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Horton, Leslie Nicole. "Childhood obesity and depression". [Huntington, WV : Marshall University Libraries], 2008. http://www.marshall.edu/etd/descript.asp?ref=863.
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Nilzon, Kjell R. "Childhood depressive disorder social withdrawal, anxiety and familial aspects /". Göteborg, Sweden : Dept. of Psychology, Göteborg University, 1996. http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/35143427.html.
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Harrington, Richard Charles. "Adult outcomes of childhood and adolescent depression". Thesis, University of Birmingham, 1991. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.367508.
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The study was based on the clinical data summaries ("item sheets") of children who attended the Maudsley Hospital during the late 1960s and early 1970s. These summaries were used to identify a group of 80 child and adolescent psychiatric patients with an operationally defined depressive syndrome. The depressed children were individually matched with 80 non-depressed psychiatric controls on demographic variables and non-depressive childhood symptoms by a computer algorithm. At follow-up, on average 18 years after the initial contact, information was obtained on the adult psychiatric status of 82% of the total sample. Adult assessments were made "blind" to case/control status, and included standardized measures of "lifetime" psychiatric disorder and psychosocial functioning. The depressed group was at increased risk for affective disorder in adult life, and had elevated risks of psychiatric hospitalization and psychiatric treatment. Depressed children were no more likely than control children to have non-depressive adult psychiatric disorders. These findings suggest that there is substantial specificity in the continuity of affective disturbances between childhood and adult life.
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Eddy, Luke E. "The relationship between childhood obesity and depression". Honors in the Major Thesis, University of Central Florida, 2010. http://digital.library.ucf.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETH/id/1399.
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This item is only available in print in the UCF Libraries. If this is your Honors Thesis, you can help us make it available online for use by researchers around the world by following the instructions on the distribution consent form at http://library.ucf.edu/Systems/DigitalInitiatives/DigitalCollections/InternetDistributionConsentAgreementForm.pdf You may also contact the project coordinator, Kerri Bottorff, at kerri.bottorff@ucf.edu for more information.Bachelors
Nursing
Nursing
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Stewart, James Roosevelt Jr. "Memory and cognitive processes in childhood depression /". The Ohio State University, 1988. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1487597424138804.
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Nicholls, Wendy. "Pathways to depression from childhood and adulthood attachment". Thesis, Loughborough University, 2005. https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/12671.
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Background: The overall aim of the present study was to clanfy the role of attachment as a vulnerability factor towards depression. Further aims were to examine whether attachment was continuous and offered a conduit through which childhood experiences could have an effect on mood In adulthood; and to explore whether each of childhood and adulthood attachment each had separate roles with regards to vulnerability towards depression due to discontinuity between childhood and adulthood attachment, It was hypothesised that the attachment system would not act as a conduit between childhood experiences and depression. It was hypothesised that the association between childhood attachment and depression could instead be mediated by a third variable outside of the attachment system; the Involuntary Defeat Strategy. Attachment theory holds that attachment style moderates the effect of stressors upon depression. It was therefore hypothesised that adult attachment style would moderate the association between stressors and depression. The temporal association between adult attachment and depression is unclear. Based on the findings of prospective studies, It was hypothesised that adult attachment would predict depression over time previous research had used the Parental Bonding Instrument (Parker, Tupling, & Brown, 1979) as an indicator of childhood attachment. It was hypothesised that the Parental Bonding Instrument was not an adequate measure of attachment and by using this measure, past research had been Impeded. A new measure of childhood attachment was therefore constructed for the present study. Method. Data were collected using questionnaires on current depression, childhood attachment experiences, adult romantic attachment, social comparison, and defeat. 1 Data were collected at two stages, with a five month interval. Intemet Mediated data collection and the "paper and pencil" method were both used there were 244 (200 females and 44 males) participants at time one, of which 70 (55 females and 15 males) returned at time two. Results: It was found that the new measure was an improved measure of childhood attachment when compared with the Parental Bonding Instrument. As expected, the association between childhood attachment and depression was mediated by the third variable outside of the attachment system; the Involuntary Defeat Strategy. Contrary to expectations, the association between childhood attachment and depression was mediated by adulthood attachment Changing to a secure adult attachment style had the effect of attenuating the influence of childhood experiences on depression. As hypothesised, It was found that adulthood attachment moderated the association between a stressor and depression specifically, a significant association was found between a stressor and depression only for those participants with an insecure attachment style. Finally, the temporal association between adult attachment and depression could not be established. Both attachment and depression were consistent over time. Conclusions: It was concluded that attachment was a stable vulnerability factor through which childhood experiences could have an effect on depressed mood in adulthood. The pathway from childhood attachment to depression was also mediated by the Involuntary Defeat Strategy. It was concluded that childhood attachment presented an early vulnerability factor, and adult attachment moderated the association between a source of stress and depression suggestions were made for future research where a temporal association between adult attachment and depression would be detected.
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Cerel, Julie. "The role of family factors in childhood depression". The Ohio State University, 2001. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1375275484.
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Longmire, Kristen M. "Vulnerability to childhood depression : race and age differences /". Electronic version (PDF), 2005. http://dl.uncw.edu/etd/2005/longmirek/kristenlongmire.pdf.
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Bende, Brigitta Claudia. "Childhood maltreatment and postnatal depression : are there distinctive risks?" Thesis, University of Liverpool, 2005. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.421036.
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Lee-Genest, Kevyn. "Pathways to adult depression from childhood aggression and withdrawal". Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 2001. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp05/MQ64019.pdf.
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Burgin, Elizabeth. "Effectiveness of Child-Centered Play Therapy on Childhood Depression". Thesis, University of North Texas, 2020. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1703432/.
