Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Cavity growth”

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2005.
Title from first page of PDF file. Document formatted into pages; contains xvi, 147 p.; also includes graphics Includes bibliographical references (p. 143-147). Available online via OhioLINK's ETD Center

A simplified model with only 2 degrees of freedom is developed for cavity growth along a grain-boundary by surface and grain-boundary diffusion following a similar model for a row of grains used by Sun et al, (1996). A variational principle for the coupled diffusion problem is used to follow the cavity growth. The approximate solution can be reduced to the well-established equilibrium cavity growth model at the fast surface diffusion extreme. By comparing the 2 degree of freedom model with the full finite element solution by Pan et al, (1997), a 'Validity Map' is constructed in terms of the relative diffusivity and applied stress relative to the capillarity stress. It is found that the simplified model accurately describes the evolution process, in terms of overall cavity profile and propagation rate for engineering alloys subject to normal levels of applied stresses. The 2 degree of freedom model for a single cavity was then extended to allow the modelling of multiple cavities. These cavities can be either pre-existing or nucleated during the lifetime of the system. The relative rotation between the grains is also considered. The initial 2 degrees of freedom were increased to six, and a cavity element has been derived. The cavity elements are assembled together using the classical finite element approach. This allows the evolution of multiple cavities and their interactions to be modelled under different applied loads and material parameters. This simplified multiple cavity finite element model was compared with a model for cavity evolution based on a 'smeared-out' approach. It was shown that the 'smeared-out' model does not accurately predict the creep damage for realistic engineering materials and conditions and results in an under prediction of creep lifetime. Using the simplified finite element model the effect of surface diffusion on the evolution of the creep damage was investigated. The evolution of a large pre-existing 'crack-like' cavity was modelled and the effects of nucleation, surface diffusion and loading were also investigated. It was shown that in the majority of cases as the surface diffusion was increased the rupture time was also increased. The results from the large 'crack-like' cavity simulations showed that there was very little crack propagation through the material and the smaller cavities tended to grow independently of the large 'crack-like' cavity.

Long-wavelength (1.3-μm) vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) are of great interest as low-cost, high performance light sources for fiber-optic metro and access networks. During recent years the main development effort in this field has been directed towards all epitaxial GaAs-based structures by employing novel active materials. Different active region candidates for GaAs-based 1.3-μm VCSELs such as GaInNAs/GaAs QWs, GaAsSb QWs or InAs/InGaAs QDs have been investigated. However, the difficult growth and materials properties of these systems have so far hampered any real deployment of the technology. More recently, a new variety of VCSELs have been developed at KTH as based on highly strained InGaAs QWs and negative gain cavity detuning to reach the 1.3-μm wavelength window. The great benefit of this approach is that it is fully compatible with standard materials and processing methods.

The aim of this thesis is to investigate long-wavelength (1.3-μm) VCSELs using ~1.2-μm In0.4GaAs/GaAs Multiple Quantum Wells (MQWs). A series of QW structures, DBR structures and laser structures, including VCSELs and Broad Area lasers (BALs) were grown by metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) and characterized by various techniques: Photoluminescence (PL), high-resolution x-ray diffraction (XRD), atomic force microscopy (AFM), high accuracy reflectance measurements as well as static and dynamic device characterization. The work can be divided into three parts. The first part is dedicated to the optimization and characterization of InGaAs/GaAs QWs growth for long wavelength and strong luminescence. A strong sensitivity to the detailed growth conditions, such as V/III ratio and substrate misorientation is noted. Dislocations in highly strained InGaAs QW structure and Sb as surfactant assisted in InGaAs QW growth are also discussed here. The second part is related to the AlGaAs/GaAs DBR structures. It is shown that the InGaAs VCSELs with doped bottom DBRs have significantly lower slope efficiency, output power and higher threshold current. By a direct study of buried AlGaAs/GaAs interfaces, this is suggested to be due to doping-enhanced Al-Ga hetero-interdiffusion. In the third part, singlemode, high-performance 1.3-μm VCSELs based on highly strained InGaAs QWs are demonstrated. Temperature stable singlemode performance, including mW-range output power and 10 Gbps data transmission, is obtained by an inverted surface relief technique.

