Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „CNTFETs”

Downscaling of the contact length Lc of a side-contacted carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNTFET) is challenging because of the rapidly increasing contact resistance as Lc falls below 20–50 nm. If in agreement with existing experimental results, theoretical work might answer the question, which metals yield the lowest CNT–metal contact resistance and what physical mechanisms govern the geometry dependence of the contact resistance. However, at the scale of 10 nm, parameter-free models of electron transport become computationally prohibitively expensive. In our work we used a dedicated combination of the Green function formalism and density functional theory to perform an overall ab initio simulation of extended CNT–metal contacts of an arbitrary length (including infinite), a previously not achievable level of simulations. We provide a systematic and comprehensive discussion of metal–CNT contact properties as a function of the metal type and the contact length. We have found and been able to explain very uncommon relations between chemical, physical and electrical properties observed in CNT–metal contacts. The calculated electrical characteristics are in reasonable quantitative agreement and exhibit similar trends as the latest experimental data in terms of: (i) contact resistance for Lc = ∞, (ii) scaling of contact resistance Rc(Lc); (iii) metal-defined polarity of a CNTFET. Our results can guide technology development and contact material selection for downscaling the length of side-contacts below 10 nm.

Downscaling of the contact length Lc of a side-contacted carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNTFET) is challenging because of the rapidly increasing contact resistance as Lc falls below 20–50 nm. If in agreement with existing experimental results, theoretical work might answer the question, which metals yield the lowest CNT–metal contact resistance and what physical mechanisms govern the geometry dependence of the contact resistance. However, at the scale of 10 nm, parameter-free models of electron transport become computationally prohibitively expensive. In our work we used a dedicated combination of the Green function formalism and density functional theory to perform an overall ab initio simulation of extended CNT–metal contacts of an arbitrary length (including infinite), a previously not achievable level of simulations. We provide a systematic and comprehensive discussion of metal–CNT contact properties as a function of the metal type and the contact length. We have found and been able to explain very uncommon relations between chemical, physical and electrical properties observed in CNT–metal contacts. The calculated electrical characteristics are in reasonable quantitative agreement and exhibit similar trends as the latest experimental data in terms of: (i) contact resistance for Lc = ∞, (ii) scaling of contact resistance Rc(Lc); (iii) metal-defined polarity of a CNTFET. Our results can guide technology development and contact material selection for downscaling the length of side-contacts below 10 nm.

Microorganisms are present in a variety of sources, including food, water, animals, environment as well as the human body. They can be harmless or harmful. The latter is also called pathogenic and their detection is extremely important due to health and safety reasons.

It is well known that food contaminated with bacteria can produce a number of foodborne diseases. As a consequence, thousands of euros are invested each year in medical treatments trying to keep the population healthy. There are more than 250 known foodborne diseases. For example, outbreaks of salmonellosis have increased in many countries in the last decades being Salmonella Infantis one of the most important etiological agents associated with this enteric disease. Moreover, due to the wide distribution of the microorganisms, they can also contaminate foods in the field as well as during the storage stage. In that sense, filamentous fungi are one of the etiological agents responsible for most post-harvest food spoilage producing quality losses and economic devaluation.

On the other hand, the invasive fungal infections due to yeast have risen considerably in recent years. Candidiasis is the so-called disease produced by Candida albicans. This is an opportunistic infection that affects immunocompromised patients requiring costly treatment with advanced medicine.

Several methods have been proposed so far to detect pathogenic microorganisms. Conventional culture is highly selective and sensitive but they also require several days to yield the results. To simplify and automate the identification of both bacteria and fungi rapid biochemical kits have been developed. Although the results obtained with these kits are comparable to the traditional biochemical tests they also need 1 or 2 days to obtain results. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) can be applied for the direct identification of pathogenic microorganisms in real samples. This immuno-based method has been widely used in both food and the medical sector with high sensitivity. Nevertheless, the main disadvantage of this method is that it can also be time-consuming because a pre-enrichment of the sample is often required in order to achieve low limits of detection. As a consequence, many researchers have addressed their efforts towards the development of alternative methods to allow the rapid detection of pathogens.

Molecular biology-based methods, specifically polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and real-time PCR are nowadays the most common tools used for pathogen detection. They are highly sensitive and allow the quantification of the target. In addition, microarray platforms of DNA have been developed in order to analyse hundreds of targets simultaneously. However, this technique is costly and reagent-consuming.

The introduction of biosensors has brought new alternatives in pathogenic detection. Biosensors are the most used tools in pathogenic detection after PCR, culture methods and ELISA. They provide rapid results after the sample has been taken. However, their real application lies in achieving selectivities and sensitivities comparable to the established methods and at low cost.

Since carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were discovered by Iijima, many papers have reported their unique electronic and optical properties which, together with their size, make these nanostructures interesting materials in the development of biosensing platforms. Their very high capacity for charge transfer between heterogeneous phases makes them suitable as components in electrochemical sensors. The electrical conductivity of the CNTs is highly sensitive to changes in their chemical environment and, as a result, they have been successfully applied in the study of molecular recognition processes.

An approach for the direct electrical detection of biomolecules integrates CNTs as transducer elements within a field-effect transistor (FET) configuration. The main advantages of this kind of configuration lies in that the conducting channel is usually located on the surface of the substrate and as a result, they are extremely sensitive to any change in the surrounding environment. Moreover, CNTFET devices can operate at room temperature and in ambient conditions.
At the beginning of this research (2006) electrochemical CNTFETs based on single walled carbon nanotubes had not been applied to detect bacteria or fungi. Only the interaction between CNTs and bacteria had been explored, but without sensing purposes. Therefore, this thesis reports the first CNTFET devices applied to the detection of pathogenic microorganisms. First, the background and the introduction containing the state of the art are presented covering relevant investigations made in the last years. Next, the main analytical methods are described. These descriptions involve detailed information of all procedures, analytical tools and materials used throughout this research work.

In the following chapters, the application of the CNTFETs for the determination of bacteria, yeast and moulds is presented throughout the scientific articles published along the development of the thesis. Briefly, the first device developed was applied to the detection of Salmonella Infantis in a simple matrix (0.85 % saline solution) and it was proven for first time, that this kind of sensor was able to detect, at least, 100 cfu/mL of the bacteria in just one hour with high selectivity. Subsequently, we enlarged the application field to other types of microorganisms: Candida albicans. In this study we improved not only the detection limit of the devices to 50 cfu/mL but also we proved the selectivity of the CNTFETs against possible interference that can be present in real samples like serum proteins. Finally, the devices were applied to the detection of the mould Aspegillus flavus in real samples. In this assay the response time was 30 minutes and a high sensitivity (10 µg of A. flavus / 25 g of rice) was obtained.

As the final chapters, general conclusions extracted from the overall work and annexes are reported. It can be stated that nanomaterials displaying extraordinary properties like carbon nanotubes can be combined with biological entities to obtain highly sensitive and selective biosensors able to detect bacteria, yeasts and moulds in a very short time. In future work, other performance parameters such as, long term stability, robustness and reusability must be studied further and contrasted with standard methods before thinking of the commercialization of the devices.
Los microorganismos están presentes en una gran variedad de orígenes, incluyendo alimentos, agua, animales, medio ambiente también como en el propio cuerpo humano. Estos pueden ser beneficiosos o perjudiciales. Los microorganismos perjudiciales reciben el nombre de patógenos y su detección es de gran importancia por razones de salud y seguridad.

Es bien conocido que los alimentos contaminados con bacterias pueden producir cierto número de enfermedades. Como consecuencia de esto, miles de euros se invierten cada año en tratamientos médicos para mantener la salud de la población. Existen más de 250 enfermedades transmitidas por alimentos. En las últimas décadas se ha incrementado por ejemplo, la incidencia de brotes de salmonelosis en muchos países, siendo Salmonella Infantis uno de los agentes etiológicos más importantes asociados con la producción de esta enfermedad entérica. Debido a la amplia distribución de los microorganismos, estos pueden llegar también a contaminar alimentos durante su cultivo como durante la fase de almacenamiento. En este sentido, los hongos filamentosos son en gran parte los agentes etiológicos responsables del deterioro de alimentos después de la cosecha produciendo pérdidas en la calidad y devaluación económica.

Por otra parte, las infecciones fúngicas invasivas producidas por levaduras han aumentado considerablemente en los últimos años. Candidiasis, es la enfermedad producida por Candida albicans. Esta es una de las infecciones más comunes que afectan pacientes inmunocomprometidos requiriendo tratamientos de elevado coste.

Se han propuesto varios métodos hasta la fecha para la detección de microorganismos patógenos. El cultivo es el método de referencia utilizado para la detección y cuantificación de bacterias. Tiene la ventaja de ser altamente selectivo y sensible pero tiene el inconveniente de requerir varios días para obtener un resultado. Para simplificar y automatizar la identificación de bacterias y hongos se han desarrollado kits bioquímicos rápidos. Aunque los resultados obtenidos usando esta clase de kits son comparables a las pruebas bioquímicas tradicionales, también 1 o 2 días son requeridos para la obtención de resultados. El enzimoinmunoensayo ("Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay", ELISA) es un método immunológico de gran sensibilidad que se utiliza ampliamente para detectar y cuantificar microorganismos patógenos, tanto en el sector médico como en el alimentario. Sin embargo, su principal desventaja es que a veces el tiempo de análisis puede aumentar considerablemente, específicamente cuando se realizan etapas de pre-enriquecimiento de la muestra para disminuir el límite de detección. Como consecuencia, muchos investigadores han dirigido sus esfuerzos hacia el desarrollo de métodos más rápidos.