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Depression in childhood is a significant mental health concern, impacting cognitive, affective, social, behavioral, and physical domains. Children who experience depressive symptoms are at an increased risk for physical and mental health, social, and behavioral problems throughout adulthood. Children who are marginalized due to their socioeconomic status, racial and ethnic identities are at an increased risk to experience depression and limited access to mental health care. Further, previous research has demonstrated limited efficacy of depression treatments for young children. In this study, I examined the efficacy of child-centered play therapy [CCPT], a culturally and developmentally responsive treatment, on depression among young children. Participants were 71 children from five Title 1 elementary schools in the southwestern U.S. referred by school personnel for depressive symptoms (49 males, 22 females; ages 5-9, mean age M = 6.21). The sample consisted of 14 (19.7%) African American, 3 (4.2%) Asian American, 15 (21.1%) biracial, 19 (26.8%) Caucasian, and 20 (28.2%) Latino children. Participants were randomly assigned to eight weeks of twice-weekly CCPT treatment group (n = 34) or a waitlist control group (n = 37). Results of doubly multivariate repeated-measures MANOVA revealed statistically significant improvement in depressive symptoms for children who participated in CCPT on the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire Parent and DOF Sluggish Cognitive Tempo Scale. Repeated measures ANOVA on DOF Total Problems indicated that children in CCPT statistically significantly decreased their demonstration of overall problem behaviors as rated by blind observers. Results of this study support the effectiveness of CCPT with young children of diverse ethnocultural and socioeconomic background.
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De, Wet Debbie. "Childhood depression, expressed emotion and psychotherapy : associations and interactions". Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2003. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/10401.
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Bibliography: leaves 46-53.This study is concerned with the pursuit of ascertaining the efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy in the treatment of childhood depression. Additionally, it is concerned with exploring possible associations between childhood depression and expressed emotion and whether expressed emotion, changes in relation to changes in levels of childhood depression following a therapeutic intervention.
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Sabo, Jason M. "Relative risk of comorbid disorders with childhood and adolescent depressive disorders". Virtual Press, 2007. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/1379125.
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The purpose of this research was to examine the proportion of clients diagnosed with a depressive disorder who also exhibit one or more comorbid disorders. In addition, this study examined multiple aspects of age and gender associated with comorbid disorders in an attempt to better inform treatment and diagnosis of depressive disorders and associated disorders and to answer two questions: 1) What is the proportion of clients diagnosed with a depressive disorder who also exhibit one or more comorbid disorders; and 2) Are there significant differences in number of comorbid disorders among developmental stages and gender. The current study helps to shed light on the understanding of comorbid disorders related to childhood and adolescent depression. Previously, no other study had investigated the changes in comorbidity that take place across childhood development.The present study used an archival data set obtained from the Dean-Woodcock Neurological Battery. Participants included patients that had been referred for psychological and neuropsychological evaluation and treatment at a large outpatient Midwestern neurology practice. For the purpose of the present study, participants were selected from the data set for analysis if he or she were diagnosed with a depressive disorder and were than nineteen-years of age. The sample included 136 males and 74 females (n=210). The ages of the participants ranged from 4 year-old to 18 years-old. Results of an ordinal regression revealed that males were significantly more likely to have a greater number of comorbid diagnoses than females. Additionally, participants appeared to exhibit a greater number of comorbid disorders as the age of the participant increased.Department of Educational Psychology
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Drummond, Lyndsey Elizabeth. "Emotion-related information processing biases associated with depression in childhood". Thesis, University of St Andrews, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10023/2657.
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Few studies have examined depression in children from an Information Processing (IP) perspective. In this thesis a number of domains of IP (known to be associated with adult depression)are examined in children and adolescents, in particular, autobiographical memory specificity in both clinical and non-clinical samples. Foremost, overgeneral memory (OGM) was found for the first time, to be characteristic of dysphoric (Study 1) and clinically depressed children (Study 2). Similarity in the extent of the OGM bias in depressed and dysphoric children was observed. OGM was also comparable across child, adolescent and adult depressed groups (Study 2). Second, OGM predicted depressive symptoms in children during a stressful life event, in the first longitudinal diathesis-stress investigation of OGM to date (Study 3). OGM was also linked for the first time to an overgeneral thinking style and to a depressive attributional style (Study 3) thereby offering possible mechanistic insight in OGM. Third, in support of Williams' (1996) developmental origins hypothesis, OGM was also demonstrated in children in residential care who had suffered significant independently verified negative life events (Study 5). OGM in these youth was positively correlated with deficits in social problem solving and facial-affect identification, in part contextualizing OGM in children alongside depresso-typical biases. Performance on the AMT also varied as a function of severity of abuse with more abused children demonstrating less OGM -a recency memorial coping strategy is proposed to account for this effect. Fourth, a new measure of EF was introduced and highlights the importance of encoding preferences in explaining 0GM (Studies I& 5). Finally, considerable attention is paid to the pattern of valence results across studies. It is noted that effects most often lie with biases in the processing of positive information and that future studies may benefit from a concentration on this aspect of depressogenic bias utilizing a developmental perspective. Several key theoretical and practical implications are carefully discussed.
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Björk, Adina. "Premature Birth & Postpartum Depression in Kosovo : Early Childhood Development". Thesis, Linnéuniversitetet, Institutionen för samhällsstudier (SS), 2020. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-97976.
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Scholars around the world emphazise the value of more research within newborn health and maternal care until 2025, while some even express the need for more research whitin these topics in the specific case of Kosovo. Research about women`s postpartum depression (PPD) in Kosovo linked to the type of delivery was conducted by Obertinca & Dangellia, (2016), which demonstrate a research gap by asserting that current topic information within the country is scarce. This research objective was to focus on different expert perspectives in Kosovo, around linkages between a premature birth (PTB) and the mother`s PPD. Kosovo as a case presents an example of how low and middle income countries address their health policies within their national health-care system. The aim of the study was to understand what it is about PTB that seems to raise PPD amongst women in Kosovo. One important indication of further research value, is that research presented by Vigod et al, (2010) indicates strong linkages between prematurity and the mother`s PPD, while research according to Halbreich, (2005) claims that it is need for more conceptually integrated research and interdisciplinary approaches before one can establish possible linkages. An abductive logic of enquiry was used together with mixed methods within a multistage methodological approach, conducted remotely with representatives of United Nations Children`s Fund (UNICEF) and Action for Mother`s and Children (AMC) health-care staff, specialized on maternal and child health. It was found that different experts in Kosovo working with maternal and child health, shared the general perception around linkages between prematurity and the increased risk for the mother to develop PPD. Increased understanding about this topic is of highest importance since it can be linked to the country`s high numbers of infant mortality rate and performed caesarean sections, which directly affects maternal health and child development. The study used family systems theory and attachment theory in combination to develop a conceptual framework, which was useful during the thematic and content analysation process of the presented data. This study has contributed with new scientific knowledge to the on-going debate about prematurity and women`s postpartum depression, by triangulation of data from different key informants in Kosovo. This paper has provided conclusions with the basis for further research to be conducted.
