (APOE) e do canal de cálcio de baixa voltagem subunidade 1-C (CACNA1C). Sabe-se, também, que no TB os marcadores de estresse oxidativo estão aumentados durante todas as fases da doença, entretanto, não é claro qual impacto destes na disfunção cognitiva de indivíduos com TB. O objetivo dessa tese foi avaliar o desempenho cognitivo de pacientes jovens com bipolaridade tipo I e sua associação com o genótipo de BDNF, COMT, APOE e CACNA1C e também com os níveis plasmáticos de oxidação da guanosina (8-OHdG) e citosina (5-Mec) durante os episódios de humor, eutimia e em controles. Para investigar essa associação foram incluídos 116 pacientes (79 em episódio de humor patológico e 37 eutímicos) com diagnóstico de TB tipo I (DSMIV-TR); 97 controles saudáveis foram submetidos à avaliação neuropsicológica e coleta de sangue para extração de DNA visando genotipagem para BDNF (rs6265), COMT (rs4680; rs165599), APOE (rs429358 e rs7412), CACNA1C (rs1006737), 8-OhdG e 5-Mec. A análise dos dados obtidos revelou que pacientes portadores do genótipo Met/Met rs4680/rs165599 do COMT apresentam comprometimento cognitivo mais grave (função executiva, fluência verbal, memória e inteligência) comparado ao genótipo Val/Met ou Val/Val durante episódios maníacos ou mistos. Na mesma direção destes resultados, verificou-se que pacientes portadores do alelo Met rs4680 do COMT apresentam comprometimento do reconhecimento de emoções faciais em episódios de mania e depressão. Nenhum efeito do COMT foi observado em controles. O alelo de risco Met do CACNA1C se associou a um pior comprometimento executivo independente dos sintomas maníacos ou depressivos no TB, porém nenhum efeito se observou nos controles. O alelo Met do BDNF rs6265 ou a presença do alelo 4 da APOE não representa um fator que identifique um grupo com desempenho cognitivo diferenciado durante as fases do TB ou em controles. Sujeitos com TB apresentaram níveis mais elevados de 8-OHdG e tais níveis eram diretamente proporcionais ao número de episódios maníacos ao longo da vida, sugerindo um papel dos episódios hiperdopaminérgicos na oxidação das bases de DNA. Concluiu-se que a genotipagem para COMT e CACNA1C em pacientes com TB pode identificar um grupo de pacientes associados a pior disfunção cognitiva durante as fases maníacas e mistas do TB. Tal dado pode ser um indicador do envolvimento do sistema dopaminérgico e dos canais de cálcio de baixa voltagem na fisiopatologia da disfunção cognitiva no TB e deve ser explorado em outros estudos
Bipolar I disorder (BD) is a disease whose main features include severe mood swings that cause severe impairment in global functioning and cognitive domains. Moreover, the number of mood episodes throughout patients life is also associated with deterioration in cognitive functions. In this context, it is important to study genetic markers for the cognitive dysfunction observed in BD to elucidate the physiopathology of this phenomenon. The main candidates for genetic modulation of cognition are the genes brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), catechol-o-methyltransferase (COMT), apolipoprotein E (APOE) and 1-C subunit of the L-type voltage-gated calcium channel (CACNA1C). Furthermore, elevated levels of oxidative stress have been reported in BD for all types of mood episodes but no data is available on their impact on cognitive functioning of BD patients. The aim of this thesis was to investigate whether cognitive functioning of BD patients is influenced by BDNF, COMT, APOE, CACNA1C genotypes or by levels of oxidative damage to the DNA base guanosine (8-OHdG) and cytosine (5-Mec). One hundred sixteen patients (79 during mood episode and 37 euthymic) with BD type I (mania, depression or euthymia) and 97 healthy controls were submitted to neuropsychological evaluation and blood collection for DNA analysis. All subjects were genotyped for BDNF (rs6265), COMT (rs4680; rs165599), APOE (rs429358 and rs7412), CACNA1C (rs1006737), DNA levels of 8-OHdG and 5-Mec were also measured. Our results revealed that BD subjects that carried the rs4680/rs165599 Met/Met genotype had more severe cognitive dysfunction (executive function, verbal fluency, memory and intelligence) than carriers of other genotypes during manic or mixed episodes. Moreover, patients carrying the COMT rs4680 Met allele had worse performance on facial emotion recognition tests during manic and depressive episodes. BD carriers of the Met allele of CACNA1C had more severe executive dysfunction than non-carriers, regardless of manic or depressive symptoms. No effect of CACNA1C or COMT genotypes was observed in controls. The genotypes of BDNF or APOE were not associated with cognitive dysfunction in BD patients or controls. The BD group exhibited higher levels of 8-OHdG than the control group and these levels were influenced by the lifetime number of manic episodes, suggesting that hyperdopaminergic episodes may influence the oxidation of DNA bases. In summary, the genotype of COMT and CACNA1C may represent a useful tool for identifying BD subjects at risk of developing more severe cognitive dysfunction in all mood states of the disease. This evidence associating dopamine catabolism and calcium channels to degree of cognitive dysfunction in BD should be further explored by future research

Metaphors have long been a subject of interest to philosophers, scholars and researchers. Recent insights into the nature and function of metaphor have spurred new interest in the persuasive effects of metaphor. To date, research on the relation between metaphors and attitudes has produced mixed findings. This paper argues that there are several limitations in previous models and designs and this work attempted to resolve several of them. The rationale for the study is based on the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of persuasion, which argues that cognitive elaboration is a strong predictor of attitudes. Researchers have posited that metaphors should evoke more cognitive elaboration than literal counterparts. This paper reports the results of a study that tested the relationship between metaphors, cognitive elaboration, and attitudes. Participants were exposed to one of 72 message conditions and responded to a set of psychological and attitude scales. Many of the hypotheses were not supported, including tests of the amount of cognitive effort that subjects reported and results related to attitude change by metaphor type. Results indicated that attitudes were stable across time, which is consistent with the ELM.