Le domaine de recherche concerne l’endommagement par cavitation des élastomères exposés à de fortes pressions de gaz diffusant. Ce phénomène résulte de l’expansion locale du gaz préalablement absorbé, lorsque la désorption hors du polymère est trop lente par rapport au chargement imposé. Dans le cas de l’hydrogène qui nous intéresse ici, l’enjeu est le développement de matériaux polymères performants pour les structures de stockage et de distribution d’hydrogène gazeux hyperbare. En conditions d’usage, ces matériaux sont exposés à de fortes pressions d’hydrogène qui diffuse en leur sein et génèrent ensuite de forts endommagements lorsque la pression hydrostatique est relâchée. Les études de laboratoire sur ce sujet restent peu nombreuses, a fortiori sous environnement hydrogène. Sur le plan expérimental, ceci s’explique par la délicate manipulation de l’hydrogène et par le contexte des fortes pressions. Sur le plan de la simulation numérique, un verrou important est lié aux couplages forts entre diffusion et mécanique dans la résolution de l’équilibre de la cavité à chaque instant de son évolution. Cette thèse vise à mieux comprendre le mécanisme élémentaire de formation, puis de croissance et de coalescence des cavités, isolées ou en proche voisinage. Dans ce dernier cas, une éventuelle interaction doit effectivement être caractérisée pour éclairer la coalescence et la transition vers des fissures macroscopiques. Le travail a été mené sur série d’Ethylène Propylène Diène Monomer (EPDM) non-renforcés, avec une densité de points de réticulation variable, exposés à des pressions allant jusqu’à 30 MPa. Le volet expérimental s'appuie sur deux des techniques expérimentales in situ les plus récentes. La diffusion des rayons X aux petits angles (SAXS) vise à caractériser les hétérogénéités du système réseau élastomère – hydrogène à l'échelle submicronique, et éventuellement à détecter les premiers stades de cavitation. Dans la gamme des faibles pressions accessible sous environnement hydrogène, les hétérogénéités ne sont pas assez marquées pour définir plus qu'une distance de corrélation, qui varie très peu comparativement au matériau non exposé. Après exposition à une pression plus élevée (30 MPa), une augmentation de la distance de corrélation est observée, révélant une modification de l'hétérogénéité de la matrice, irréversible même après désorption complète de l'échantillon. À l’échelle micronique, des expériences de tomographie X in-situ (sous des pressions allant jusqu’à 12 MPa) fournissent des vues 3D résolues en temps des cavités, pendant et après décompression. Ces expériences ont permis de mieux comprendre la cinétique de croissance des cavités dans différentes conditions aux limites locales (dans le volume de l’échantillon, à proximité d'autres cavités, près d'une surface libre) et de les interpréter en regard des propriétés de diffusion de l'échantillon lui-même. Plusieurs populations de cavités, présentant des comportements différents, ont ainsi pu être distinguées en fonction de leur distance à la surface libre de l'échantillon, en lien avec la désorption globale de l’échantillon. Comparativement à cet effet de bord libre, la présence d’une autre cavité en proche voisinage (i.e. à une distance bord à bord supérieure ou égale à 30μm) n’a qu’une influence minime. Les résultats suggèrent que la croissance de la cavité est un processus très local. Dans un contexte diffuso-mécanique fortement couplé, l’interprétation des mécanismes se heurte à l’impossibilité d’accéder expérimentalement aux champs mécaniques et de concentration de gaz. Les codes éléments finis existants rencontrent des problèmes de convergence que le code interne Foxtrot développé à l’Institut Pprime tente de surmonter. Dans une dernière partie exploratoire de la thèse, il a été mis à profit pour comparer les gradients générés par une paire de cavités comparativement à une cavité isolée
The optimum design and formulation of seals used in hydrogen transport system is crucial for the purposes of safety of operation and well as economic sustainability of hydrogen as energy carrier. The exposure of the sealing materials to hydrogen and subsequent decompression causes cavitation damage. The studies so far on this subject have been few due to the strong limitations arising from the safety issues related to hydrogen testing in laboratory conditions. This study addresses the cavitation in Ethylene Propylene Diene Rubber (EPDM) due to pressure release after exposure to high-pressure hydrogen up to 30 MPa. Three different unfilled EPDM with variable cross-link density were investigated. The study was based on some of the newest in-situ experimental techniques which allow a time-resolved tracking of the evolution of damage. On one side, in-situ SAXS (Small Angle X-ray Scattering) tests of hydrogen-exposed EPDM were aimed at the characterisation of EPDM at submicron scale as a function of network heterogeneity and for tracking the possible onset of distinguishable cavities. At the low pressure range accessible with the device, heterogeneities were not marked enough to define more than a correlation length that was significantly changed compared the unexposed material, whatever the cross-link density. After the exposure at higher pressure (30 MPa) a change in correlation length was observed corresponding to the change in heterogeneity of the matrix which was found to be non-reversible even after full desorption of the sample. At a higher scale, in-situ X-ray tomography was used to provide time-resolved 3D views of damage during and after hydrogen pressure release. These experiments provided insight into the growth kinetics of cavities in different local boundary conditions (within the bulk, close to other cavities, close to a free surface) correlated with the diffusion characteristics of the sample itself. Classification of cavities as bulk and edges cavities was possible with respect with different kinetics depending on their proximity to the free surface of the sample. This could be correlated with the diffusion characteristics of the material. The dependence of kinetics of cavities on the proximity of another cavity was found to be trivial at the scale investigated (above 30 μm between cavity borders) suggesting that growth is a very local process. The previous studies have clarified that the cavitation in rubber is a coupled diffuso-mechanical phenomenon and so far, the numerical tools available have not addressed the problem as such. Therefore, the development of a numerical tool aimed at solving such coupled problems has also been addressed in the present work. This numerical tool called Foxtrot, developed at Institut PPRIME, is in the early stages of development but is a crucial step towards the more realistic simulation of this phenomenon of cavitation. In this fully coupled diffuso-mechanical context, the interpretation of mechanisms is highly limited by the lack of experimental access to the mechanical and gas content fields. Commercial Finite Element codes face convergence problems that the internal code developed at the Pprime Institute (Foxtrot) is trying to overcome. In the last exploratory part of the thesis, the code was used to as a step towards a more realistic simulation of the phenomenon. In particular, gradients around a pair of cavities were compared to those obtained around an isolated cavity