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Granger, Melissa Ann. "Spirituality, depression, and anxiety in survivors of childhood sexual abuse /". View abstract, 2001. http://library.ccsu.edu/ccsu%5Ftheses/showit.php3?id=1628.
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Thesis (M.A.) -- Central Connecticut State University, 2001.Thesis advisor: Laura Levine. "...in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in General Psychology." Includes bibliographical references (leaves [26]-[31]).
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Michael, Kurt David. "The Efficacy of Treatments for Childhood Depression: An Integrative Review". DigitalCommons@USU, 1999. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/etd/6117.
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Prevalence estimates of child depression are substantial and morbidity leads to an increased risk of recurrence during adolescence and adulthood . Further , early-onset depression is associated with a number of negative outcomes including: poor physical health , social and interpersonal impairments , academic problems , substance abuse , future maladjustment , and suicidal behavior. In light of the prevalence , persistence, and negative outcomes associated with depression in children and adolescents , several treatments ranging from psychosocial to pharmacological interventions have been developed and evaluated. However, the overall efficacy of treatments remains equivocal because the majority of existing reviews of the child and adolescent depression treatment literature are narrative in nature, methodologically flawed , and/or present vague or conflicting conclusions. Although there are a number of good meta-analytic reviews that indicate that psychotherapy is effective with children and adolescents overall, comprehensive meta-analytic reviews focusing on the efficacy of psychological treatments specifically for depressed youth are nonexistent in the published literature.
A comprehensive sample of studies on the psychosocial and pharmacological treatment of early-onset depression was located through an extensive literature search. Articles that met the inclusionary criteria were subsequently analyzed. The outcome data from 3 7 outcome studies were extracted and converted into effect sizes. Comparisons of main effects, potential interactions, and other specified variables were conducted. The overall findings of this meta-analysis indicate that several different psychosocial interventions for early-onset depression produce moderate to large treatment gains that are clinically meaningful for many afflicted youth. Further, it appears that psychosocial treatments are, in general, superior to pharmacological regimens in treating depressed children and adolescents. However, there is also recent evidence that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as fluoxetine are efficacious, and they will likely play an increased role in the management of affective illness in youngsters. The clinical implications and limitations of these data are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided.
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Vandamme, Thomas H. P. "A psychological study of childhood depression in a rural population". Thesis, Vandamme, Thomas H. P. (2001) A psychological study of childhood depression in a rural population. PhD thesis, Murdoch University, 2001. https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/52316/.
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Depressive symptoms as measured with the Children’s Depression Inventory (GDI) were analysed for a large sample (1250) of school children ranging in age from eight to 12 years. They were distributed among eight schools from five towns in the Pilbara Region of Western Australia. Most (861) were followed up at least once while small subsamples were retested up to three times. A small random sample was also selected from the top and bottom ten per cent of the GDI distribution as it was presented at the initial assessment.
In addition to self-reported depression, estimates of mental ability, basic attainments in spelling and arithmetic, pessimism, social skills deficits, self-esteem, and family relations were obtained. Reading comprehension scores and attendance records were provided by some schools as well. The first follow-up focused on depression, hopelessness, and peer rejection.
Statistically, the CDI data was calibrated with Rasch analysis, followed by distribution statistics, ANOVA, multiple regression analysis and Chi-squared. Rasch analysis was also employed to examine CDI item response patterns according to age. Finally, factor analysis was used in order to report on the factor structure of the CDI.
The main findings were moderate age differences, but for total CDI scores only. That is, older children had a tendency to have lower CDI scores than younger children.
As to cognitive differences, higher depression scores tended to be associated with lower scores in mental ability, spelling, and arithmetic. A moderate positive relationship was also obtained between depression and absenteeism. Peer group rejection was a strong predictor of depression especially for the initial assessment. A further analysis with critical cut-offs for both ‘depression’ and ‘rejection’ showed, however, that the relationship between the two variables was a complex one in that a sizeable number of children were high in rejection, but at the same time not at the clinical cut-off for depression.
There was a moderate gender difference obtained for depression with the older girls having lower scores than boys. Depression was also inversely associated with self-concept in that impairment in self-concept was a strong predictor for increased depression.
Hopelessness was the strongest predictor for depression both initially and at follow-up. Similarly to peer-group rejection, the relationship between hopelessness and depression, when critical cut-offs were employed, showed that only about half of those at a clinical level for depression were also at a clinical level for hopelessness. Longitudinally, the best predictor for subsequent depression was previous depression.
When clinical cut-offs were used for depression, a decline in severity was observed in subsequent depression for those who scored at a critical level the first time they were tested. An increase in depression upon follow-up, however, occurred for those who were below the clinical cut-off initially. Prevalence rates with a GDI cut-off score of 19 or greater were between 12 and 13 per cent for the largest sample.
It was hypothesized that the GDI factor structure would closely resemble the factor structure of the normative study and related surveys, and this was generally supported. Finally, the results are discussed in relation to theoretical explanations and the literature in childhood depression together with implications for treatment, methodological limitations and future directions.
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Kloppers, Anelda. "The construction of childhood depression in South African women's interest magazines". Diss., University of Pretoria, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/62643.