Los métodos basados en el uso de la biología molecular, específicamente la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR) y la PCR en tiempo real, son hoy en día las herramientas más comúnmente usadas para la detección de patógenos. Estas técnicas son altamente sensibles y permiten la cuantificación del patógeno. Adicionalmente, se han desarrollado chips con plataformas de DNA para analizar cientos de patógenos simultáneamente. Sin embargo, esta técnica es costosa y requiere el uso de muchos reactivos.

La introducción de los biosensores ha contribuído a generar nuevas alternativas para la detección de patógenos. Los biosensores son las herramientas más usadas en la detección de patógenos después de la PCR, los métodos convencionales y el ELISA. Tienen la ventaja de proporcionar respuestas rápidas entre la toma de muestra y la obtención de los resultados. No obstante, el reto para su aplicación en muestras reales radica en alcanzar selectividades y sensibilidades comparables a los métodos convencionales ya establecidos y a un costo económico reducido.

Desde que Iijima descubrió los nanotubos de carbono (CNTs) se han publicado numerosos trabajos sobre sus excelentes propiedades electrónicas y ópticas, las cuales, en conjunción con su tamaño, hacen de estas nanoestructuras materiales interesantes en el desarrollo de plataformas de biodetección. Los CNTs presentan una gran capacidad de transferencia de carga entre estructuras heterogéneas. Ello les confiere una gran utilidad en la elaboración de sensores de tipo electroquímico. Su conductividad eléctrica varía de forma muy acusada con cambios en su ambiente químico y, como resultado, se han aplicado con éxito en el estudio de procesos de reconocimiento molecular.

Una metodología para la detección directa de biomoléculas integra los CNTs como elementos transductores dentro de una configuración de transistor de efecto campo (FET). Las principales ventajas de esta clase de configuraciones radican en que el canal conductor se localiza sobre la superficie del substrato y, como resultado, es altamente sensible a cualquier cambio en el medio ambiente. Además, los CNTFETs pueden operar a temperatura y, humedad ambientales.

Al inicio de esta tesis (2006), todavía no se habían aplicado los CNTFETs basados en nanotubos de carbono monocapa a la detección de bacterias y hongos. Sólo se había estudiado la interacción entre los CNTs y bacterias, pero sin el objetivo de detección. Por tanto, esta tesis aporta los primeros CNTFETs aplicados a la detección de microorganismos patógenos. En primer lugar, se presentan los antecedentes y la introducción, donde se realiza una revisión crítica y actualizada de los métodos e investigaciones más relevantes para detectar microorganismos patógenos. Posteriormente, se incluye un capítulo con la información detallada de todos los procedimientos experimentales, herramientas analíticas y materiales utilizados a lo largo del trabajo de investigación.

En los siguientes capítulos, se presenta la aplicación de CNTFETs en la determinación de bacterias, mohos y levaduras mediante artículos científicos publicados a lo largo del desarrollo de la tesis. Brevemente, el primer dispositivo desarrollado se aplicó a la detección de Salmonella Infantis en una matriz simple (solución salina 0.85 %) y se comprobó por primera vez que esta clase de sensores eran capaces de detectar al menos 100 ufc/mL de la bacteria en tan solo una hora con alta selectividad. Seguidamente, se amplió el campo de aplicación a otro tipo de microorganismo, Candida albicans. En este estudio, se mejoró no sólo el límite de detección de los dispositivos a 50 ufc/mL sino que también se mejoró la selectividad de los CNTFETs frente a posibles interferentes que pueden estar presentes en muestras reales, tales como proteínas séricas. Finalmente, se aplicaron los dispositivos a la detección del moho Aspergillus flavus en muestras reales. En este ensayo, el tiempo de respuesta fue de 30 minutos y se obtuvo una buena sensiblidad (10 µg de A. flavus / 25 g de arroz).



Como parte final de la tesis, se presentan las conclusiones generales extraídas a lo largo del trabajo completo junto con los anexos. Puede concluirse que, gracias a las propiedades únicas de los nanotubos de carbono, dichos nanomateriales pueden combinarse con entidades biológicas (como los anticuerpos) para obtener biosensores altamente sensibles y selectivos capaces de detectar bacterias, levaduras y mohos en un tiempo de análisis muy reducido. Como trabajo futuro, se deberán estudiar otros parámetros de calidad de los dispositivos tales como la estabilidad a lo largo del tiempo, la robustez o su reutilización con el fin de contrastarlos con los métodos estándar antes de poder iniciar la comercialización de este tipo de sensores.

Parmi les nouveaux nano-dispositifs, les CNTFETs sont des candidats prometteurs. Mais les circuits à base de nanotubes auront une probabilité élevée de défectuosité lors de la fabrication et une assez grande dispersion des caractéristiques. Dans ce contexte, cette thèse étudie l'implantation de portes logiques élémentaires à base de CNTFETs. Une comparaison précise de plusieurs structures logiques montre les avantages de la structure complémentaire pour les applications futures. L'influence des variations paramétriques sur les caractéristiques des CNTFETs et des portes logiques complémentaires est ensuite analysée. Une étude synthétique des défauts et fautes transitoires spécifiques aux circuits à base de CNTFETs est présentée. Enfin, une structure logique redondante est proposée pour réduire l'effet des dispersions paramétriques et pour améliorer le rendement de fabrication en tolérant certains défauts
Amongst novel nanodevices, CNTFETs are promising candidates. But circuits based on CNTFETs will have a high probability of manufacturing defects and large characteristic dispersions. In this context, this thesis studies the implementation of CNTFET-based elementary logic gates. A precise comparison of several logic structures shows the advantages of the complementary structure for future applications. The influence of parametric variations on the CNTFET and complementary logic gate characteristics is then analyzed. A synthetic study is presented on the specific defects and transient faults in CNTFET-based circuits. Finally, a redundant logic structure is proposed to reduce the effect of parametric dispersions and to improve the manufacturing yield by tolerating some defects

Dissertação (mestrado)—Universidade de Brasília, Faculdade de Tecnologia, Departamento de Engenharia Elétrica, 2013.
Submitted by Ana Cristina Barbosa da Silva (annabds@hotmail.com) on 2014-10-31T15:36:45Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_AlexYuzoMoroguma.pdf: 1600794 bytes, checksum: ab86f2dd5113052e628c14e73aca6d39 (MD5)
Approved for entry into archive by Patrícia Nunes da Silva(patricia@bce.unb.br) on 2014-11-19T10:54:29Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_AlexYuzoMoroguma.pdf: 1600794 bytes, checksum: ab86f2dd5113052e628c14e73aca6d39 (MD5)
Made available in DSpace on 2014-11-19T10:54:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_AlexYuzoMoroguma.pdf: 1600794 bytes, checksum: ab86f2dd5113052e628c14e73aca6d39 (MD5)
Neste projeto foram desenvolvidos e simulados circuitos `a base de nano tubos de carbono(CNT) de efeito de campo (FET). Esses circuitos tiveram como propósito analisar a viabilidade da substituição da tecnologia CMOS pela tecnologia CNTFET para o padrão Bluetooth em 2,4 GHz . As simulações dos circuitos foram realizadas com um modelo compacto para CNTFETs, denominado TCAM. Os elementos passivos dos circuitos foram selecionados da biblioteca da tecnologia CMOS 0,35 μm. A plataforma profissional Cadence, que possui um módulo destinado a simulações chamado de Spectre, foi utilizada para o projeto e para a simulação dos circuitos.Para a realização desse estudo, foram projetados os principais componentes/blocos do padrão Bluetooth: o amplificador fonte comum, o oscilador LC tanque e o misturador Célula de Gilbert. Para cada circuito projetado, os seguintes parâmetros característicos do CNTFET foram analisados: i) densidade de tubos, ii) número de dedos em paralelo,iii) porcentagem de nano tubos metálicos e iv) largura da porta. O impacto da presença de nano tubos metálicos no canal dos CNTFETs, que degrada o sinal e limita o uso dessa tecnologia no desempenho de circuitos analógicos, foi estudado com maior detalhe. Pode-se concluir que a complexidade do circuito está diretamente relacionada à tolerância a presença de nano tubos metálicos.A influência do layout do CNTFET multi-tubos e multi-dedos na performance do circuito pode ser demonstrada mais claramente pelo amplificador fonte comum. A largura da porta altera o número de tubos paralelos que conectam a fonte com o dreno e portanto, muda o ponto de operação DC. O aumento do número de dedos do transistor e benéfico para desempenho AC em altas freqüências, pois a impedância da porta é reduzida. Os parâmetros do layout e da tecnologia precisam ser selecionados com cuidado para o sucesso de projetos de circuitos mais complexos. A parte ativa do oscilador investigada gera uma resistência negativa, na qual e essencial para manter um sinal não atenuado. O número de dedos do transistor mostrou ser o parâmetro essencial para obter a magnitude requerida da resistência negativa. Para o projeto do misturado, todos os parâmetros tiveram que ser otimizados para atingir o ganho necessário para funcionamento. Depois da otimização dos parâmetros, todos os componentes Bluetooth aqui investigados puderam ser projetados com sucesso empregando a plataforma da tecnologia CNTFET. No entanto, os circuitos complexos requerem uma tecnologia CNTFET quase-ideal e não disponível atualmente. Uma possível solução a este problema seria odesing de novas arquiteturas dos circuitos. _______________________________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACT
This project presents the development and simulation of integrated circuits based oncarbon nanotube (CNT) field-effect transistors (FETs). These circuits were aimed toanalyze the feasibility of replacing CMOS by CNTFET technology for devices fulfillingthe Bluetooth standard at 2.4 GHz. The circuit simulations were performed witha compact model for CNTFETs, called TCAM. The passive circuit elements wereselected from the CMOS 0.35 μm library. The professional platform Cadence, whichhas a simulation module called Spectre, was used for circuit design and simulation.To perform this study, we designed some Bluetooth standard main components/blocks:a common-source amplifier, an LC tank oscillator and a Gilbert cell mixer. For eachdesigned circuit, the following CNTFET parameters were analyzed: density of tubes,number of fingers in parallel, the percentage of metallic nanotubes and gate width. Itcan be concluded that the complexity of the circuit is directly related to the toleranceto the presence of metallic nanotubes.The influence of the layout of a multi-tube multi-finger CNTFET on circuit performancecould be most clearly demonstrated for the common-source amplifier. The gatewidth alters the number of parallel tubes connecting source and drain and thereforeshifts the DC bias point. An increasing number of transistor fingers is beneficial forthe high frequency AC performance since the gate impedance is reduced.The layout and technology parameters had to be chosen with care for the successfuldesign of more complex circuits. The active part of the investigated oscillator createsa negative resistance which is essential for maintaining a non-attenuated signal. Thenumber of transistor fingers proved to be the essential parameter to obtain the requiredmagnitude of the negative resistance. For the mixer design all parameters had to beoptimised to achieve the necessary gain.After parameter optimisation, all Bluetooth components investigated here could be designed successfully employing a CNTFET technology platform. However, complexcircuits require a quasi-ideal CNTFET technology not available today. A possibleresort would be the invention of new system architectures.