Les travaux de cette thèse visent à étudier le role du système corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) dans les dysfonctions cognitives, les altérations du comportement social et la vulnérabilité au stress associées à l’addiction aux drogues. Les effets de la délétion génétique du récepteur CRF1 ou CRF2 sont examinés dans les tests de reconnaissance d’objet et de préférence sociale après une exposition chronique et pendant le sevrage à la cocaine. Le rôle du récepteur CRF2 dans la vulnérabilité au stress qui pourrait précipiter l’apparition de déficits cognitifs et sociaux pendant le sevrage prolongé à la cocaine est également étudié
Stimulant-related disorders are characterized by emotional-like, cognitive and social dysfunction that may contribute to the maintenance of the disease. In addition, stimulant use and withdrawal may alter brain stress systems. The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) system is a major stress coordinator hypothesized to contribute to substance-related disorders. CRF signalling is mediated by two receptor types, named CRF1 and CRF2. The specific role of each of the CRF receptors in negative affective-like, cognitive and social dysfunction associated with stimulant administration and withdrawal remains largely unknown. The present study demonstrates that the CRF1 receptor-deficiency increases the anxiety-like behaviour induced by intermittent administration of escalating doses of cocaine (5-20 mg/kg, i.p.), as assessed by the elevated plus maze. In addition, the same cocaine regimen induces novel object recognition (NOR) and sociability deficits, which are unaffected by CRF2 receptor-deficiency. However, CRF2 receptor-deficiency effectively shortens the duration of the NOR and sociability deficit induced by cocaine withdrawal. Furthermore, following the apparent recovery of NOR and sociability performances during relative long-term (42 days) cocaine withdrawal, CRF2 receptor-deficiency eliminates the stress-induced re-emergence of NOR and sociability deficit. Stressed cocaine-withdrawn mice show a genotype-independent higher c-fos mRNA expression in the perirhinal cortex, a brain region mediating NOR performance, than stressed drug-naïve mice. However, neither genotype nor drug withdrawal affects the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase in the ventral tegmentale area and the locus coeruleus, CRF in the amygdala and the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and dynorphin in the nucleus accumbens shell. The latter results suggest that stress vulnerability during long-term cocaine withdrawal is not due to alterations in stress-coping mechanisms. The present study provides initial evidence of a critical role for the CRF system in cognitive and sociability deficits and vulnerability induced by stimulant administration and withdrawal, suggesting new therapeutic strategies for substance-related disorders

The six experiments reported in this thesis tested Endsley's (1995) three level theory of perception, comprehension and projection in SA alongside relevant cognitive theories, using a driving hazard perception test (HPT) of both hazard recognition and hazard anticipation as the main dependent measures. Experiments 1 and 2 tested the effects of training and expertise on the HPT, revealing a positive association between hazard anticipation and both SA training and expertise. Experiment 2 revealed a potentially complex relationship between expertise and recognition and anticipation. The effects of training Endsley's (1995) perception and comprehension levels of SA did not appear to be additive as predicted by that theory. Experiments 3 and 4 tested the effects of concurrent freeze probes and real time SA probes on the HPT. This revealed a negative effect of interruption and a positive effect of reorientation (revealing the rationale of the task) associated with the use of a freeze probe, in terms of hazard anticipation. Furthermore, these two effects appear to be mutually cancelling. It was also found that notification of forthcoming online probes does not ameliorate the negative effects of those interruptions in terms of hazard anticipation. Experiments 5 and 6 tested the effects of working memory interference in terms of visual-spatial, phonological and episodic buffer processing on the two HPT measures. This revealed more deleterious effects on hazard recognition associated with visual-spatial and episodic buffer interference than with phonological interference. It is argued that in terms of SA related visual processing during driving Milner and Goodale's (1992) dual pathway theory appears to have more explanatory power than Endsley's (1995) theory of SA.