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This qualitative study aimed to explore the constructions of childhood depression as portrayed in South African women's interest magazines. Departing from a postmodern paradigm and utilising a social constructionist framework, these magazines were regarded as part of larger mass media discourses on childhood depression. The magazines contribute to the construction of 'truths' about childhood depression in its audience. To explore the research question, three of the highest circulating magazines in South Africa containing texts related to childhood depression were identified. The magazines were aimed not only at women, but at both English- and Afrikaans-speaking women, and at African, Caucasian, and possibly Coloured women. The hardcopies of these magazines were sourced from the publisher for a period of approximately two years each. A total of 20 articles that spoke to childhood depression were identified in these magazines. Two forms of analysis were used in a mutually enriching and recursive manner. The contextual analysis allowed an enriched insight into the context of the articles. The thematic analysis gave way to themes and subthemes to emerge. It was found that although perceptions in these articles were most often in line with professional psychological knowledge, at times it failed to speak to uniquely South African concerns regarding childhood depression, and often reified problematic discourses. It was concluded that mass media may be a powerful tool to employ by government organisations, health professionals, and social scientists, to address problematic mental health discourses in South Africa.Mini Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2017.
Psychology
MA
Unrestricted
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Werner, Patrice Holden. "The Symptoms of Childhood Depression as Factors in Children's Reading Difficulties". Thesis, North Texas State University, 1985. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc331850/.
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The purpose of this study was to investigate symptoms of childhood depression as factors in elementary school age children's reading difficulties. Subjects for study included children who evidenced symptoms of depression from among those referred to the Pupil Appraisal Center (PAC) at North Texas State University for reading difficulties between October, 1983, and April, 1985. The Weinberg Affective Scale (WAS), a screening device for childhood depression, was used to identify the subjects for this study. Using document analysis as the research approach, the researcher examined, recorded, and categorized referral and evaluation statements made by parents, teachers, counselors, and reading specialists the subjects1 PAC files that described symptoms of childhood depression. Also analyzed were diagnostic test data from the evaluation reports of PAC counselors and reading specialists.
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Taylor, T., Julie Obenauer-Motley, Edward Leinaar, I. Ozodiegwu i Megan Quinn. "Interrelationships of Adverse Childhood Experiences, Stroke, and Depression Among BRFSS Respondents". Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2018. https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu-works/8183.
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Lim-Ashworth, S. "Longitudinal pathways of emotion regulation, maternal depression and early childhood psychopathology". Thesis, University College London (University of London), 2016. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1522029/.
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Emotion regulation (ER) is complex and can implicate numerous outcomes within a child’s environment. It is a valuable framework in conceptualising adaptive and maladaptive functioning in children (Cicchetti, Ackerman, & Izard, 1995). The current thesis provides a developmental account of ER and addresses a number of critical questions in three parts. Part one is a meta-analysis of 17 studies. It investigated the effectiveness of ER interventions for children which was found to improve regulatory abilities as well as behavioural and clinical outcomes, compared to having no treatment or an alternative treatment. Factors such as age, duration and sample origin did not differentiate treatment gains. The majority of the included studies had interventions that were group-based and informed by CBT principles. Part two describes an empirical study utilising prospective observational data to examine preschoolers’ ER, over time, and its interaction with maternal depression on subsequent externalising and internalising behaviours. ER was represented by emotion reactivity, social regulation and redirected attention. It was assessed at age 15, 26 and 37 months. The three ER indices were not significant precursors of later emotional and behavioural symptoms. However, lower emotion reactivity at 15 months was found to intensify the direct influence of maternal depression on externalising but not internalising problems. Coding of the ER variables was jointly completed with another trainee. Part three presents a critical appraisal of the dissertation process. A discussion on the choice of research topic, learning points and challenges encountered was included. It concludes with a consideration of childhood ER from the perspective of culture.
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Houghton, Sharon. "Depressive symptomatology in childhood : an exploration of contributory factors". Thesis, University of Ulster, 1999. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.326321.
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Georgakakou, Koutsonikou Niki. "Children's and adolescents' conceptualisations of depression". Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/1842/31057.
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While there is extensive research on adult conceptualisations of mental illness, as well as on children’s understanding of physical health and illness, research on children’s conceptualisations of mental illness is limited. The primary aim of this thesis is to provide a detailed account of children’s and adolescents’ conceptualisations of depression. In the first study, individual semi-structured interviews with primary school pupils (N=105) from two age groups (mean ages: 8.9 and 11.8 years) were conducted, with the use of depression and control vignettes, to elicit children’s depression concepts, help-seeking intentions and desired social distance. Children’s depression conceptualisations were organised according to the common-sense model of illness representations (CSM). Quantitative content analysis was performed to allow for descriptive analysis; in turn, inferential statistics were used to examine age, gender and self-reported direct and indirect experience differences. Children differentiated between depression and control vignettes, however did not spontaneously label depression or recognised the mental health nature of difficulties. Children provided a wide variety of possible causes that reflected common risk factors for depression, primarily referring to interpersonal factors. Children considered negative consequences of untreated depression, and identified that depressed characters need help. They suggested numerous sources of help, which were mainly informal. Children considered depression to be curable and would seek help primarily from parents if depressed. Older children showed more sophisticated conceptualisations of depression. No substantial gender or experience differences were found. Subsequently, a single session school-based mental health literacy intervention on adolescent depression, adapted from an intervention created by NHS mental health professionals, was developed, using the mental health literacy and CSM frameworks. The second study consists of a pilot evaluation of the intervention, using a controlled before and after design, to examine the effect of the intervention on young people’s depression literacy, help-seeking and help-providing intentions as well as social distance. Young people’s depression literacy was measured by the Adolescent Concepts of Depression Questionnaire (ACDQ), developed for the purposes of this study. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted to indicate the factor structure of the ACDQ, which was in turn used to examine participants’ baseline depression literacy and the effect of age, gender, current depressive symptomatology and direct/ indirect experience with depression and other mental illness (Study 2a). In turn, the effectiveness of the intervention is presented (Study 2b). 339 adolescents (mean age: 13.4 years, 168 female) were allocated to either the intervention (N=171) or a control group (N=168), and completed the ACDQ one week before and following the intervention. Mixed results were found for gender, depressive symptoms and experience differences. Mixed ANOVA was conducted between time and group; the results show that the intervention was effective in informing young people’s depression literacy (ACDQ total score), and specifically in young people’s knowledge of treatment options for depression (treatment subscale), perceived curability of depression (curability subscale), symptom recognition, help-seeking and help-providing intentions. No significant improvements were found for social distance, perceived helpfulness of sources of help, and two of the ACDQ subscales. The contribution of this thesis lies upon the detailed examination of children and adolescent depression conceptualisations, adding to the limited evidence base, especially in children’s mental health literacy. The pilot evaluation of the intervention is promising, and upon re-evaluation could be standardised and implemented in Scottish schools. Implications for clinical practice and mental health literacy are also discussed.