Depuis quelques années, les explosifs artisanaux à base de peroxyde sont fréquemment utilisés dans les actes de terrorisme. Leur simplicité de conception ne les rend pas moins inoffensifs car ils sont tout aussi puissants que ceux à base de TNT (trinitrotoluène). Au regard des enjeux majeurs de la sécurité globale et en particulier de la protection du citoyen, il devient nécessaire de bénéficier d'instruments de détection fiables. C'est dans ce cadre que s'inscrit ce travail de thèse qui vise à développer un capteur intégré, sensible et sélectif aux traces d'explosifs, notamment ceux à base de peroxyde. Ce nez électronique est constitué d'une matrice de transistors à nanotubes de carbone (CNTFET) et d'une électronique et traitement des données. Après une brève introduction relative aux CNTFET pour la détection gazeuse, nous présentons les bases de l'élaboration d'une modélisation électrique du capteur. Cette modélisation a pour but, à terme, de permettre aux concepteurs decircuits intégrés de bénéficier d'un support de simulation des CNTFET, nécessaire à la mise en oeuvre de l'électronique de contrôle et de conditionnement des signaux. Nous détaillerons également ce qui constitue selon nous l'étape fondamentale précédant l'élaboration d'un modèle compact prédictif basé sur la physique, c'est à dire la compréhension topologique du réseau de nanotubes. Nous détaillerons alors différentes probabilités de contacts entre nanotubes. Nous présentons ensuite,l'élaboration de l'électronique permettant le contrôle des potentiels appliqués aux CNTFET et le conditionnement des signaux électriques. Ce conditionnement a pour objectif d'acheminer les réponses électriques du capteur vers des architectures de traitement de données utilisées pour la détection des différents gaz cibles. L'électronique intégrée en technologie CMOS HV (haute tension) est alimentée par pile basse tension. Des pompes de charge, élévateurs de tension, générant ces hautes tensions ont été étudiées, modélisées et réalisées. Nous proposons également dans ce manuscrit une nouvelle architecture de pompe de charge qui constitue, dans certaines plages d'utilisation, une alternative intéressante aux pompes de charge les plus performantes utilisées jusqu'à présent
For the last few years, improvised peroxide based explosives are frequently used in acts of terrorism. Their simple design does not make them less threatening than those based on TNT because they are equally as powerful as those based on TNT (trinitrotoluene). In view of the major issues of the overall safety and, in particular, the citizens' protection, it becomes necessary to enjoy reliable detection instruments. Such is the background of this PhD work which aims to develop a built-in sensor,sensitive and selective to traces of explosives, especially those based on peroxide. This electronic nose is made up of a network of carbon nanotube field-effect transistors (CNTFET), and data processing hardware. After a brief introduction relating to CNTFETs for gaseous detection, we will provide the basis for the elaboration of an electronic modeling of the sensor. This modeling aims, at the end, to allow designers of integrated circuits to benefit from a simulation support of CNTFETs, required to the implementation of control and signal conditioning electronics. We will also detail what are the fundamental steps mandatory before the development of a predictive compact model based on physics, which means the topological understanding of the nanotubes network. Then, we will describe different probabilities of contacts between nanotubes. Later, we will introduce the elaboration of the electronics allowing the control of the voltages applied to the CNTFETs and the electrical signals conditioning. The objective of this conditioning is to carry electrical responses from the sensor to data processing architectures used for the detection of the different target gasses. High Voltage CMOS integrated electronics are powered by low-voltage batteries. Charge pumps and voltage boosters which generate these high voltages, have been investigated, modeled and carried out. We also provide in this dissertation a new charge pump architecture which offers, in some ranges of application, an interesting alternative to the most efficient charge pumps used until now

La poursuite de la loi de Moore nécessite l'exploration et l'utilisation de composants nouveaux pouvant compléter ou remplacer le transistor CMOS dans les systèmes sur puce dans les années à venir. Dans ce contexte, l'émergence de nanocomposants offre l'opportunité d'inventer de nouvelles structures de circuit, d'élaborer des techniques non-conventionnelles de conception et par conséquent de repenser le paradigme de conception des architectures. Le principal objectif de cette thèse est de proposer de nouvelles structures de circuits (portes logiques élémentaires et reconfigurables) exploitant la propriété d'ambivalence des transistors à base de nanotube de carbone (CNTFET) double grille, et d'en évaluer les performances par rapport aux circuits à base de composants CMOS. Autour de ce composant, nous avons développé une famille de cellules dynamiquement reconfigurables. Grâce à un modèle comportemental, dérivé d'un modèle compact existant, nous avons démontré une consommation de ces cellules d'environ 2nW à 4GHz, se comparant ainsi très favorablement aux circuits CMOS conventionnels (look-up tables – LUTs – à m-bit à base de MUX). Puis, dans le but d'utiliser aux mieux ces cellules de très petites tailles, nous avons développé une architecture matricielle qui permet l'intégration de plusieurs cellules identiques et la réalisation d'un large panel de fonctions logiques, ainsi qu'une méthode de transposition de graphes logiques sur l'architecture. Cette méthode permet l'exploration de plusieurs topologies d'interconnexion et d'en évaluer le taux de réussite de transposition de fonctions logiques sur la matrice dans le cas idéal ainsi que dans le cas d'un fonctionnement dégradé, incluant un ou plusieurs défauts au niveau des cellules physiques
The pursuit of Moore’s Law has pointed to significant future intrinsic device hurdles and requires the use and exploration of novel devices to complement or even replace the CMOS transistor in systems on chip within the next decade and before silicon based technology will reach its limits. In this context, the emergence of nanodevices offers the opportunity to invent new circuits, and to develop unconventional design and therefore to rethink the paradigm of design architectures. The main objective of this thesis is to propose new structures circuits (basic reconfigurable logic gates) based on the ambivalence characteristic of double gate CNTFET (carbon nanotube field effect transistor), and evaluate the performance with reports to circuits based on CMOS components. Using double gate CNTFET, we have developed a family of dynamically reconfigurable logic cells. Thanks to a behavioral model, derived from an existing compact model, we have estimated elementary performance metrics and compared those to conventional CMOS based circuits (MUX based m-bit look-up tables). The simulation results demonstrated significant power savings for comparable speeds (2nW at 4GHz). Then, in order to use these very small cells more efficiently, we have developed a matrix architecture that allows integration of several identical cells and realization of a wide range of logic functions. We also developed a method to map function graphs representing complex logical functions to such matrices. This method allows us to compare several interconnection topologies and evaluate the success rate of the function mapping on the matrix in the ideal case as well as in the case of one or more interconnection failures