The term Emotional Enhancement of Memory (EEM) describes the better memory of emotional compared to neutral events. When the EEM effect is measured after a delay the modulation model explains this effect very well, citing preferential consolidation of emotional events as the cause. However, the EEM effect can be observed before consolidation, an inexplicable result for the modulation model. Mediation theory offers an alternative explanation of the EEM effect: cognitive factors at encoding contribute to the immediate EEM (iEEM); namely attention, semantic relatedness, and distinctiveness processing (DP). The current research sought to further elucidate the neural underpinnings of DP – said to occur in ‘mixed’ lists of emotional and neutral stimuli – as a significant contributor to the iEEM. This was measured by comparing immediate free recall memory of emotional and neutral stimuli presented in mixed, and pure lists (emotional or neutral stimuli), using a specially formulated stimulus set which controlled for differential semantic relatedness (SeRENS, Chapter 3).Electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data provided preliminary evidence of neural encoding correlates of the iEEM (Chapter 4 and 5); data which is not predicted by the modulation model. The behavioural EEM effect found in mixed lists was driven by a reduction in neutral memory relative to pure lists; however neural correlates of this effect were minimal. Conversely, successful mixed list emotional encoding (relative to pure list emotional encoding and neutral encoding) correlated with greater neural activity associated with [bottom-up] attention (in P300 and right supramarginal gyrus) and semantic processing (late positive potential and left anterior superior temporal gyrus; EEG and fMRI evidence respectively); although this did not correlate with behavioural measures of memory. This behaviour-neuroimaging discrepancy can be reconciled when one considers the results of Chapter 6: the crucial iEEM behavioural effect of impaired neutral memory was associated with retroactive interference from proceeding emotional stimuli (especially when relational processing resources were depleted); a neural effect that cannot be captured by the current event-related designs. This suggests that what is captured in the neuroimaging data is the mechanism which drives the retroactive interference at the temporal locus of emotional stimulus onset. These results raise the possibility of two disociable EEM effects: the iEEM effect explained by poor neutral memory due to retroactive interference of proceeding emotional stimuli (mediation theory); and the delayed EEM effect explained by preferential emotional stimulus consolidation (modulation model). These explanations can be unified into one model; however further testing would be required to determine the endurance of cognitive contributions to the EEM effect.

Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) is characterised by a marked and persistent fear of social or performance situations. Cognitive models suggest that cognitive factors of SAD, including threat appraisals and dysfunctional thinking styles, play a crucial role in generating and maintaining social anxiety (Clark & Wells, 1995; Rapee & Heimberg, 1997; Hofmann, 2007). Self-report measures are commonly used to assess cognitive factors of SAD in research and clinical settings. However, the psychometric properties of such measures require evaluation in order to select the most methodologically appropriate measure for specific clinical and research purposes. The aim of Study 1 (Chapter 2) was to systematically review studies that report on the psychometric properties of trait cognitive self-report measures of social anxiety. The methodological quality of the measures was assessed using an appraisal of adequacy tool developed by Terwee et al. (2007). Fifty studies were included representing 21 measures. Several measures had some adequate psychometric properties, however, no measure had strong enough positive evidence as yet to allow for recommendations to be made regarding use in clinical and research settings. The best measure to date was the SISST, which received the greatest number of positive ratings, being six out of nine. The aim of Study 2 (Chapter 3) was to describe the development and preliminary psychometric evaluation of the Event Probability and Cost Questionnaire (EPCQ) for adults with social anxiety. In support of cognitive models, the final factor analysis revealed a two-factor solution explaining 52.5% of the variance. The first factor included beliefs relating to the cost or consequence of a negative social outcome occurring, as well as four probably items relating to the potential occurrence of negative evaluation of observable physical symptoms (e.g., blushing). The second factor included beliefs relating to the probability or likelihood that a social situation would occur. Both factors were elevated for SAD patients relative to non-clinical controls. The measure demonstrated good internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and convergent and divergent validity. In addition, the EPCQ demonstrated good sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values and it was able to effectively discriminate between individuals with SAD and non-clinical controls. The 5 final measure comprised 26 questions, 13 questions relating to probability and cost respectively. Results indicate that the EPCQ is a promising measure with several important applications in both research and clinical settings. Finally, the aim of Chapter 4 was to present a general discussion of the previous chapters, discuss strengths and limitations, and potential clinical implications of the findings from the thesis.