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Scolio, Jay. "Early Maladaptive Schemas Underlying the Relation between Childhood Maltreatment and Adult Depression". Miami University / OhioLINK, 2015. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=miami1448027064.
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Siener, Shannon N. "THE ROLE OF EMOTION REGULATION IN CHILDHOOD DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS". Kent State University / OhioLINK, 2010. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=kent1269285282.
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Tucker, Rachel. "Treatment-resistent depression and childhood maltreatment : interpersonal functioning and quality of life". Thesis, University of London, 2010. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.542383.
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Robinson, Kristen E. "Identifying Early Markers of Childhood Depression Using the NICHD-SECCYD Longitudinal Dataset". Antioch University / OhioLINK, 2011. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=antioch1319136243.
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Scher, Christine D. "Mechanisms of the relationship between childhood attachment and adult anxiety and depression /". Diss., Connect to a 24 p. preview or request complete full text in PDF format. Access restricted to UC campuses, 2000. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/ucsd/fullcit?p9970687.
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Johnson, Norman Chris. "A Follow-Up Study of a Primary Prevention Program Targeting Childhood Depression". DigitalCommons@USU, 2000. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/etd/5576.
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Children have not historically been the subject of research focusing on internalizing disorders (i.e., childhood depression), even though childhood depression continues to be viewed as one of the most prevalent affective problem within this population. Over the past two decades, a small portion of that literature describes prevention efforts in public schools. There has been a growing body of literature centered on childhood depression. However, there are only three studies that report on longitudinal findings that have taken a primary prevention approach.
The present study was a follow-up investigation to delineate the effects of a school-based primary prevention program. The original study utilized a social/ interpersonal and cognitive-behavioral model incorporated into the health education curriculum of the school.
The results of the study suggest that the students continued to report normal to low levels of depressive symptoms at one-year follow-up . The results also suggest that students maintained the social skills gained during the intervention at the one-year followup. In addition, reports of depressive symptomatology slightly declined from posttest to one-year follow-up.
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Roniger, Antje [Verfasser]. "Comparing chronic depression and episodic depression and the interplay of childhood trauma and personality disorder with chronic depression : a cross-sectional study in adult outpatients with depression / Antje Roniger". Lübeck : Zentrale Hochschulbibliothek Lübeck, 2018. http://d-nb.info/1153436892/34.
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Oliveira, Lorena de Melo Mendonça. "ESTUDO DE SINTOMAS DEPRESSIVOS EM CRIANÇAS INSTITUCIONALIZADAS". Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, 2014. http://localhost:8080/tede/handle/tede/1882.
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Previous issue date: 2014-11-24The present essay is organized in two sections, which main target is studying child depression in institutionalized children. The first section consists of a systematic bibliographic review to examine or analyze the scientific production, concerning the studies where assessments tools were used to evaluate child depression in the last ten years. To make it possible, a search in the following national and international database files was made (September 2003 to August 2013.): Virtual Library in Health- BVS Psi Scielo, Lilacs, Index Psi Magazines and Pepsic, using different combination among keywords. The results showed that the studies were in conducted various areas of knowledge, and that the predominant method of descriptive research with quantitative data analyzes. A total of twenty-eight articles were brought up. The results showed that the studies were in conducted various areas of knowledge, and that the predominant method of descriptive research with quantitative data analyzes. Considerable proportion of articles aimed to investgate the factors that cause childhood depression (N=10; 35,7%) and related to such pathology symptoms (N=7; 25%). Ten different instruments to analyze child depression were found. The Child Depression Inventory CDI was the instrument of major incidence (N=21; 75%) and presented good intern consistency with the selected studies. The second section is about an empiric article which aims at analyzing depressive symptoms in institutionalized sheltered children, compared to children living with their families. Fifty male and female children were part of this study aged between 7 and 11 years old. Twentythree of these children lived in institutions-shelter and twenty-seven lived with their families. To analyze children depressive symptoms, the following instruments or resources were used; CDI, CBCL and the Rorschach-SC. The results showed that institutionalized children reveal more depressive symptoms, present more emotional distress, have affective expression with no modulation, are immature and inopportune, they also have more aggressive behavior and present difficulty in following rules. Significant correlation between depressive symptoms and externalizing behavior was found (r = 0,43; p<0,05). In general, both sections of this dissertation bring up the importance of considering psychological aspects that influence in the appearing, the symptoms and investigation of child depression.