The desire to reduce construction and operating costs of future SRF accelerators motivates the search for higher-performing alternative materials. Nb3Sn (Tc ~ 18.3 K and Hsh ~ 425 mT) is the front runner. The tin vapor diffusion process is currently the technique of choice to produce promising Nb3Sn-coated cavities. Understanding Nb3Sn nucleation and growth in this process is essential to progress. Samples representing different stages of Nb3Sn formation have been produced and studied to elucidate the effects of nucleation, growth, process conditions, and impurities. Nb3Sn films with thickness from a few hundred nm up to ~ 15 µm were grown and characterized. The microscopic examination of samples suggests the mechanisms of thin film nucleation and growth. Broadly, nucleation deposits tin as a thin surface phase and, under some conditions, a few hundred nanometer sized particles as well. Conditions that impair nucleation promote the formation of defects, such as “patches”, in subsequent coating growth. Analysis of coated samples is consistent with the model of Nb3Sn grown in which tin diffuses via grain boundaries to Nb3Sn-Nb interface, where the growth Nb3Sn into the niobium bulk takes place. Similar scaling laws are found for grain growth and layer thickness. Non-parabolic layer growth is consistent with significant grain growth, which reduces the number of Sn-transport channels. Examination of patchy region in Nb3Sn coating revealed it to be large single crystalline grains, pointing to impeded Nb3Sn layer growth due to low grain boundary density, resulting in a significantly thin coating in those areas. Examination of RF loss regions from a coated cavity, identified with a thermometry mapping system showed patchy regions and carbonus defects were associated with strong local field-dependent surface resistance. RF measurements of coated cavities were combined with material characterization of witness samples and coated-cavity cutouts to improve the coating process. Understanding obtained and applied to cavity coatings, resulted in single-cell Nb3Sn cavities with a quality factor of ~ 2 ×1010 up to 15 MV/m accelerating gradient at 4 K, without "Wuppertal" Q-slope. We have also produced Nb3Sn-coated CEBAF 5-cell cavities with accelerating gradients useful for accelerator cryomodules. This dissertation will discuss the genesis of the Nb3Sn coating in a typical tin vapor diffusion process, effects of different process parameters, and its consequences to the coating of single-cell and multi-cell SRF cavities.

One of the key advances in photonic technology in recent decades was the development of a new type of diode lasers emitting in the visible and infrared region. These vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) emerged from a laboratory curiosity in 1977 [13] to an object of industrial mass production [14] and are currently used in many applications. The applications include communication, printing, and absorption spectroscopy [15]. Their rise in credibility has largely been motivated by the rapid evolution of their performance, the more sweeping recognition of their compatibility with low-cost wafer-scale fabrication, and their possible formation into specific arrays with no change in the fabrication procedure. Various applications such as advanced chemical sensors and high-density optical storage require coherent and small-size ultraviolet-emitting devices (below 400nm). Therefore, to extend the VCSEL emission to the ultraviolet (UV) region, intensive efforts have been made in the VCSEL technology. However, the achievement of such UV VCSEL is very challenging because of the various limitations and issues. The issues noticeably include the carrier injection, optical confinement, and highly reflective distributed Bragg reflectors (DBR) structures with a broad bandwidth operating in the UV region [16]. In this context, motivated by the reported large refractive index induced by boron incorporation [7], we propose to introduce the boron-based material systems (BAlGaN) as an innovative solution to address some of the encountered difficulties. The objective of the proposed research is to investigate and optimize new wide-bandgap BAlGaN material systems and illustrate their incorporation into the building blocks of vertical cavity surface-emitting laser structures for operation in the UV spectral range (<400nm). Toward this goal, we have focused our research activities in three main directions. The first direction is devoted to the simulation of DBRs reflectivity by taking into consideration the experimental refractive indexes. Once the materials needed in the different components of the VCSEL are well defined, the second direction lies in the achievement of growth conditions optimization and characterization of the new wide-bandgap BAlGaN material systems. The study has led to the structural and morphological quality improvement of (B,Al,Ga)N materials. Unique optical properties of the BGaN and BAlN materials were also demonstrated. Upon demonstrating the materials' promising optical characteristics, the final direction consists of the epitaxial growth and characterization of the highly reflective DBRs and active region of the UV VCSEL structure.