La hipertensió arterial és un factor de risc de deteriorament cognitiu (DC). Tradicionalment, aquest risc s’ha atribuït a les xifres mitjanes de pressió arterial (PA). No obstant, la PA està sotmesa a una gran variabilitat que pot ser estudiada a curt plaç (en 24 hores) mitjançant la monitorització ambulatòria de la pressió arterial (MAPA) o a llarg plaç amb les PA de diferents visites separades en el temps. Recentment, la variabilidad de la PA (VPA) s’ha associat, independentment de les xifres mitjanes de PA, a un major risc de DC i d’atròfia cerebral. Per determinar la VPA existeixen diferents índexs, com la desviació estàndard (DS), el coeficient de variació (CV) i l’ Average Real Variability (ARV). Mentre que la relació entre la VPA a llarg plaç i el DC està ben establerta, els estudis sobre VPA a curt plaç i cognició mostren resultats discordants. A més, l’associació entre ambdós tipus de VPA i el deteriorament cognitiu lleu (DCL), estat cognitiu que precedeix a la demència, ha estat poc estudiada i no s’ha fet de forma prospectiva. L’objectiu d’aquesta tesi és estudiar la VPA a curt i llarg plaç en una cohort de pacients hipertensos i determinar prospectivament la seva associació amb el decliu cognitiu i amb les transicions entre els estats de normalitat cognitiva i DCL després de quatre anys de seguiment. També s’investiga l’associació de la VPA amb el grau d’atròfia cerebral temporal medial (ATM) a la RMN cranial. Es van avaluar 361 pacients hipertensos mitjançant dues visites separades quatre anys. A cada visita es va realitzar una avaluació cognitiva, una RMN cranial i una MAPA (utilitzada per a calcular la VPA a curt plaç). Es recolliren, també, les determinacions de PA realitzades en Atenció Primària entre ambdues visites per calcular la VPA a llarg plaç. A cada visita es va passar la Rating Scale-second edition (DRS-2) i cada subjecte es va clasificar en normalitat cognitiva o DCL. Entre ambdues visites es recolliren els casos de DCL incident. L’ATM va ser avaluada mitjançant l’escala visual de Scheltens. Per la VPA a llarg plaç, elevacions de la DS (OR 1.14,IC 95%:1.01-1.29), del CV (OR 1.19,IC 95%:1.02-1.40) i de l’ARV (OR 1.11,IC 95%:1.01-1.22) de la PA sistòlica s’associaren a un major risc de DCL incident independentment de les xifres de PA acumulada. Les puntuacions Z de la DRS-2 als quatre anys es relacionaren negativament amb el CV (B -0.03,IC 95% -0.06 a -0.01) i l’ARV de la PA sistòlica (B -0.02,IC 95% -0.04 a -0.02). La subescala de funció executiva de la DRS-2 es va relacionar amb la DS de la PA sistòlica (B -0.02,IC 95% -0.04 a 0.00). L’ATM es va associar als quartils superiors de la DS (OR 2.13,IC 95%:1.01-4.48) i del CV de la PA sistòlica (OR 2.35,IC 95%:1.14-4.82). La VPA a curt plaç no es va associar amb el risc de desenvolupar DCL incident Únicament es va detectar una associació positiva per l’ARV de la PA sistòlica diürna amb les puntuacions totals de la DRS-2 mesurada quatre anys després (B 0.05,IC 95%:0.03-0.09). No s’observaren associacions entre l’ATM i la VPA a curt plaç. En conclusió, diferents índexs de VPA a llarg plaç s’associaren al risc de DCL incident, al decliu de les puntuacions en la DRS-2 i a la presència d’ATM, independentment dels nivells de PA. Aquestes associacions no es van trobar per la VPA a curt plaç. La VPA a llarg plaç podria tenir utilitat com a predictor de DCL incident i decliu cognitiu i trobar-se associada al grau d’ATM.
La hipertensión arterial es un factor de riesgo para el deterioro cognitivo (DC). Tradicionalmente, este riesgo se ha atribuido a las cifras medias de presión arterial (PA). Sin embargo, la PA está sujeta a una gran variabilidad que puede ser estudiada a corto plazo (en 24 horas) mediante la monitorización ambulatoria de la presión arterial (MAPA) o a largo plazo con las PA de diferentes visitas separadas en el tiempo. Recientemente la variabilidad de la PA (VPA) se ha asociado, independientemente de las cifras medias de PA, a un mayor riesgo de DC y de atrofia cerebral. Para determinar la VPA existen diferentes índices, como la desviación estándar (DS), el coeficiente de variación (CV) y la Average Real Variability (ARV). Mientras que la relación entre la VPA a largo plazo y el DC está bien establecida, los estudios sobre VPA a corto plazo y cognición muestran resultados discordantes. Además, la asociación entre ambos tipos de VPA y el deterioro cognitivo leve (DCL), estado cognitivo que precede a la demencia, ha sido poco estudiada y no se ha hecho de forma prospectiva. El objetivo de esta tesis es estudiar la VPA a corto y largo plazo en una cohorte de pacientes hipertensos y determinar prospectivamente su asociación con el declive cognitivo y con las transiciones entre los estados de normalidad cognitiva y DCL tras cuatro años de seguimiento. También se investiga la asociación de la VPA con el grado de atrofia cerebral temporal medial (ATM) en la RMN craneal. Se evaluaron 361 pacientes hipertensos mediante dos visitas separadas cuatro años. En cada visita se realizó una evaluación cognitiva, una RMN craneal y una MAPA (usada para calcular la VPA a