A presente dissertação está organizada em dois capítulos que têm como objetivo principal estudar sintomas depressivos em crianças institucionalizadas. O primeiro capítulo consiste em uma revisão bibliográfica sistematizada a fim de analisar a produção científica acerca dos estudos que fizeram uso de instrumentos de avaliação dos sintomas depressivos em crianças no Brasil, nos últimos dez anos (2004 2013). Para isso, foi realizada uma busca na Biblioteca Virtual de Saúde, na área específica de Psicologia (BVS-PSI), utilizando as seguintes bases de dados: Scielo, Lilacs, Index Psi Revistas e Pepsic, utilizando diferentes combinações entre palavras-chave. Foram levantados, no total, 28 artigos. Os resultados mostraram que os estudos foram realizados por diversas áreas do conhecimento e que predominou o método de pesquisa descritivo com análise quantitativa de dados. Considerável parte dos artigos teve como objetivo investigar os fatores que causam a depressão infantil (N=10, 35,7%) e sintomas relacionados a tal patologia (N=7; 25%). Foram encontrados 10 instrumentos diferentes que foram utilizados para avaliar sintomas depressivos em criança. O Inventário de Depressão infantil CDI foi o instrumento de maior incidência (N=21; 75%) e apresentou boa consistência interna nos estudos selecionados. O segundo capítulo trata-se de um artigo empírico que tem por objetivo analisar sintomas depressivos em crianças em situação de acolhimento institucional comparadas com crianças que vivem com suas famílias. Participaram deste estudo 50 crianças, do sexo masculino e feminino, com idades entre sete e onze anos, sendo que 23 crianças residiam em instituições e 27 crianças residiam com suas famílias. Foram utilizados para avaliar sintomas de depressão infantil os seguintes instrumentos: CDI, CBCL e o Rorschach SC. Os resultados revelaram que as crianças institucionalizadas apresentavam mais sintomas depressivos, desconforto emocional, expressões afetivas mais imaturas e sem modulação, mais comportamentos agressivos e dificuldade em seguir regras. Foi encontrada correlação significativa entre sintomas depressivos e comportamentos externalizantes (r = 0,43; p<0,05). De maneira geral, os dois capítulos da Dissertação realçam a importância de se considerar aspectos psicológicos que influenciam no surgimento, na sintomatologia e na investigação da depressão infantil.
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Blain-Arcaro, Christine. "Longitudinal Associations between Externalizing Problems and Depression in Children and Adolescents". Thesis, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/34603.
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Although researchers have often focused on the victims of aggression, the detrimental effects of engaging in aggression and/or displaying symptoms of externalizing disorders have been clearly identified in children and adolescents. Longstanding consequences of externalizing problems include internalizing difficulties such as depression. There is an increasing interest in identifying the direction of effect and understand whether externalizing problems precede internalizing problems, vice-versa, or whether they share a bi-directional relation. However, the study of the temporal sequence between aggression, externalizing disorders, and internalizing disorders in children and adolescents has yielded inconsistent findings.
The sequential relation between externalizing and internalizing difficulties in children and adolescents was examined in this dissertation consisting of three studies. In Study 1, the moderating role of worry in the relation between aggression and depression was examined. The sample consisted of girls nominated as either relationally or physically aggressive by their peers. Results indicated that worry exacerbated the risk of reporting elevated depressive symptoms concurrently and one year later for physically aggressive girls. In Study 2, three competing hypotheses on the longitudinal relation between aggression and depression were compared. Findings from this study supported the hypothesis that symptoms of depression are preceded by aggressive behaviour. Additionally, it was found that engaging in physical aggression predicted depressive symptoms for girls but not for boys. The results of the first two studies suggest that for girls, engaging in non-normative forms of aggression is associated with greater mental health problems. In Study 3, the temporal relation between symptoms of externalizing disorders, namely oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder, and symptoms of depression was examined. Results provided support that the progressive relation between symptoms of externalizing and internalizing disorders was bi-directional.
In summary, although it seems that engaging in externalizing behaviour, such as aggression, predicts symptoms of depression, findings from the third study suggest that the sequential relation between symptoms of externalizing problems, which may or may not include aggressive behaviour, and symptoms of depression seem to share a reciprocal relation.
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Oertel, Ursula. "Childhood trauma and adolescent depression : examination of repressive coping style as a mediator /". [St. Lucia, Qld.], 2006. http://www.library.uq.edu.au/pdfserve.php?image=thesisabs/absthe19542.pdf.
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Krygsman, Amanda Lynn. "Peer Experiences and Depression Symptoms: Conditions of Association in Preschool, Childhood, and Adolescence". Thesis, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/37503.
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Depression is one of the most disabling mental disorders with respect to years living with symptoms and life lost prematurely. Understanding the development of depression symptoms in childhood and adolescence is important considering the increase in prevalence in adolescence and the substantial continuity of depression symptoms over time. Interpersonal perspectives on depression emphasize the interpersonal environment in the development, and remission of symptoms. In the present dissertation, the interpersonal environment focus was peer experiences. Specifically, the conditions under which peer experiences and depression symptoms were associated concurrently and longitudinally were examined in preschool, childhood, and adolescence.
Different types of peer experiences were associated with depression symptoms in specific ways. In Study 1, the type of aggression and informant mattered where relational peer victimization and depression symptoms were associated in the presence of relational aggression when data were reported by teachers. In Study 2, informant and type of peer experience mattered such that when examining competing models of directional association of peer experiences and depression symptoms, depression symptoms predicted peer rejection across reporters and depression predicted peer victimization when data were self-reported. In Study 3, the type of aggression mattered again but peer-reported peer victimization was associated with self-reported depression symptoms in the presence of overt aggression for girls concurrently and over time. The effect was stronger for those who transitioned to high school. The conditions under which peer experiences and depression symptoms were associated depended on type of aggression (i.e., relational peer victimization and relational aggression in preschool and overt aggression for girls in late childhood and adolescence), type of relationship disturbance (i.e., peer victimization and peer rejection), informant, and whether individuals transitioned to high school.
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Olurin, J. "A study of the association between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and childhood depression". Thesis, University of Sheffield, 1994. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.296977.
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McGinnis, Ellen, Ryan McGinnis, Jessica Hruschak, Emily Bilek, Ka Ip, Diana Morelen, Jamie Lawler, Kate Fitzgerald, Katherine Rosenblum i Maria Musik. "Wearable Sensors Outperform Behavioral Coding as Valid Marker of Childhood Anxiety and Depression". Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2018. https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu-works/7702.