Orientadores: Peter Jürgen Tatsch, José Alexandre Diniz
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Elétrica e de Computação
Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-21T00:22:30Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Souza_JairFernandesde_D.pdf: 13128989 bytes, checksum: 25325c1093f208d379ae77adc08c90ff (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012
Resumo: Este trabalho teve como objetivo o desenvolvimento de materiais e métodos avançados de fabricação de sensores químicos/bioquímicos. Utilizando equipamentos disponíveis no Centro de Componentes Semicondutores da UNICAMP, foram desenvolvidos e caracterizados filmes finos de alta constante dielétrica e filmes metálicos. Os materiais desenvolvidos foram empregados na fabricação de sensores baseados em transistores de efeito de campo sensíveis a íons (ISFET) e em dispositivos de efeito de campo que incorporam nanoestruturas de carbono como elemento funcional [grafeno (GraFET) e nanotubos de carbono (CNTFET)]. A aplicação dos materiais como camada sensível, dielétrico de porta e eletrodos, assim como a utilização de nanoestruturas, tem por objetivo aumentar a sensibilidade e a biocompatibilidade dos dispositivos, construir dispositivos robustos que possam ser empregados em ambientes agressivos e obter sensores com resposta linear e estável com o tempo e temperatura. Foram fabricados, caracterizados e encapsulados ISFET's com camada sensível constituída por filmes finos de nitreto de silício (SiNx)/nitreto de alumínio (AlN) e com eletrodos formados por filmes metálicos de alumínio. Filmes finos de óxido de titânio (TiOx) e óxido de tântalo (TaOx), cujas características são de interesse para aplicação como filme sensível em determinadas aplicações, também foram estudados. Os filmes foram obtidos pelas técnicas de deposição química em fase vapor (LPCVD), sputtering dc e oxidação térmica rápida (RTO). Foram desenvolvidas técnicas de fabricação de dispositivos de efeito de campo baseados em grafeno e nanotubos de carbono, utilizando como dielétrico de porta os filmes finos desenvolvidos para formar a camada sensível dos ISFET's. Entretanto, os eletrodos foram construídos empregando-se filmes finos de nitreto de tântalo (TaN) depositados por sputtering dc. Filmes sensíveis de SiNx são quimicamente estáveis e tornam os sensores robustos com sensibilidade em tensão próxima ao limite de Nernst (59 mV/pH). Entretanto, a grande sensibilidade em tensão obtida (50 mV/pH) não é transformada em alta sensibilidade em corrente (1,35 ?A/pH), devido ao baixo valor de transcondutância observado (19 ?S). Por outro lado, quando se utiliza AlN depositado a temperatura ambiente, tem-se um baixo valor de sensibilidade em tensão (20 mV/pH) que é transformado em uma alta sensibilidade em corrente (28 ?A/pH), em razão da alta transcondutância dos dispositivos (329 ?S). GraFET's e CNTFET's demonstraram a modulação da corrente entre os eletrodos de fonte e dreno pela ação do campo elétrico perpendicular, aplicado com o auxílio do eletrodo de porta. Entretanto, o efeito de campo observado é ambipolar, ou seja, existem dois regimes possíveis de operação dos dispositivos, um regime dominado pelo transporte de lacunas e outro dominado pelo transporte de elétrons. A característica ambipolar possibilita a detecção de moléculas carregadas positiva e negativamente, enquanto que o baixo coeficiente de temperatura do filme de TaN possibilita a utilização dos dispositivos em processos realizados em altas temperaturas
Abstract: The main aim of this work is the development of advanced materials and methods for the fabrication of chemical/biochemical sensors. By using equipments available in the Center of Semiconductor Components of UNICAMP, high dielectric constant thin films and metallic films have been developed and characterized. The materials developed were employed in the fabrication of sensors based on ion-sensitive field effect transistors (ISFET) and in field-effect devices incorporating carbon nanostructures as functional elements [Graphene (GraFET) and carbon nanotubes (CNTFET)]. The application of these materials as sensitive layer, gate dielectric and electrodes, as well as the use of nanostructures, aims to increase the sensitivity and biocompatibility of the devices, to build robust devices that can be used in harsh environments and obtain sensors with linear and stable response over time and temperature. ISFET's with sensitive layer consisting of thin films of silicon nitride (SiNx)/aluminum nitride (AlN) and with electrodes formed by aluminum metallic films were fabricated, characterized and packaged. Thin films of titanium oxide (TiOx) and tantalum oxide (TaOx), whose characteristics are interesting in certain applications, were also studied. The films were obtained by chemical deposition techniques in vapor phase (LPCVD), dc sputtering and rapid thermal oxidation (RTO). Techniques have been developed for manufacturing field effect devices based on graphene and carbon nanotubes, the thin films developed to form the ISFET's sensitive layer were used as gate dielectric. However, the electrodes were built by using thin film of tantalum nitride (TaN) deposited by dc sputtering. SiNx sensitive films are chemically stable and make sensors robust with sensitivity in voltage near to the Nernst limit (59 mV/pH). However, the great sensitivity in voltage (50 mV/pH) is not transformed into high current sensitivity (1.35 ?A/pH), due to the low value of transconductance (19 ?S). On the other hand, when AlN deposited at room temperature is used, a low voltage sensitivity value is obtained (20 mV/pH) that is transformed into a high sensitivity in current (28 ?A/pH), due to high transconductance of the devices (329 ?S). GraFETs and CNTFETs demonstrated the current modulation between the source and drain electrodes by the action of perpendicular electric field, applied with the aid of the gate electrode. However, the field effect observed is ambipolar, in other words, there are two possible operation regime, a regime dominated by the transport of holes and another dominated by transport of electrons. The ambipolar feature enables the detection of positively and negatively charged molecules, while the low temperature coefficient of TaN film allows the use of devices in processes carried out at high temperatures
Doutorado
Eletrônica, Microeletrônica e Optoeletrônica
Doutor em Engenharia Elétrica

The Schottky barrier, contact resistance and carrier mobility in carbon nanotube (CNT) field-effect transistors (FETs) are discussed in detail in this thesis. Novel extraction methods and definitions are proposed for these parameters. A technology comparison with other emerging transistor technologies and a performance projection study are also presented. A Schottky barrier height extraction method for CNTFETs considering one-dimensional (1D) conditions is developed. The methodology is applied to simulation and experimental data of CNTFETs feasible for manufacturing. Y-function-based methods (YFMs) have been applied to simulation and experimental data in order to extract a contact resistance for CNTFETs. Both extraction methods are more efficient and accurate than other conventional approaches. Practical mobility expressions are derived for CNTFETs covering the ballistic as well as the non-ballistic transport regime which enable a straightforward evaluation of the transport in CNTs. They have been applied to simulation and experimental data of devices with different channel lengths and Schottky barrier heights. A comparison of fabricated emerging transistors based on similar criteria for various application scenarios reveals CNTFETs as promising candidates to compete with Si-based technologies in low-power static and dynamic applications. A performance projection study is suggested for specific applications in terms of the studied design parameters.

Pour continuer la course à la miniaturisation des composants microélectronique, les nanotubes de carbone (NTC) se présentent comme une alternative potentielle au Silicium en tant que canal de conduction dans les transistors à effet de champ (CNTFET). Afin de comprendre le fonctionnement du CNTFET, ce travail présente un ensemble de simulations physiques de type Monte-Carlo permettant une description fine du transport de charges. Ce travail est basé sur le simulateur particulaire MONACO qui a été adapté aux propriétés spécifiques des NTC. Il commence par une étude détaillée du transport électronique dans les NTC semi-conducteurs mono-feuillet. L’importance des différents mécanismes d’interaction électron-phonon et leur impact sur les propriétés de transport sont plus particulièrement analysés. Les libres parcours moyens obtenus sont dépendants du champ électrique : suivant les phonons dominants: ils sont supérieurs à 100 nm à faible champ et inférieurs à 20 nm à fort champ. La simulation d’un CNTFET à grille cylindrique et à contacts ohmiques est ensuite proposée en vu de dimensionner le transistor pour des applications numériques et analogiques. L’influence du contrôle électrostatique, du transport balistique et de la capacité quantique sur le fonctionnement et les performances du transistor est analysée et validée par des travaux expérimentaux. Enfin, les performances dynamiques du transistor à nanotube sont évaluées à partir de facteurs de mérite pertinents définis, d’une part, pour des applications numériques et, d’autre part, pour des applications analogiques haute fréquence pour lesquelles des valeurs de fréquence de transition supérieures au THz sont obtenues
To extend the scaling of microelectronics devices, carbon nanotubes (CNT) are considered as one of the most promising alternative material to Silicon. Here we propose a study of Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect Transistor (CNTFET) based on the particle Monte Carlo technique which gives a good description of charge transport taking into account electron-phonon scattering mechanisms. For this work, the Monte Carlo simulator MONACO has been extended to take into account CNT material properties. We begin with a detailed study of intrinsic charge transport in semiconducting single-wall CNT. In particular, we point out the importance and the impact of electron-phonon scattering on transport properties and performance. We obtain electron mean-free paths strongly dependent on electric field: according to the dominant phonon mode, the mean free-path is higher than 100 nm at low field and smaller than 20 nm at high field. Next, we study a coaxially gated CNTFET with electrostatically doped source and drain extensions in order to give the key parameters governing the performances for logic and analog applications. The influence of electrostatic control by the gate, of ballistic transport and quantum capacitance limit in this low dimensional system is analysed and the results are validated by experimental works. Finally, an evaluation of CNTFET dynamic performance, based on relevant key metrics, is proposed for logic and high frequency applications. In particular, intrinsic gain cut off frequency higher than one terahertz is obtained for 100 nm long gate length

The subject of this PhD thesis has been the development and characterization of nanocarbon-based sensors, with particular attention to the use of easy and cheap methodologies and processes that are required for future large scale production (dielectrophoresis, lift-off, etc..). In the first part of the thesis the development of Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)-based devices for biosensing applications is reported and the tests on protein detection are shown. In the second part the development of Graphene oxide (GO)-based devices is shown and the electrical behavior of the devices is investigated in different ambient conditions and for different oxygen functionalization (GO and reduced GO). The thesis work is divided as follows: In the first chapter the Carbon-like materials basics are recalled. In particular the types, the properties, and the main synthesis methods are described; The second chapter introduces the FET/Resistor devices and then describes the most common CNTs/GO structures in literature; In the third chapter, the methods for devices preparation are described with a focus on the dielectrophoretic process, used for the deposition of the carbon-based sensitive layers. Therefore, the characterization of the devices and the sensing properties achieved as immunosensors, or humidity/temperature and volatile organic compounds (VOC) sensors are shown and discussed; Finally, in the conclusions the main results, work in progress, developments and future applications are discussed.

Afin de permettre de développer un modèle de mémoire non-volatile basée sur le transistor à nanotube de carbone à commande optique qui est utilisée dans des circuits électroniques neuromorphiques, il est nécessaire de comprendre les physiques électroniques et optoélectroniques des nanotubes de carbone, en particulier l'origine de l'effet mémoire que présente ces transistors. C'est dans ce contexte général que cette thèse s'intègre. Le travail est mené sur trois plans : * Caractériser électriquement et optoélectroniquement des structures de test des CNTFETs et des OG-CNTFETs. * Développer un modèle compact pour les contacts Schottky dans les transistors à nanotube de carbone de la façon auto-cohérente basé sur le diamètre et la nature du métal d'électrode en utilisant la méthode de la barrière effective avec les paramètres nécessaires calibrés. * Modéliser l'OG-CNTFET selon les régimes de fonctionnement, lecture, écriture, effacement ou programmation pour application à une mémoire non-volatile en intégrant le mécanisme de piégeage et dépiégeage à l'interface polymère/oxyde.