La déformation à haute température induit la germination, la croissance et la coalescence de cavités, domaine très étudié en science des matériaux. Plusieurs modèles théoriques ont été proposés pour prédire la nucléation et la croissance de la cavité mais la comparaison avec l’expérience est limitée. La principale raison en est le manque d'outils de caractérisation appropriés permettant d'étudier in situ la nucléation et la croissance des cavités à haute résolution spatiale (inférieure à 1 µm).Dans le cadre de ce travail, la nanotomographie in situ aux RX a été mise au point pour l'étude des déformations à haute température. Deux dispositifs mécaniques pouvant s'adapter dans un four ont été développés : ceci permet de réaliser une analyse 4D in situ des dommages à haute température (inférieure à 1073 K). De plus, des routines d'acquisition de données à résolutions multiples ont été mises au point, ce qui a permis d'obtenir alternativement des images à haute résolution (100 nm) et à basse résolution (645 nm). Ces développements ont permis l'imagerie 4D de la germination et de la croissance de l’endommagement avec une taille de pixels de 100 nm et un temps de balayage de 7 secondes. Ces données expérimentales ont été comparées aux modèles théoriques par el suivi du volume de chaque cavité.Cette technique a été utilisée pour étudier la nucléation et la croissance des dommages lors de déformations à haute température (7,9 MPa, 698 K), dans un alliage d'Al -3,6% en poids de Cu. Cet alliage modèle permet la génération contrôlée de particules de seconde phase pour favoriser la germination des cavités. Les changements de forme des cavités avec la déformation ont été étudiés. De plus, le changement du taux de croissance volumétrique de la cavité par rapport au rayon équivalent des cavités individuelles a été comparé aux modèles existants de croissance de la cavité par diffusion et plasticité. On a constaté la présence de plusieurs porosités préexistantes dans l'alliage, alors que très peu de germination de cavité ont été observées. Les données expérimentales sur le taux de croissance correspondent bien aux modèles étudiés et il a été conclu que les cavités se développaient initialement par diffusion suivi par une croissance par plasticité.L'utilisation de la nanotomographie in situ a été étendue à l'étude de la nucléation et de la croissance pendant la déformation à haute température (3,2 MPa, 673 K) dans l'alliage commercial AZ31. L'évolution de petites cavités presque sphériques en cavités complexes a été étudiée, en analysant les changements de forme pendant la croissance. Le taux de croissance volumétrique de la cavité a également été calculé et comparé aux modèles de diffusion et de glissement aux joints de grain. Dans un cas particulier, le glissement aux joints de grain a été estimé en suivant les déplacements des intermétalliques qui servaient de marqueurs.Peu de germination de cavité ont été observées au cours de la déformation, par contre les cavités préexistantes, issues du laminage, ont évolué en taille avec la déformation. L'examen des formes des cavités a révélé que la diffusion et le glissement aux joints de grain sont les mécanismes principaux de la croissance. La diffusion dominant la croissance dans les premiers stades (déformation inférieure à 0,3) puis une combinaison des deux mécanismes gouverne la croissance. Le modèle de croissance par diffusion surestime les données expérimentales tandis que les modèles de diffusion restreinte s’ajustent mieux aux évolutions de volume des cavités. Une proportionnalité directe a été observée entre le du grain et la longueur de la cavité dans une cavité où la croissance est dominée par le glissement aux joints de grain. De plus, outre la croissance, une proportion importante de cavités a montré une diminution du volume pendant la déformation. Ceci a été attribué au frittage des cavités sous l'effet de la tension superficielle
High temperature deformation proceeds in nucleation, growth and coalescence of voids or creep cavities. Hence investigation of damage in form of cavities during high temperature deformation has been a subject of great interest for researchers over the years. Several theoretical models have been proposed to predict cavity nucleation and growth. However despite significant progresses with theoretical models, the experimental investigation of these models have been handful. The main reason for this has been a lack of suitable characterization tools that allows in situ investigation of nucleation and growth of cavities at high spatial resolution (smaller than 1 µm).In the present work a technique for in situ nanotomography investigation during high temperature deformation has been developed. This involved development of two mechanical devices that could fit in a furnace in order to perform 4D in situ damage analysis at high temperature (below 1073 K). Additionally multi resolution data acquisition routines were developed which allowed imaging at high (100 nm) and low resolution (645 nm) periodically. These developments allowed 4D imaging of damage nucleation and growth in form of creep cavities at 100 nm pixel size and scan time of 7 seconds. Thanks to this nucleation and volumetric growth of individual cavities could be tracked during deformation which could in turn be compared to theoretical models.This technique has been used to study nucleation and growth of damage during high temperature deformation (7.9 MPa, 698 K), in Al -3.6 wt% Cu alloy. This model alloy allows controlled generation of second phase particles to promote cavity nucleation and has hence been chosen for the study. Changes in shape of cavities with straining has been examined. Also, the change of volumetric cavity growth rate vs equivalent radius of individual cavities has been compared to existing models of cavity growth by diffusion and plasticity. It was seen that several pre-existing porosities were present in the alloy, while very few cavity nucleations were observed. The experimental data of growth rate matched well with the studied models and it was concluded that cavities initially grew by diffusion, while the growth mechanism changed to plasticity near failure.Further the use of in situ nanotomography has been extended to studying nucleation and growth during high temperature deformation (3.2 MPa, 673 K) in commercial AZ31 alloy. Evolution of small nearly spherical cavities into complex cavities has been studied, by analysing changes in shape during growth. Volumetric cavity growth rate has also been computed and compared to diffusion and grain boundary sliding models. In a specific case grain boundary sliding was calculated by tracking the displacements of intermetallics which acted as markers. Influence of this on a cavity present on the sliding boundary has been studied.Few cavity nucleations were seen during deformation while most of the damage proceeded in growth of pre-existing cavities. Examination of cavity shape indicated diffusion and grain boundary sliding as the dominant mechanisms driving growth. Diffusion dominating growth in early stages (strain below 0.3) of deformation while later an interplay of the two mechanism caused growth. On comparing volumetric growth data with experimental results it was seen that conventional grain boundary diffusion model over predicted growth rate, while constrained diffusion models were successful in predicting growth rate in the correct order of magnitude as seen experimentally. A direct proportionality was observed between grain boundary displacement and cavity length in a cavity where growth dominated by grain boundary sliding. Additionally apart from growth considerable proportion of cavities showed a decrease in volume during deformation. This was attributed to sintering of cavities under the effect of surface tension