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There is a significant need to develop objective measures for identifying children under the age of 8 who have anxiety and depression. If left untreated, early internalizing symptoms can lead to adolescent and adult internalizing disorders as well as comorbidity which can yield significant health problems later in life including increased risk for suicide. To this end, we propose the use of an instrumented fear induction task for identifying children with internalizing disorders, and demonstrate its efficacy in a sample of 63 children between the ages of 3 and 7. In so doing, we extract objective measures that capture the full six degree-of-freedom movement of a child using data from a belt-worn inertial measurement unit (IMU) and relate them to behavioral fear codes, parent-reported child symptoms and clinician-rated child internalizing diagnoses. We find that IMU motion data, but not behavioral codes, are associated with parent-reported child symptoms and clinician-reported child internalizing diagnosis in this sample. These results demonstrate that IMU motion data are sensitive to behaviors indicative of child psychopathology. Moreover, the proposed IMU-based approach has increased feasibility of collection and processing compared to behavioral codes, and therefore should be explored further in future studies.
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Goetz, Cameron Allen. "Social skills and social problem solving as stress protective factors in childhood depression". Digital version:, 2000. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/utexas/fullcit?p9992800.
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Burnside, Elizabeth. "The relationship between autobiographical memory and depression in survivors of childhood sexual abuse". Thesis, Bangor University, 2001. https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/the-relationship-between-autobiographical-memory-and-depression-in-survivors-of-childhood-sexual-abuse(6c0b4f41-f58b-4be2-82f0-25867512217c).html.
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Overgeneral autobiographical memory (AM) style has been observed in depressed clinical groups when compared with controls. It has been proposed that an overgeneral style is the consequence of traumatic experiences in childhood and serves to minimise the affect associated with painful memories. It has also been suggested that overgeneral AM results in poor problem solving ability and is therefore an indicator of vulnerability to depression. This thesis reviews the evidence relevant to these propositions and in particular considers whether overgeneral AM is capable of longer term protection against distress, or is more importantly a vulnerability factor as suggested by its association with poor problem solving. To examine this issue, 41 women who had reported childhood sexual abuse (CSA) as participants in a previous study, completed the Autobiographical Memory Test (AMT) and were interviewed about adult episodes of major depression using the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia - Lifetime version. Current depression was assessed using the 13 item Beck Depression Inventory. Women not reporting depression in adulthood gave significantly fewer specific responses to negative cue words (but not positive or neutral cue words) than those reporting episodes which fulfilled DSM-I V diagnostic criteria for major depression. Lower numbers of specific responses for cue words combined were associated with more severe CSA, CSA lasting over a longer duration and starting at an earlier age. Multiple regression analysis suggested that of these, duration of abuse was the most important predictor. These results support the association between overgeneral AM and CSA, but suggest that AM is more importantly a protective factor against depression. The results are discussed in the context of previous findings and longitudinal research is recommended to address the issues raised.
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Kho, Kim Lee. "Attachment-based family intervention for childhood anxiety and depression: A mixed methods evaluation". Thesis, Kho, Kim Lee (2020) Attachment-based family intervention for childhood anxiety and depression: A mixed methods evaluation. Professional Doctorate thesis, Murdoch University, 2020. https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/60110/.
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Parent-child attachment and family relationships significantly contribute to the development of childhood depression and anxiety disorders. However, clinical applications of such findings are currently limited. The overarching objective of this dissertation was to conduct a pilot trial and examine the feasibility of a novel attachment-based family intervention, Behaviour Exchange Systems Therapy- Foundations (BEST-F) in treating internalising symptoms of depression and anxiety disorders in children aged between 3 and 11 years. The first study systematically reviewed studies to describe core features of existing psychological interventions referring to themselves as ‘attachment-based’, which revealed that there were limited attachment-based interventions primarily aimed at improving child and adolescent mental health outcomes. Empirical study two reported quantitative outcomes of an uncontrolled study of 17 families who undertook BEST-F based on parent-report CBCL measures completed at four-timepoints (baseline, pre-, post-intervention, and follow-up). Empirical study three explored qualitative outcomes reported by participants. Results suggested that BEST-F reduced child internalising symptoms by 1 to 1.2 standard deviations, and moved children from the borderline clinical to normal range. Notably, additional reduction in symptoms were reported two months after cessation of treatment. Furthermore, there were reductions in child externalising symptoms and other problems, parental mental health symptoms and disorganised caregiving behaviours. Qualitative reports suggested that participants derived considerable benefits at both dyadic and systemic levels. Finally, translational study four evaluated a BEST training program to ensure effective dissemination of the intervention model to clinical practice. Results revealed that the training was well-received and trainees reported further development in clinical skills including family systems approach, risk assessment and management, and facilitation skills. The findings add to the limited body of literature on attachment-based family interventions designed to treat childhood depression and anxiety disorders.
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Nicholson, Cynthia Suzanne. "Childhood maltreatment, adult attachment, and emotional adjustment". CSUSB ScholarWorks, 1991. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/449.
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Hilbert, Anja, i Anne Brauhardt. "Childhood loss of control eating over five-year follow-up". Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig, 2016. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:15-qucosa-211353.
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Objective: Emerging prospective evidence from mixed samples, mostly covering short-term follow-up periods, suggests that childhood loss of control (LOC) eating predicts significant impairment in mental and physical health. This study sought to investigate the natural course of childhood LOC eating over the long term and in relation to binge eating disorder (BED) diagnosis, psychopathology, and body weight trajectory in the community.
Method: A total of 60 children (8-13 years) with LOC eating within the past three months and 60 demographically-matched children without LOC history were assessed with the Eating Disorder Examination adapted for Children and self-report questionnaires over a 5.5 year follow-up period. Missing data were imputed.
Results: Over follow-up, 38.3% of children showed persistent LOC eating, and 28.3% revealed an onset of LOC eating. Persistent LOC eating significantly predicted onset of partial-/full-syndrome BED at follow-up. Negative prognostic effects on eating disorder psychopathology, depressive symptoms, and body mass index were non-significant.
Discussion: The results indicate a moderate stability of LOC eating over the long term. LOC eating, especially if stable, was suggested as a variable risk factor of clinically relevant eating disturbances. In contrast, a prognostic value for psychopathology and body mass index was not confirmed.
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Otero, Carolina. "Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and Timely Bachelor's Degree Attainment". BYU ScholarsArchive, 2018. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/6993.