This thesis investigates the fabrication and integration of nanoscale field-effect transistors based on individual semiconducting carbon nanotubes. Such devices hold great potential for integrated circuits with large integration densities that can be manufactured on glass or flexible plastic substrates. A process to fabricate arrays of individually addressable carbon-nanotube transistors has been developed, and the electrical characteristics of a large number of transistors has been measured and analyzed. A low-temperature-processed gate dielectric with a thickness of about 6 nm has been developed that allows the transistors and circuits to operate with voltages of about 1.5 V. The transistors show excellent electrical properties, including a large transconductance (up to 10 µS), a large On/Off ratio (>10^4), a steep subthreshold swing (65 mV/decade), and negligible leakage currents (~10^-13 A). For the realization of unipolar logic circuits, monolithically integrated load resistors based on high-resistance metallic carbon nanotubes or vacuum-evaporated carbon films have been developed and analyzed by four-probe and transmission line measurements. A variety of combinational logic circuits, such as inverters, NAND gates and NOR gates, as well as a sequential logic circuit based on carbon-nanotube transistors and monolithically integrated resistors have been fabricated on glass substrates and their static and dynamic characteristics have been measured. Optimized inverters operate with frequencies as high as 2 MHz and switching delay time constants as short as 12 ns
Thema dieser Arbeit ist die Herstellung und Integration von Feldeffekt-Transistoren auf der Grundlage einzelner halbleitender Kohlenstoffnanoröhren. Solche Bauelemente sind zum Beispiel für die Realisierung integrierter Schaltungen mit hoher Integrationsdichte auf Glassubstraten oder auf flexiblen Kunststofffolien von Interesse. Zunächst wurde ein Herstellungsverfahren für die Anfertigung einer großen Anzahl solcher Transistoren auf Glas- oder Kunststoffsubstraten entwickelt, und deren elektrische Eigenschaften wurden gemessen und ausgewertet. Das Gate-Dielektrikum dieser Transistoren hat eine Schichtdicke von etwa 6 nm, so das die Versorgungsspannungen bei etwa 1.5 V liegen. Die Transistoren haben sehr gute elektrische Parameter, z.B. einen großen Durchgangsleitwert (bis zu 10 µS), ein großes Modulationsverhältnis (>10^4), einen steilen Unterschwellanstieg (65 mV/Dekade) und vernachlässigbar kleine Leckströme (~10^-13 A). Für die Realisierung unipolarer Logikschaltungen wurden monolithisch integrierte Lastwiderstände auf der Grundlage metallischer Kohlenstoffnanoröhren mit großem Widerstand oder mittels Vakuumabscheidung erzeugter Kohlenstoffschichten entwickelt und u. a. mittels Vierpunkt- und Transferlängen-Messungen analysiert. Eine Reihe kombinatorischer Schaltungen, z.B. Inverter, NAND-Gatter und NOR-Gatter, sowie eine sequentielle Logikschaltung wurden auf Glassubstraten hergestellt, und deren statische und dynamische Parameter wurden gemessen. Optimierte Inverter arbeiten bei Frequenzen von bis zu 2 MHz und haben Signalverzögerungen von lediglich 12 ns

Afin de permettre de développer un modèle de mémoire non-volatile basée sur le transistor à nanotube de carbone à commande optique qui est utilisée dans des circuits électroniques neuromorphiques, il est nécessaire de comprendre les physiques électroniques et optoélectroniques des nanotubes de carbone, en particulier l’origine de l'effet mémoire que présente ces transistors. C’est dans ce contexte général que cette thèse s'intègre. Le travail est mené sur trois plans :• Caractériser électriquement et optoélectroniquement des structures de test des CNTFETs et des OG-CNTFETs.• Développer un modèle compact pour les contacts Schottky dans les transistors à nanotube de carbone de la façon auto-cohérente basé sur le diamètre et la nature du métal d’électrode en utilisant la méthode de la barrière effective avec les paramètres nécessaires calibrés.• Modéliser l'OG-CNTFET selon les régimes de fonctionnement, lecture, écriture, effacement ou programmation pour application à une mémoire non-volatile en intégrant le mécanisme de piégeage et dépiégeage à l’interface polymère/oxyde
This PhD thesis presents a computationally efficient physics-based compact model for optically-gated carbon nanotube field effect transistors (OG-CNTFETs), especially in the non-volatile memory application. This model includes memory operations such as “read”, “write”, “erase” or “program”, and “reset” which are modeled using trapping and detrapping mechanisms at the polymer/oxide interface. The relaxation of the memory state is taken into account. Furthermore, the self-consistent modeling of Schottky barriers at contacts between the carbon nanotube channel and metal electrodes is integrated in this model applying the effective Schottky barrier method. The Schottky contact model can be included in CNTFET based devices for a typical biasing range of carbon nanotube transistors. This compact model is validated by the good agreement between simulation results and experimental data (I-V characteristics). In the non-volatile memory application, this model can fully reproduce device behaviors in transient simulations. A prediction study of the key technological parameter, the CNT diameter variety is established to expect its impact on the transistor performance, and more importantly, on the memory operation. In the other hand, this thesis presents a preliminary electric characterization (I-V) of CNTFETs and OG-CNTFETs for the device modeling database. A preliminary optoelectronic characterization method is proposed

Kohlenstoffnanoröhrchen (CNTs) sind vielversprechende Kandidaten für neuartige nanoelektronische Bauelemente, wie zum Beispiel Transistoren für Hochfrequenzanwendungen. Simulationen CNT-basierter Bauelemente sind dabei unverzichtbar, um deren Anwendungspotential und das Verhalten in Schaltungen zu untersuchen. Die vorliegende Arbeit konzentriert sich auf einen Methodenvergleich zwischen einem atomistischen Ansatz basierend auf dem Nichtgleichgewichts-Green-Funktionen-Formalismus und einem Modell zur numerischen Bauelementesimulation, welches auf der Schrödinger-Gleichung in effektiver-Massen-Näherung basiert. Ein Transistor mit zylindrischem Gate und dotierten Kontakten wird untersucht, wobei eine effektive Dotierung genutzt wird. Es wird gezeigt, dass die Beschränkungen des elektronischen Transports durch Quan- teneffekte im Kanal nur mit dem atomistischen Ansatz beschrieben werden können. Diese Effekte verhindern das Auftreten von Band-zu-Band-Tunnelströmen, die bei der numerischen Bauelementesimulation zu größeren Aus-Strömen und einem leicht ambipolaren Verhalten führen. Das Schaltverhalten wird hingegen von beiden Modellen vergleichbar beschrieben. Durch Variation der Kanallänge wird das Potential des untersuchten Transistors für zukünftige Anwendungen demonstriert. Dieser zeigt bis hinab zu Kanallängen von circa 8 nm einen Subthreshold-Swing von unter 80 mV/dec und ein An/Aus-Verhältnis von über 10⁶.

Parmi les nouveaux nano-dispositifs, les CNTFETs sont des candidats prometteurs. Mais les circuits à base de nanotubes auront une probabilité élevée de défectuosité lors de la fabrication et une assez grande dispersion des caractéristiques. Dans ce contexte, cette thèse étudie l'implantation de portes logiques élémentaires à base de CNTFETs. Une comparaison précise de plusieurs structures logiques montre les avantages de la structure complémentaire pour les applications futures. L'influence des variations paramétriques sur les caractéristiques des CNTFETs et des portes logiques complémentaires est ensuite analysée. Une étude synthétique des défauts et fautes transitoires spécifiques aux circuits à base de CNTFETs est présentée. Enfin, une structure logique redondante est proposée pour réduire l'effet des dispersions paramétriques et pour améliorer le rendement de fabrication en tolérant certains défauts.

This thesis aims at investigating size dependence of properties of nanostructures from the point of view of a general scaling theory that smoothly connects properties of the bulk to that of nanostructures. Two different examples of a ``static'' and a ``dynamic'' property are considered in this study. The first example studied is of size dependence of coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) which a static property of nanostructures. The CTE of nanobars and nanoslabs is studied using equilibrium molecular dynamics and dynamical matrix formulation in an electrically insulating medium. It is found that the fractional change in CTE from the bulk value scales inversely with the size of the nanostructures, thus, showing a simple description in terms of a scaling theory. In the second part, electron transport in carbon nanotube field effect transistors (CNTFETs) is studied using Landauer formalism. A CNTFET involves transport through a 1-d ballistic carbon nanotube channel with Schottky barriers (SB) at contacts which determines the transport characteristics. The CNT is modeled as a 1-d semiconductor having only two bands separated by an energy gap which depends inversely on tube diameter. After the contact is made, a self-consistent potential appears due to charge transfer between CNT and metal, which is calculated by solving Poisson equation. The electron transmission across the barriers is calculated using WKB approximation. Current and conductance are calculated using Landauer-Buttiker formula. Diameter dependence of properties like, conductance, threshold voltage, VON, etc. is calculated. It is found that there is no simple scaling for a property for small values of diameter. The scaling form is, however, found to be valid for larger diameters. Also, other calculated device characteristics are in close agreement with experiments. The model presented in this thesis is the first detailed study illustrating the applicability of the scaling approach to the properties of nanostructures. The static properties show scaling behavior, while ``dynamic'' properties derived from electronic response do not.