corto plazo). Se recogieron también las determinaciones de PA que se realizaron en Atención Primaria entre ambas visitas para calcular la VPA a largo plazo. En cada visita se pasó la Dementia Rating Scale-second edition (DRS-2) y cada sujeto fue clasificado en normalidad cognitiva o DCL. Entre ambas visitas se recogieron los casos de DCL incidente. La ATM fue evaluada mediante la escala visual de Scheltens. Para la VPA a largo plazo, elevaciones de la DS (OR 1.14,IC 95%:1.01-1.29), del CV (OR 1.19,IC 95%:1.02-1.40) y de la ARV (OR 1.11,IC 95%:1.01-1.22) de la PA sistólica se asociaron a mayor riesgo de DCL incidente independientemente de las cifras de PA acumulada. Las puntuaciones Z de la DRS-2 a los cuatro años se relacionaron negativamente con el CV (B -0.03,IC 95% -0.06 a -0.01) y la ARV de la PA sistólica (B -0.02,IC 95% -0.04 a -0.02). La subescala de función ejecutiva de la DRS-2 se relacionó con la DS de la PA sistólica (B -0.02,IC 95% -0.04 a 0.00). La ATM se asoció a los cuartiles superiores de la DS (OR 2.13,IC 95%:1.01-4.48) y del CV de la PA sistólica (OR 2.35,IC 95%:1.14-4.82). La VPA a corto plazo no se asoció con el riesgo de desarrollar DCL incidente. Únicamente se detectó una asociación positiva para la ARV de la PA sistólica diurna con las puntuaciones totales de la DRS-2 medida cuatro años después (B 0.05,IC 95%:0.03-0.09). No se observaron asociaciones entre la ATM y la VPA a corto plazo. En conclusión, varios índices de VPA a largo plazo se asociaron al riesgo de DCL incidente, al declive de las puntuaciones en la DRS-2 y a la presencia de ATM, independientemente de los niveles de PA. Estas asociaciones no se encontraron para la VPA a corto plazo. La VPA a largo podría tener utilidad como predictor de DCL incidente y declinar cognitivo y encontrarse asociada al grado de ATM.
Hypertension is a risk factor for cognitive impairment (CI). Traditionally, this risk has been attributed to mean blood pressure (BP). However, BP blood pressure levels exhibit a great variability over time. Blood pressure variability (BPV) can be assessed in the short term (within 24 hours) using ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) or in the long term through BP measurements blood pressure measurements from different visits separated in time. Recently, BPV has been associated with a higher risk of CI and cerebral atrophy, regardless of the mean arterial pressure levels. Several indices have been proposed to measure BPV, such as the standard deviation (SD), the coefficient of variation (CV) and the Average Real Variability (ARV). The relationship between long-term BPV and CI is well established; however, studies assessing short-term BPV and cognition show conflicting results. Furthermore, the association between both types of VPA and mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a cognitive state that precedes dementia, has been assessed in few studies and has not been performed prospectively. The aim of this Thesis was to evaluate short-term and long-term BPV in a cohort of hypertensive patients and prospectively determine its association with cognitive decline and with cognitive changes between normal cognition states and MCI after four years of follow-up. The association of BPV with medial temporal cerebral atrophy (MTA) on cranial MRI was also investigated. 361 hypertensive patients were evaluated in two visits separated four years between them. A cognitive assessment, cranial MRI, and ABPM (used to calculate short-term VPA) were performed at each visit. BP determinations measured in Primary Care between both visits were also collected to calculate long-term BPV. In both visits, the Dementia Rating Scale-second edition (DRS-2) was performed and each subject was classified in cognitive normal state or MCI. Incident MCI patients between both visits were collected. The MTA was evaluated using the visual Scheltens scale. For long-term BPV, elevations of SD (OR 1.14,IC 95%:1.01-1.29), CV CV (OR 1.19,IC 95%:1.02-1.40) and ARV (OR 1.11,IC 95%:1.01-1.22) of systolic BP exhibited a higher risk of incident MCI, independent of the cumulative BP values. The DRS-2 scale Z score was negatively related to systolic CV (B -0.03,IC 95% -0.06 a -0.01) and ARV (B -0.03,IC 95% -0.06 a -0.01). The executive function subscale was also associated with systolic SD (B -0.02,IC 95% -0.04 a 0.00). MTA was associated with higher quartiles of the systolic SD (OR 2.13,IC 95%:1.01-4.48) and CV (OR 2.35,IC 95%:1.14-4.82). Short-term BPV was not related to a higher risk of MCI. A positive association between daytime systolic ARV and DRS-2 total Z scores was detected (B 0.05, IC 95%:0.03-0.09). There were no associations between short-term BPV and MTA. In conclusion, several indices of long-term BPV were associated with the risk of incident MCI, with decreased DRS-2 scores and with the presence of brain MTA, regardless of blood pressure levels. On the other hand, these associations were not found for short-term BPV. In this way, long-term BPV could be useful as a possible predictor of MCI and cognitive decline and could be associated with MTA.