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It is well established that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are linked to health and emotional outcomes. But less is known about the relationship between ACEs and educational attainment—a potentially important feature of educational stratification in America. Using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), a nationally representative youth study of 7-12th grade students in the 1994-95 school year, I investigate whether ACEs is linked to post-secondary attainment and examine the role of health and socio-emotional factors as mediators. Results confirm that there is a graded relationship between ACEs and timely bachelor's degree attainment. I find that an additional ACE decreases the odds of timely bachelor's degree attainment by about 17%, even after accounting for other related factors.
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Bishop, Sonia Jane. "Cognitive processing of emotional information in childhood anxiety, depression and post traumatic stress disorder". Thesis, University of London, 2001. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.272464.
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Dzimiela, James N. "A study of school counselors' perspectives and practices with childhood depression in western Wisconsin". Online version, 1998. http://www.uwstout.edu/lib/thesis/1998/1998dzimielaj.pdf.
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Hilbert, Anja, i Anne Brauhardt. "Childhood loss of control eating over five-year follow-up". International journal of eating disorders (2014) 47, 7, S. 758-761, 2014. https://ul.qucosa.de/id/qucosa%3A14977.
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Objective: Emerging prospective evidence from mixed samples, mostly covering short-term follow-up periods, suggests that childhood loss of control (LOC) eating predicts significant impairment in mental and physical health. This study sought to investigate the natural course of childhood LOC eating over the long term and in relation to binge eating disorder (BED) diagnosis, psychopathology, and body weight trajectory in the community.
Method: A total of 60 children (8-13 years) with LOC eating within the past three months and 60 demographically-matched children without LOC history were assessed with the Eating Disorder Examination adapted for Children and self-report questionnaires over a 5.5 year follow-up period. Missing data were imputed.
Results: Over follow-up, 38.3% of children showed persistent LOC eating, and 28.3% revealed an onset of LOC eating. Persistent LOC eating significantly predicted onset of partial-/full-syndrome BED at follow-up. Negative prognostic effects on eating disorder psychopathology, depressive symptoms, and body mass index were non-significant.
Discussion: The results indicate a moderate stability of LOC eating over the long term. LOC eating, especially if stable, was suggested as a variable risk factor of clinically relevant eating disturbances. In contrast, a prognostic value for psychopathology and body mass index was not confirmed.
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Nanda, Maya M. D. "Association of Allergic Diseases with Internalizing Disorders in Early Childhood". University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2014. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1397735065.
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Davies, Jenny Shuttleworth. "Teacher-child correspondence on reports of childhood anxiety and depression and factors affecting this correspondence". Thesis, Lancaster University, 2005. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.436732.
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Pope, Loralee. "Perceptions Of Siblings Relationships In Middle Childhood And Their Effects Of Adolescent Anxiety And Depression". Thesis, University of Canterbury. Psychology, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10092/1471.
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Experiencing sibling conflict is a fact of life for most children, and this study investigates which form of sibling conflict is more likely to lead to adjustment difficulties such as anxiety and depression. Questionnaires enquiring about sibling relationships, anxiety and depression were administered to 121 students of Westland High School aged between 13 and 18 years. The correlations and multiple regressions performed indicated that adolescents with a positive sibling relationship have significantly lower levels of depression. In addition, emotional conflict between siblings was found to be a significant predictor of depression, whilst jealousy was found to be a significant predictor of anxiety and social phobia. Implications for intervention regarding disciplining emotional aggression and controlling for jealousy are discussed.
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Panchanathan, Amritha. "Comparing Different Forms of Childhood Maltreatment as Risk Factors for Adult Cardiovascular Disease and Depression". Thesis, The University of Arizona, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/623604.
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A Thesis submitted to The University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Medicine.Research has shown an association between childhood maltreatment and risk factors for cardiovascular disease and depression. The purpose of this study is to examine the total and unique effects of various forms of childhood maltreatment on the development of risk factors for cardiovascular disease and depression in both women and men. Data for this study will be obtained from retrospective chart review and from an already established research database at a private healthcare facility specializing in the treatment of trauma and addiction. All information will pertain to participants’ admission to the healthcare facility and will include self‐report data on childhood maltreatment and symptoms of depression, as well as retrospective chart review data regarding physiological metrics of risk for cardiovascular disease (blood pressure, cholesterol, diabetes). Results from 290 patients indicated that emotional abuse and emotional neglect were the leading predictors of negative outcomes with emotional neglect being a significant predictor of adult depression even after controlling for age, gender, and marital status. Younger participants and women reported higher levels of depression. However, the gender‐specific regressions showed that younger age and emotional neglect remained significant predictors of depression, with the percent variance explained by the model being greater among men compared to women. This greater effect size among men was driven by a stronger association between younger age and depression in men than in women. Childhood emotional abuse was associated with greater risk for coronary heart disease, even after controlling for gender and marital status. Gender‐specific analyses showed that, for men, childhood physical neglect emerged as a significant predictor of coronary heart disease risk after controlling for marital status. Contrary to predictions, among women, none of the five types of childhood maltreatment emerged as a significant predictor of coronary heart disease risk. Moreover, depression was inversely associated with risk for coronary heart disease. In other words, higher levels of depression were consistently associated with lower levels of coronary heart disease risk. This was attributed to the fact that younger people reported higher levels of depression, but younger age was also associated with lower levels of coronary heart disease risk. Furthermore, the results of this study can be used to develop screening tools, based on childhood maltreatment severity and type, for depression and cardiovascular disease. To what degree are specific types of childhood abuse and neglect (i.e., emotional, physical, or sexual) risk factors for depression and cardiovascular disease and how are these risks moderated by gender? Hypotheses: 1) It is expected that higher levels of childhood neglect and abuse (all forms taken together) will be related to higher levels of depressive symptoms and greater risk for cardiovascular disease. 2) Comparing five basic forms of neglect and abuse, it is anticipated that emotional abuse will have the strongest association with elevations in depression and cardiovascular risk. 3) It is hypothesized that the relation between childhood maltreatment and cardiovascular risk will be stronger in women compared to men.