This thesis aims at investigating size dependence of properties of nanostructures from the point of view of a general scaling theory that smoothly connects properties of the bulk to that of nanostructures. Two different examples of a ``static'' and a ``dynamic'' property are considered in this study. The first example studied is of size dependence of coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) which a static property of nanostructures. The CTE of nanobars and nanoslabs is studied using equilibrium molecular dynamics and dynamical matrix formulation in an electrically insulating medium. It is found that the fractional change in CTE from the bulk value scales inversely with the size of the nanostructures, thus, showing a simple description in terms of a scaling theory. In the second part, electron transport in carbon nanotube field effect transistors (CNTFETs) is studied using Landauer formalism. A CNTFET involves transport through a 1-d ballistic carbon nanotube channel with Schottky barriers (SB) at contacts which determines the transport characteristics. The CNT is modeled as a 1-d semiconductor having only two bands separated by an energy gap which depends inversely on tube diameter. After the contact is made, a self-consistent potential appears due to charge transfer between CNT and metal, which is calculated by solving Poisson equation. The electron transmission across the barriers is calculated using WKB approximation. Current and conductance are calculated using Landauer-Buttiker formula. Diameter dependence of properties like, conductance, threshold voltage, VON, etc. is calculated. It is found that there is no simple scaling for a property for small values of diameter. The scaling form is, however, found to be valid for larger diameters. Also, other calculated device characteristics are in close agreement with experiments. The model presented in this thesis is the first detailed study illustrating the applicability of the scaling approach to the properties of nanostructures. The static properties show scaling behavior, while ``dynamic'' properties derived from electronic response do not.

With Silicon transistor technology reaching its practical limits, e orts to replace Si with new materials with better electronic transport properties have gained considerable at- tention. Single-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are one of the promising materials for transistors operating beyond 10 nm node technology because of their excellent electronic, thermal and optical properties. There have been many reports on CNTs for various ap- plications including logic circuits, sensors etc. However, field effect transistors (FET) made of CNTs generally exhibit p-type behaviour. In order to realize complementary logic circuits, both p- and n-FETs are necessary. There have been reports demonstrating logic circuits using only p-type CNTFETs as well as complementary structures i.e., both p- and n-CNTFETs. In most cases, the n-CNTFETs used in the complementary logic circuits are fabricated using rare earth metals for source/drain contacts which are not suitable for large-scale fabrication. Hence, there is a need to develop a more practical approach to fabricate n-CNTFETs/Complementary logic circuits. Another key issue with CNTFET technology is the development of suitable contact electrode material that gives low barrier heights for both p- and n-type CNTFETs. In the first part of the thesis, two methods have been explored to fabricate n- CNTFETs viz., (a) Polymer doping and (b) Surface passivation using Silicon Nitride (SiNx) films. Both the methods resulted in air-stable n-CNTFETs using back-gate ge- ometry. However, the polymer doping method was found to be unsuitable for top-gated n-CNTFETs. In the surface passivation method, SiNx lm covers the surface of CNT- FETs, preventing the CNTs from exposure to atmospheric oxygen, thus, making them n-type. This method of obtaining n-type CNTFETs is advantageous as SiNx lm serves both as a passivation layer and as a top gate dielectric. Thus, the multifunctional nature of SiNx film reduces fabrication complexity. In order to fabricate top-gated n-CNTFETs, SiNx thin film is deposited using Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) method. The developed SiNx films have been characterized for their optical and dielectric properties using Ellipsometry and electrical measurements such as C-V and I-V respec- tively. The SiNx films with 15 nm thickness have a refractive index of 1.96, a dielectric constant of 5 and current leakage density of 10􀀀6 A/cm2 at 1 MV/cm. XPS measure- ments have been carried out to determine the compositional analysis which indicates the stoichiometry of the films is Si3N4. Using 15 nm thick SiNx films as a gate dielectric, top-gated n-CNTFETs have been fabricated. These top-gated n-CNTFETs have an Ef- fective Oxide Thickness (EOT) of 10 nm and operating gate voltages within 2.5 V that resulted in mobilities of 15 cm2/Vs and subthreshold slopes of 180 mV/dec. Using two such n-CNTFETs, a logic inverter was fabricated and evaluated, thus demonstrating the suitability of PECVD grown SiNx films as gate dielectric for logic circuit applications. In the next part, top-gated p-CNTFETs have been fabricated using electron beam evaporated HfO2 (30 nm thick) as a gate dielectric. The fabricated top-gated p-CNTFETs have an EOT of 6.5 nm, operating gate voltages within 2.5 V, mobilities of 35 cm2/Vs and subthreshold slopes of 130 mV/dec. These p-CNTFETs are then integrated with n-CNTFETs and demonstrated a complementary logic inverter with a dc gain as high as 6.7 and operating voltages within 1 V. In this approach, both the dielectric lms (HfO2 for p-CNTFETs and SiNx for n-CNTFETs) have been deposited at a low temperature making the process suitable for region-selective deposition of dielectric films. This fabri- cation approach is CMOS compatible and is suitable for large-scale fabrication since the usage of rare earth metal contacts is avoided. The last part of the thesis deals with the issue of barrier heights at CNT-metal junction. One of the problems in the electronic performance of CNTFETs has been the high barrier height of CNT - metal contact forming a Schottky junction which results in low ON currents. Low Schottky barrier contacts are possible for both p-type and n-type CNTFETs, using different metals e.g. Palladium for p-type and Scandium for n-type CNTFETs. As mentioned earlier, the metals used for n-type CNTFETs are rare earth metals and may not be suitable for large-scale production. On the other hand, graphene is considered to be an excellent contact material for CNT devices because of their homogeneous carbon junction and better wettability to CNTs. In this work, both p- and n-type CNTFETs are fabricated and characterized by utilizing graphene as a contact electrode material. Using temperature dependent I-V measurements, it is shown that the barrier height at CNT - graphene junction is close to zero for both electron and hole transport. This indicates the suitability of graphene as an Ohmic contact material for complementary logic circuits using CNTFETs. It has also been observed that there is no correlation between the barrier height at the CNT - graphene junction and thickness of graphene.

碩士
國立交通大學
電子工程系所
93
Since carbon nanotube field effect transistor (CNTFET) was demonstrated in 1998, electrical properties of CNTFETs such as mobility, carrier transportation, cut-off frequency, etc., were investigated widely by many researchers. Among these properties, the hysteresis effect of CNTFETs is one of the key points because it affects the device stability. On the other hand, the hysteresis effect reveals the possibility for sensor or memory applications. Since 2002, researchers have two perspectives on the mechanism which causes the hysteresis effect. One is the water molecules adsorption on the surface of carbon nanotube and the other one is the carrier injection into dielectric due to the gate bias induced high electron field. In this work, we study the hysteresis effect of CNTFET under different environments, including adding polar molecules (water and alcohol)、in vacuum ambient、at various temperatures、capping with thin film as well as light illumination. Top gate and bottom gate devices with and without gate to source/drain overlap were fabricated. It is found that water molecules dominate the hysteresis effect as carbon nanotube (channel) is exposed to the ambient. Adding polar molecules will enhance the hysteresis effect. But when we exclude the affect of water molecules, for example in vacuum environment, the hysteresis effect is still observed due to carrier injecting into dielectric. These results suggest that to obtain stable CNTFETs, CNT channel must not be exposed to polar molecules. Furthermore, the dielectrics those contact with CNT must have low defect density and the operation voltage must be not too high. The feasibility for CNTFET as a memory device is also evaluated. It is found that the retention time of CNTFET would be several thousands seconds. The switching time of the gate-source/drain non-overlapped device could be less than 0.4msec. It is clear that the switching speed of CNTFET is higher than that of the FLASH device but the retention time is much shorter. Although the read/write/erase cycle can be much higher than 106, to be a memory device, there are still several bottlenecks need to be overcome.

碩士
國立彰化師範大學
電子工程學系
105
Content-addressable memory (CAM) compares input search data in parallel against a table of stored data, and then returns the address of the matching data. CAMs can be used in a wide variety of applications which requires high-speed parallel search. As the feature size continues to shrink and the corresponding transistor density increases, the planar MOSFET suffers from the increasing subthreshold and gate leakage currents. Carbon nanotube transistors (CNTFETs) are promising devices to overcome the shortcomings of the traditional planar MOSFETs because CNTFETs have distinctive one-dimensional band-structure that can suppress backscattering and support near-ballistic operation. Moreover, the threshold voltage of a CNTFET can be controlled by its diameter, which is determined by the chirality vector of the carbon nanotubes in the CNTFET. Thus, CNTFETs can easily support multi-threshold design. This thesis deals with the design of ternary content-addressable memory (TCAM) with CNTFET devices. First, we explored the optimal design of ternary inverters, and we have proposed a novel ternary inverter which dissipates less power than other ternary inverters. Second, we proposed a novel TCAM structure, called Ternary-Inverter-Based TCAM (TIB TCAM), which exhibits the advantages of smaller area and lower power consumption than other TCAMs. In order to evaluate the performance of the proposed TIB TCAM, we have performed HSPICE simulations using Stanford University CNFET (Carbon Nanotube Field Effect Transistors) Hspice model. Simulation results showed that the proposed TIB TCAM can reduce power dissipation by 41.1% and reduce TCAM search time by 11.8% compared to traditional TCAMs.

碩士
國立臺北科技大學
機電整合研究所
101
Influenza, commonly known as flu, is a highly contagious disease. Evidence supports the transmission of the disease is by direct or indirect contact or by droplet and airborne transmission. Diagnose of influenza infection is made by isolating the virus or detecting it by antigen detection or nucleic acid testing methods. Our innovation is to apply carbon nanotube coated with H1N1 aptamer as a biosensor component and embed it into mask for detection of the influenza virus. Before achieving this goal, we firstly use our biosensor to detect H1N1 contained droplet in the laboratory for simulation. Based on its result, we will take further steps to accomplish the final goal.