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Programa de Doctorat en Medicina

[Truncated thesis] This thesis is concerned with executive functioning in two different but related ways. The first is as an information processing construct in cognitive psychology. There are many different conceptualisations of the information processing basis of executive functioning but this thesis will pursue the notion that executive functioning is best thought of as adaptation to novelty. In the thesis, this will be operationalised using performance indices (principally reaction time) from a number of information processing tasks. These tasks have typically been used in the literature to index either executive functioning or speed of information processing. Both kinds of tasks are used to tackle the second concern of this thesis, namely, how executive functioning is measured. The data analytic techniques developed in this thesis are based on the hypothesis that executive functioning is the process or processes involved in resolving task novelty and consequently measurement will be enhanced through an analysis of performance changes within tasks as the task changes from novel to familiar. The analysis methods will be based largely on the computation of coefficient of variation of reaction time in successive performance windows across the information processing tasks. An elderly sample was chosen for this thesis because of a history of research that has attempted to determine whether cognitive deficits in the elderly are the consequence of the slowing of information processing speed or to impairment in executive functioning. ... The analysis was driven by the hypothesis that a significant shift in the coefficient of variation would mark a transition from novelty to familiarity in task performance and hence from executive to non-executive phases. Three methods were applied to individual performance curves to determine the point at which for each task this transition occurred. Using criterion measures of variability to separate the task data into two stages, analyses showed, contrary to the hypothesis, that later task performance was more highly associated with executive functioning than in initial task performance. The fourth stage of analysis (Chapter 7) applied confirmatory factor analysis to the newly-formed pre- and post transition data. Evidence was found that the magnitude of the contributions of EF across the pre- and post-criterion phases was stable, failing to support the hypothesis. Finally, structural equation modelling was used to examine how age and intelligence in this elderly sample exerts its influence on task performance and whether EF or IPS was the primary cause of age-related cognitive decline. The results showed that the age and intelligence effects on performance were mediated by the requirement to adapt to novelty. Although there was limited evidence to claim that EF is the primary cause of age-related cognitive decline, ageing effects were only apparent when the participants were adapting to novelty. The thesis concludes that there is some support for the hypothesis that executive functioning is best thought of as the processes underpinning adaptation to novelty. While not a panacea, the analytic techniques developed show promise for future research.

Objetivos: Investigar possíveis diferenças no desenvolvimento motor e cognitivo de crianças nascidas de mães adolescentes e mães adultas ao longo de quatro meses e os principais preditores biológicos e ambientais do desenvolvimento infantil. Metodologia: Estudo descritivo de caráter desenvolvimental, correlacional e associativo com delineamento longitudinal. Amostra geral de 40 bebês, sendo 20 nascidos de mães adolescentes (idade de 15 a 19 anos) e 20 nascidos de mães adultas (idade de 25 a 39 anos), provenientes da periferia e de Escolas de Educação Infantil dos municípios de Porto Alegre e Butiá, no Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Procedimentos e Instrumentos: Foram realizadas três avaliações ao longo de quatro meses do desenvolvimento motor e cognitivo, com um intervalo de dois meses entre as avaliações. Para a avaliação do desempenho motor foi utilizada a Alberta Motor Infant Scale (AIMS) e do desempenho cognitivo a Bayley Scale of Infant Development II (BSID-II). Para avaliação dos fatores biológicos e ambientais associados ao desempenho motor e cognitivo dos bebês foi entregue aos pais e/ou responsáveis um questionário para identificação destes fatores, que continha características pré, peri e pós-natais do bebê, como data de nascimento, sexo, tipo de parto, semanas de gestação, índice de apgar, peso ao nascer, comprimento ao nascer, perímetro cefálico ao nascer, período (dias) de internação em unidade de terapia intensiva, período em ventilação mecânica, além da renda familiar mensal, tempo de amamentação, cuidador/mãe trabalhar fora, escolaridade, situação conjugal, idade dos pais. Os pais preencheram o questionário Affordances in the Home Enviroment for Motor Development – Infant Scale (AHEMD-IS) para análise do ambiente e do contexto em que a criança está inserida, sendo acrescentadas questões relativas à idade dos pais, se mãe/cuidador trabalha fora, número de irmãos, ordem de nascimento da criança participante e o tempo de aleitamento materno exclusivo em meses. Ainda, o questionário Daily Activities of Infant Scale (DAIS) para avaliação das práticas desempenhadas pelos pais/responsáveis; e o Inventário do Conhecimento do Desenvolvimento Infantil, originalmente denominado Knowledge of Infant Development Inventory (KIDI) para avaliação do conhecimento dos pais acerca do Desenvolvimento Infantil. Todos estes questionários foram realizados em um único momento. Resultados: Os bebês nascidos de mães adolescentes apresentaram menor renda familiar mensal e grau de escolaridade dos pais em comparação com os bebês filhos de mães adultas, assim como menor tempo de aleitamento materno exclusivo. Com relação ao desenvolvimento motor, os escores de cada postura da AIMS e o escore bruto total AIMS apresentaram diferença significativa ao longo do tempo em geral (pt<0,001) e em cada grupo (pint1<0,001). Quanto ao desenvolvimento cognitivo, o escore bruto Bayley também apresentou diferença significativa ao longo do tempo em geral (pt<0,001) e em cada grupo (pint1<0,001), sendo observada melhora do desenvolvimento ao longo do tempo. Não foram observadas diferenças significativas entre os grupos de bebês de mães adolescentes e adultas nos escores das posturas prono, sentado e em pé da AIMS. Entretanto, na postura supina observou-se diferença significativa entre os grupos no terceiro momento de avaliação (pint2=0,046), onde o grupo de bebês de mães adolescentes apresentou escores mais baixos em relação ao grupo de bebês de mães adultas. Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre os grupos, independente do tempo, no escore bruto total Bayley (pg=0,661) e MDI Bayley (pg=0,758); e nem entre os grupos em cada momento avaliativo no escore bruto total Bayley (M1pint2=0,708; M2pint2=0,946; M3pint2=0,553) e no MDI Bayley (M1pint2=0,700; M2pint2=0,950; M3pint2=0,828). Houve associação positiva, forte e significativa nos três momentos entre os escores totais da AIMS e Bayley nos bebês de adolescentes (rs=0,828; p<0,001 na 1ª avaliação/ rs=0,746; p<0,001 na 2ª avaliação/ rs=0,767; p<0,001 na 3ª avaliação) e adultas (rs=0,894; p<0,001 na 1ª avaliação/ rs=0,896; p<0,001 na 2ª avaliação/ rs=0,872; p<0,001 na 3ª avaliação), o que nos demonstra haver relação entre os aspectos motores e cognitivos do desenvolvimento da criança. As análises de regressão revelaram como principais preditores para o desempenho motor: o desempenho cognitivo (b=0,588; β=0,880; p<0,001; r2= 0,88), o espaço externo da casa (b=2,307; β=0,269; p=0,045; r2=0,24), a idade materna (b= - 0,767; β= - 0,491; p=0,004; r2= -0,04); e o tempo em creche (b=9,692; β=0,748; p<0,001; r2=0,46); práticas dos pais DAIS (b=2,918; β=0,898; p<0,001; r2=0,79); conhecimento dos pais sobre o desenvolvimento infantil (b=17,694; β=0,250; p=0,009; r2=0,14); posição de prono para dormir (b= -3,751; β= - 0,202; p=0,041; r2=0,50). Nas análises de regressão observou-se associação significativa (p≤0,05) entre desempenho cognitivo e o desempenho motor (b=1,316; β=0,880; p<0,001; r2=0,88), a idade paterna (b= - 0,919; β= -0,439; p=0,010; r2= - 0,12), o tempo em creche (b=12,030; β=0,637; p<0,001; r2=0,42), posição mais ativa durante o colo (b=7,587; β=0,292; p=0,033; r2=0,61) e a posição durante as brincadeiras tranquilas da criança (b= 11,796; β= 0,571; p<0,001; r2=0,73). Conclusões: Não foram observadas diferenças significativas entre os grupos de bebês de mães adolescentes e adultas com relação ao desempenho motor e cognitivo ao longo do tempo, com exceção da postura supina da escala AIMS na terceira avaliação, onde os bebês de mães adolescentes apresentaram escores motores mais baixos. Encontramos associação positiva, forte e significativa entre o desenvolvimento motor e cognitivo em todos os três momentos de avaliação tanto nos bebês de mães adolescentes quanto no de mães adultas. Quanto melhor o desempenho cognitivo melhor é o desempenho motor da criança, da mesma forma que quanto maior o espaço externo da casa, melhores são os resultados do desempenho motor. Quanto mais tempo a criança frequenta a creche, quanto mais adequadas as práticas dos pais e quanto maior o conhecimento dos pais acerca do desenvolvimento infantil, melhor é o desempenho motor da criança. No entanto, quanto maior a idade materna, pior é o desempenho motor do bebê. A posição de prono durante o sono foi associada ao pior desempenho motor dos bebês de mães adolescentes e adultas. O tempo que a criança frequenta creche, o posicionamento da criança no colo e durante as brincadeiras tranquilas foram associados positivamente com o desempenho cognitivo, enquanto a idade paterna apresentou relação inversa, quanto maior a idade do pai, pior é o desempenho cognitivo do bebê.