碩士
國立彰化師範大學
電子工程學系
107
Content-Addressable Memory (CAM) is a special kind of memory that allows parallel search of data, and it is widely used for pattern recognition, data compression, and network address translation. In recent years, because the characteristic size of the transistor continues to shrink and the corresponding transistor density increases, the conventional planer MOSFET may have problems such as increasing subthreshold and gate leakage currents. This thesis uses a carbon nanotube transistor (CNTFET) to replace the traditional MOSFET, to effectively overcome the shortcomings of the traditional planar MOSFETs. The threshold voltage of a CNTFET can be controlled by its diameter, which is determined by the chirality vector of the carbon nanotubes in the CNTFET. Thus, CNTFETs can easily support multi-threshold design. This thesis is based on Ternary-Inverter-Based TCAM (TIB TCAM), which was previously proposed by our research group. First, we used three kinds of ternary inverters, including Shreya-Inv, Lomb1-Inv and Our-Inv, to form three kinds of TIB TCAMs, called Shreya-TIB-TCAM, Lomb1-TIB-TCAM and Our-TIB-TCAM, respectively. Then, we combined Precharge Controller (PC), which was proposed by Konga Suresh et al., with the three TIB TCAMs to form three TIB TCAMs with PC, called Shreya-TIB-TCAM w. PC, Lomb1-TIB-TCAM w. PC and Our-TIB-TCAM w. PC, respectively. To evaluate the performance of Shreya-TIB-TCAM w. PC, Lomb1-TIB-TCAM w. PC and Our-TIB-TCAM w. PC, we used HSPICE to do the simulations, comparing the power consumption for Shreya-TIB-TCAM, Lomb1-TIB-TCAM and Our-TIB-TCAM with/without PC. The simulation results show that the proposed Shreya-TIB-TCAM w. PC, Lomb1-TIB-TCAM w. PC and Our-TIB-TCAM w. PC can reduce 36.0%, 39.6% and 37.2% of power consumption and reduce 18.6%, 20.7% and 5.3% of search time.

碩士
國立臺北科技大學
機電整合研究所
99
As technology advances and the trend of people being more aware of their health becomes more popular, applying high-end technology on biomedical research is the mainstream of scientific research now, with the outlook of a full-dimensional development in the field of biotechnology. Biochip is already acknowledged as revolutionary development in recent biotechnology, as it brings exponential growth in biomedicine, chemistry and environment related fields. The main features of this biosensor is: specificity of analyzed result, high sensitivity, fast analyzing speed, requires few samples and reagents, capable of acquiring comprehensive data of experiment, doesn’t require processing in laboratory afterward which saves cost and space of laboratory and reducing inaccuracy from human operations. The study demonstrates the fabrication of CMOS compatible humidity sensor based on CNTs. To begin with, CNTs were treated acid procedure, and then the SiO2 on the silicon wafer was modified by APTS in order to form an aminoterminated (–NH2) self-assembled monolayer (SAM), which could facilitate the chemical bonding between CNTs and amino-groups. By means of it, CNTs were immobilized on SiO2 to be the thin film of humidity sensing. Photolithography and Sputtering were then implemented to develop micro parallel electrodes. At last, it was completed the fabrication. Influenza or H1N1 is a type of highly contagious disease and it is proved to transmit by air. Base on the study, the influenza virus is transmitted through infected droplets in the air from coughing and sneezing. Therefore, it will be the vital subject to have carbon nanotube as biosensor component and construct with mask to detect H1N1. To achieve this goal, first of all, we use our biosensor to detect H1N1 droplet. Base on its result, we will take further action to detect H1N1 micro droplet in the air. In this study, we not only successfully apply the fabrication to the purpose of mass production, but also integrate it with CMOS circuits to achieve System on Chip (SoC). Moreover, from the experiment, the CNTs sensitivity of acid treatment more than untreat CNTs, the acid treatment can greatly enhance the adsorbability of CNTs to water by introducing hydrophilic carboxylic (-COOH) functional groups to the sidewalls and ends of CNTs.

Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Entwicklung und Implementierung eines Algorithmus zur Berechnung des diffusiven elektronischen Transportes durch Kohlenstoffnanoröhrchen-Feldeffekttransistoren (CNTFETs) unter Verwendung des Drift-Diffusions-Modells. Als Grundlage dient ein bekannter, eindimensionaler Algorithmus für klassische Halbleiter, durch welchen das elektrostatische Potential im stationären Zustand berechnet werden kann. Dieser Algorithmus wird erweitert, um die geometrischen und physikalischen Besonderheiten von CNTFETs, insbesondere die Quasi-Eindimensionalität, zu berücksichtigen. Wichtige Kenngrößen des CNTFETs werden berechnet und deren Abhängigkeit von den Bauteilparametern wird untersucht.:1. Einleitung 2. Theoretische Betrachtungen 2.1. Kohlenstoffnanoröhrchen 2.1.1. Graphen als Baustein für CNTs 2.1.2. Eigenschaften von CNTs 2.2. Drift-Diffusions-Modell 2.2.1. Drift-Diffusions-Gleichungen 2.2.2. Kontinuitätsgleichungen 2.2.3. Poisson-Gleichung 3. Implementierung 3.1. Modell für klassische Halbleiter 3.1.1. Herleitung der dimensionslosen Bewegungsgleichungen 3.1.2. Umformung der Drift-Diffusions-Gleichungen 3.1.3. Iterative Lösung des Gleichungssystems 3.2. Anwendung des Modells auf Kohlenstoffnanoröhrchen 3.2.1. Betrachtetes Modell 3.2.2. Separationsansatz und Poisson-Gleichung 3.2.3. Anpassung der Drift-Diffusions-Gleichungen 3.2.4. Gate-Spannung 3.2.5. Intrinsische Ladungsträgerdichte und Ladungsträgerrandbedingungen 3.2.6. Dielektrizität 3.3. Numerik 3.3.1. Berechnung der Ladungsträgerdichten 3.3.2. Lösung der Poisson-Gleichung 3.3.3. Iterative Veränderung von Parameterwerten 3.3.4. Überprüfung der Konvergenz des Gitters 4. Auswertung 4.1. Literaturmodelle 4.2. Ergebnisse 4.2.1. Potentialverlauf 4.2.2. Potentialplateau 4.2.3. Abschirmlänge 4.2.4. Stromfluss 4.2.5. Rechenzeit 5. Zusammenfassung Anhang A. Herleitung der Drift-Diffusions-Gleichungen aus der Boltzmann-Transportgleichung B. Herleitung der eindimensionalen Poisson-Gleichung aus dem Separationsansatz

Kohlenstoffnanoröhren (engl. carbon nanotubes) bieten hervorragende elektrische Eigenschaften für neuartige Feldeffekttransistoren (engl. field-effect transistors) auf engstem Raum. Eine Möglichkeit zur Verbesserung der elektrischen Eigenschaften bietet eine geeignete Passivierung mit Hexamethyldisiloxan. In dieser Arbeit werden eine Flüssig- und eine Gasphasenbehandlung von Siliziumoxid-Oberflächen mit Hexamethyldisiloxan untersucht. Die Oberflächen werden dabei in wenigen Minuten hydrophobiert. Nach längeren Behandlungszeiten werden Wasserkontaktwinkel von 95° erreicht, die auch noch nach mehreren Tagen und einer Woche nachweisbar sind. In der Anwendung auf Kohlenstoffnanoröhren-Feldeffekttransistoren (engl. carbon nanotube field-effect transistors) wird die Hysterese um durchschnittlich 30 % gesenkt. Das Ziel der Behandlung wurde damit erreicht und lässt sich auf die erfolgreiche Beseitigung von Ladungsfallen durch Adsorbate zurückführen. Zusätzlich sinkt der An-Strom um 60 %. Für gute An-Aus-Verhältnisse über mehrere Größenordnungen bedeutet das jedoch keine drastische Verschlechterung der Schalteigenschaften. Die in dieser Arbeit vorgeschlagene Hexamethyldisiloxan-Gasphasenbehandlung kann daher erfolgreich zur Verringerung der Hysterese in Kohlenstoffnanoröhren-Feldeffekttransistoren eingesetzt werden.:1 Einleitung 6 2 Material und Methoden 8 2.1 Siliziumoxid-Oberflächen 8 2.2 Hexamethyldisiloxan als Passivierungsmittel 8 2.3 Flüssigphasenbehandlung 9 2.4 Gasphasenbehandlung 10 2.5 Kontaktwinkelmessung 11 3 Feldeffekttransistoren auf der Basis von Kohlenstoffnanoröhren 13 3.1 Kohlenstoffnanoröhren 13 3.1.1 Struktur und Nomenklatur 13 3.1.2 Elektrische Eigenschaften 14 3.2 Kohlenstoffnanoröhren-Feldeffekttransistoren 16 3.2.1 Aufbau, Herstellung und Funktionsprinzip 16 3.2.2 Kenngrößen zur FET-Charakterisierung 17 3.2.3 IU-Messung 19 4 Ergebnisse und Auswertung 20 4.1 Ergebnisse der Kontaktwinkelmessungen 20 4.1.1 Referenzmessungen auf Siliziumoxidoberflächen 20 4.1.2 Flüssigphasenbehandlung 21 4.1.3 Gasphasenbehandlung 21 4.1.4 Fehlerbetrachtung 25 4.1.5 Vergleich von Flüssig- und Gasphasenbehandlung 26 4.2 HMDSO-Behandlung von CNTFETs 27 4.2.1 Ergebnisse der IU-Messungen 28 4.2.2 Fehlerbetrachtung 31 5 Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse und Ausblick 32