Objectives: To investigatethe possible differences in motor and cognitive development of children born to teenage and adult mothers over four months and the main biological and environmental predictors to child development. Methodology: A descriptive study using a developmental, correlational and associative approach with longitudinal design. The total sample included 40 infants, 20 born to teenage mothers (aged 15-19 years) and 20 born to adult mothers (aged 25-39 years) from outskirts and Early Childhood Education Schools in Porto Alegre city and the city of Butiá in Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. Instruments and Procedures: Three evaluations of motor and cognitive development were performed over four months with a two-month interval between each assessment. Alberta Motor InfantScale (AIMS) was used to evaluate the motor performance, and the BayleyScaleofInfant Development II (BSID-II) to assess the cognitive performance. For the evaluation of biological and environmental factors associated with motor and cognitive performances it was given a questionnaire to parents and/or responsible for the identification of these factors. The questionnaire comprised pre-, peri- and post-natal characteristics of the infant such as birthday, sex, mode of birth delivery, gestational age, Apgar score, weight and length at birth, head circumference at birth, period (days) of stay in the intensive care unit, period on mechanical ventilation, including information about the monthly family income, period of exclusive breastfeeding, whether the mother/caregiver works or not, schooling, marital status and parents age. Parents filled out the questionnaire Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development – InfantScale (AHEMD-IS)to assess the environment and context of child’s life and answered questions related to parents age, whether the mother/caregiver works or not, number of siblings, birth order of the child and breastfeeding period in months. The parents also filled out the questionnaire Daily ActivitiesofInfantScale (DAIS) to evaluate the practices performed by them and the questionnaire Knowledge of Infant Development Inventory (KIDI) to assess their knowledge about child development. All questionnaires were applied at the same time. Results: The infants born to teenage mothers showed lower monthly family income and lower parents schooling when compared to the infants born to adult mothers, as well as showed lower period of exclusive breastfeeding. Relative to the motor development, the scores of each position of AIMS and the AIMS total score showed significant difference during overall time (pt<0,001) and in each group (pint1<0,001). Regarding the cognitive development, the Bayley raw score also showed significant difference during the overall time (pt<0,001) and in each group (pint1<0,001), in which a development improvement was observed over time. No significant differences were observed between the groups of infants born to teenage and adult mothers in the scores of prone, sitting and standing position of AIMS. However, in the supine position there was significant difference between the groups in the third stage of evaluation (pint2=0,046), in which the group of infants born to teenage mothers revealed lower scores than those born to adult mothers. No significant differences were found between the groups, independent of time in Bayley raw score (pg=0,661) and Bayley MDI (pg=0,758); neither between the groups in each stage of evaluation in Bayley raw score (M1pint2=0,708; M2pint2=0,946; M3pint2=0,553) and in Bayley MDI (M1pint2=0,700; M2pint2=0,950; M3pint2=0,828). There was a positive, strong, and significant association in three stages between the total scores of AIMS and Bayley in the infants born to teenage mothers (rs=0,828; p<0,001 in the 1st evaluation/rs=0,746; p<0,001 in the 2nd evaluation/rs=0,767; p<0,001 in the 3th evaluation), and born to adult mothers (rs=0,894; p<0,001 in the 1st evaluation/ rs=0,896; p<0,001 in the 2nd evaluation/rs=0,872; p<0,001 in the 3th evaluation), showing an association between the motor and cognitive aspects of the child development. The regression analyzes revealed as main predictors for the motor performance: cognitive performance (b=0,588; β=0,880; p<0,001; r2= 0,88), outdoor space of the house (b=2,307; β=0,269; p=0,045; r2=0,24), mother’s age (b= - 0,767; β= - 0,491; p=0,004; r2= -0,04); time in daycare (b=9,692; β=0,748; p<0,001; r2=0,46); parenting practices DAIS (b=2,918; β=0,898; p<0,001; r2=0,79); parents’ knowledge about child development (b=17,694; β=0,250; p=0,009; r2=0,14); prone sleeping position (b= -3,751; β= - 0,202; p=0,041; r2=0,50). A significant association in the regression analyzes was observed between cognitive and motor performances (b=1,316; β=0,880; p<0,001; r2=0,88), father’s age (b= - 0,919; β= -0,439; p=0,010; r2= - 0,12), time in daycare (b=12,030; β=0,637; p<0,001; r2=0,42), most active position during lap (b=7,587; β=0,292; p=0,033; r2=0,61) and during child’s quiet games (b= 11,796; β= 0,571; p<0,001; r2=0,73). Conclusions: No significant differences were observed between the groups of infants born to teenage and adult mothers in relation to the motor and cognitive performance over time, except for the supine position of the AIMS in the third evaluation, in which infants of teenage mothers showed lower motor scores. We found a positive, strong and significant association between the motor and cognitive development in all three stage of evaluation in both groups of infants. The better the cognitive performance is, the better the motor performance of the child. Likewise, the greater the outdoor space of the house is, the better the results of motor performance. The motor performance of the child is directly associated with longer time in daycare, more appropriate parenting practices, and better parent’s knowledge about child development. However, children of more mature mothers showed a worse motor performance. The prone position during sleep was associated with the worse motor performance of infants born to teenage and adult mothers. The time child attends daycare, the child position on the lap and during its quiet games were positively associated with cognitive performance, whereas the father’s age showed an inverse association, i.e., the more mature father is, the worse cognitive performance of the child.