Ever since their discovery in 1991, carbon nanotubes are of great interest to the scientific community due to their outstanding optical, mechanical and electrical properties. Considering their impressive properties, as for instance the high current carrying capability and the possibility of ballistic charge transport, carbon nanotubes are a desired channel material in field-effect transistors, especially with respect to high frequency communication electronics. Thus, many scientific studies on CNT-based field-effect transistors have been published so far. But despite the successful verification of excellent individual electric key values, corresponding experiments are mostly performed under synthetic conditions (considering e.g. temperature or gas atmosphere), which are not realizable during realistic application scenarios. Furthermore, technologically relevant factors like homogeneity, reproducibility and yield of functioning devices are often subordinated to the achievement of a single electric record value. Hence, this work focuses on the development of a fabrication technology for carbon nanotube field-effect transistors, that takes those factors into account. Thereby, this work expands the state of the art by introduction and statistical assessment of two cleaning processes: a) wet chemical removal of surfactant residues (sodium dodecylsulfate) from CNTs, integrated using the dielectrophoretic approach, by investigation and comparison of four procedures (de-ionized water, HNO3, oDCB, Ethanol); b) the reduction of process-related substrate contaminations by application of an oxygen plasma. Beyond that, the passivation of the final, working devices is developed further, as their typical definition as diffusion barrier is expanded by the reduction of parasitic capacitances in the transistor. In this context, two so far barely considered materials, hydrogen silsesquioxane and Xdi-dcs, a polymer mixture of poly(vinylphenol) and polymethylsilsesquioxane, are investigated and assessed. The novelty of the Xdi-dcs mixture causes the necessity of fundamental considerations on controllable etching procedures and resulting adaptions of the technological fabrication sequence.:Bibliographic description 3 List of abbreviations 10 List of symbols 10 1 Introduction 13 2 Basics of carbon nanotubes 15 2.1 Structural fundamentals 15 2.1.1 Hybridization of carbon 15 2.1.2 Structure of carbon nanotubes 17 2.2 Electronic properties 19 2.2.1 Band structure of graphene 19 2.2.2 Band structure of carbon nanotubes 20 2.2.3 Electronic transport in CNTs 22 2.3 Procedures for CNT integration 23 2.3.1 Growth by chemical vapor deposition 24 2.3.2 Transfer techniques 24 2.3.3 Dispersion-related integration procedures 25 2.4 Interaction of CNT and surfactant 28 3 Basics of CNT field-effect transistors 31 3.1 Principle of operation of conventional FETs 31 3.2 Distinctive features of CNT-based FETs 32 3.2.1 Metal - semiconductor contact 33 3.2.2 Linearity 38 3.3 Performance determining factors 41 3.3.1 Device architecture 41 3.3.2 Contact geometry 46 3.3.3 Other transistor dimensions 48 3.3.4 CNT-related characteristics 49 3.4 Hysteresis in transfer characteristics 51 3.4.1 Definition of hysteresis 51 3.4.2 Origins of hysteresis 52 3.4.3 Appearance of hysteresis 53 3.5 Passivation 56 3.5.1 Requirements 56 3.5.2 Importance of pre-treatments and process conditions 57 3.5.3 Overview of established passivation materials 58 4 Experimental work 63 4.1 Transistor design 63 4.2 Technology flow 66 4.3 Experimental procedures 71 4.3.1 Procedures for dissolution of SDS 71 4.3.2 Plasma treatment against surface contaminations 72 4.3.3 Evaluation of diffusion barriers 72 4.4 Instrumentation and characterization 74 4.4.1 Dielectrophoresis instrumentation 74 4.4.2 Topographical Characterization 74 4.4.3 Chemical characterization 75 4.4.4 Electrical characterization 76 5 Reduction of hysteresis 77 5.1 Removal of surfactant molecules from CNTs 77 5.1.1 Influence on molecule and CNT chemistry 78 5.1.2 Effect on transistor performance 80 5.2 Plasma-assisted removal of substrate contaminations 87 5.2.1 Influence on substrate surface 88 5.2.2 Effect on transistor performance 92 6 Passivation 97 6.1 Protection against environmental effects 97 6.1.1 Alterability of unpassivated CNT-FETs 98 6.1.2 Effects of O2 exclusion by dense passivation 99 6.1.3 Intentional doping using Y2O3 101 6.2 Passivation considering electrostatic aspects 106 6.2.1 Integration of Xdi-dcs as novel passivation 107 6.2.2 Comparison of two spin-coated dielectrics 111 6.3 Potential of double-layer approaches 113 6.3.1 Evaluation of the gas barrier performance 113 6.3.2 Influence on the transistor behavior 116 7 Summary and Outlook 121 Danksagung 127 Appendix 129 Bibliography 137 List of figures 156 List of tables 161 Selbstständigkeitserklärung 163 8 Thesen 165 9 Curriculum vitae 169
Bereits seit ihrer Entdeckung 1991 sind Kohlenstoffnanoröhren, aufgrund ihrer herausragenden optischen, mechanischen und elektrischen Eigenschaften, für die wissenschaftliche Community von großem Interesse. Ihre Verwendung als Kanalmaterial in Feld-Effekt Transistoren ist in Anbetracht ihrer außergewöhnlichen Eigenschaften, wie z. B. die hohe Stromtragfähigkeit, sowie die Möglichkeit des ballistischen Transports von Ladungsträgern besonders für die hochfrequente Kommunikationselektronik erstrebenswert. Dementsprechend viele wissenschaftliche Arbeiten befassen sich mit der Erforschung von auf Kohlenstoffnanoröhren basierenden Transistoren. Doch trotz des erfolgreichen Nachweises ausgezeichneter Werte für viele individuelle elektrische Kenngrößen, finden entsprechenden Experimente zumeist unter anwendungsfernen Bedingungen bezüglich Temperatur bzw. Gasatmosphäre statt. Darüber hinaus werden dem Erreichen eines elektrischen Rekordwertes oft technologisch relevante Größen wie Homogenität, Reproduzierbarkeit und Ausbeute an funktionsfähigen Bauteilen untergeordnet. Der Fokus dieser Arbeit liegt daher auf der Erarbeitung einer Technologie zur Herstellung Kohlenstoffnanoröhrenbasierter Feld-Effekt Transistoren, unter Berücksichtigung dieser Aspekte. Dabei erweitert diese Arbeit den Stand der Technik durch die Einführung und statistische Beurteilung zweier Reinigungsprozesse: a) der nasschemischen Beseitigung von Tensidresten (Natriumdodecylsulfat) an mittels Dielektrophorese integrierten CNTs, wobei insgesamt vier Prozeduren (de-ionisiertes Wasser, HNO3, oDCB, Ethanol) betrachtet und miteinander verglichen wurden; b) der Beseitigung von prozessbedingten Substratkontaminationen durch ein Sauerstoffplasma. Darüber hinaus wird die Passivierung der funktionsfähigen Bauelemente weiterentwickelt, indem ihre typische Definition als Diffusionsbarriere um den Aspekt der Verringerung parasitärer Kapazitäten im Transistor erweitert wird. In diesem Zusammenhang werden mit Wasserstoff-Silsesquioxane und Xdi-dcs, einem Polymergemisch aus Poly(vinylphenol) und Polymethylsilsesquioxane, zwei bislang wenig beachtete Materialien, untersucht und bewertet. Die Neuheit des Xdi-dcs Gemisches macht dabei fundamentale Untersuchungen zur Strukturierbarkeit und entsprechende technologische Anpassungen im Gesamtablauf nötig.:Bibliographic description 3 List of abbreviations 10 List of symbols 10 1 Introduction 13 2 Basics of carbon nanotubes 15 2.1 Structural fundamentals 15 2.1.1 Hybridization of carbon 15 2.1.2 Structure of carbon nanotubes 17 2.2 Electronic properties 19 2.2.1 Band structure of graphene 19 2.2.2 Band structure of carbon nanotubes 20 2.2.3 Electronic transport in CNTs 22 2.3 Procedures for CNT integration 23 2.3.1 Growth by chemical vapor deposition 24 2.3.2 Transfer techniques 24 2.3.3 Dispersion-related integration procedures 25 2.4 Interaction of CNT and surfactant 28 3 Basics of CNT field-effect transistors 31 3.1 Principle of operation of conventional FETs 31 3.2 Distinctive features of CNT-based FETs 32 3.2.1 Metal - semiconductor contact 33 3.2.2 Linearity 38 3.3 Performance determining factors 41 3.3.1 Device architecture 41 3.3.2 Contact geometry 46 3.3.3 Other transistor dimensions 48 3.3.4 CNT-related characteristics 49 3.4 Hysteresis in transfer characteristics 51 3.4.1 Definition of hysteresis 51 3.4.2 Origins of hysteresis 52 3.4.3 Appearance of hysteresis 53 3.5 Passivation 56 3.5.1 Requirements 56 3.5.2 Importance of pre-treatments and process conditions 57 3.5.3 Overview of established passivation materials 58 4 Experimental work 63 4.1 Transistor design 63 4.2 Technology flow 66 4.3 Experimental procedures 71 4.3.1 Procedures for dissolution of SDS 71 4.3.2 Plasma treatment against surface contaminations 72 4.3.3 Evaluation of diffusion barriers 72 4.4 Instrumentation and characterization 74 4.4.1 Dielectrophoresis instrumentation 74 4.4.2 Topographical Characterization 74 4.4.3 Chemical characterization 75 4.4.4 Electrical characterization 76 5 Reduction of hysteresis 77 5.1 Removal of surfactant molecules from CNTs 77 5.1.1 Influence on molecule and CNT chemistry 78 5.1.2 Effect on transistor performance 80 5.2 Plasma-assisted removal of substrate contaminations 87 5.2.1 Influence on substrate surface 88 5.2.2 Effect on transistor performance 92 6 Passivation 97 6.1 Protection against environmental effects 97 6.1.1 Alterability of unpassivated CNT-FETs 98 6.1.2 Effects of O2 exclusion by dense passivation 99 6.1.3 Intentional doping using Y2O3 101 6.2 Passivation considering electrostatic aspects 106 6.2.1 Integration of Xdi-dcs as novel passivation 107 6.2.2 Comparison of two spin-coated dielectrics 111 6.3 Potential of double-layer approaches 113 6.3.1 Evaluation of the gas barrier performance 113 6.3.2 Influence on the transistor behavior 116 7 Summary and Outlook 121 Danksagung 127 Appendix 129 Bibliography 137 List of figures 156 List of tables 161 Selbstständigkeitserklärung 163 8 Thesen 165 9 Curriculum vitae 169