Investigation of aerosol chemistry and growth under atmospheric conditions in a novel rotating aerosol suspension chamber with cavity ring-down spectroscopy provided key insight into the effect of pollutants and other vapors on the overall atmospheric lifetime of particulate matter. The Atmospheric Cloud Simulation Instrument (ACSI) creates a well-defined and controllable atmosphere of suspended particles, analyte gases, and background gas molecules, which remains stable up to several days. Preliminary studies have shown that monodisperse polystyrene latex (dp = 0.994 µm) and polydisperse ammonium sulfate (CMD dp = 100 nm) particles remain suspended for at least 22 hours while the chamber rotates at 2 RPM. Further investigation into the aerosol dynamics showed the coagulation efficiency of high concentration particle suspensions (>10^6 particles/cm3) depends on particle phase state and composition. The coagulation efficiency decreased with increased humidity in the model atmosphere and with increased ion concentrations in the aerosols. The decrease in efficiency is attributed to repulsive forces from like-charges on the particle surfaces. In addition to humidity, the spectroscopy integrated into the main chamber monitors the real-time response to a perturbation in the model atmosphere, such as the introduction of a gas-phase reactant. Cavity ring-down spectroscopy, performed in situ along the center axis, records mid-infrared spectra (1010 cm-1 to 860 cm-1) to identify gas species evolved from gas-particle heterogeneous chemistry. In accord with previous studies, my results show that a known reaction between monomethyl amine and ammonia occurs readily on suspended ammonium sulfate particles in >50% RH and the extent of the reaction depends on the humidity of the model atmosphere. Acidic ammonium bisulfate aerosols also produced a detectable amount of ammonia upon exposure to monomethyl amine in a model atmosphere with >50% RH. Overall, the new ACSI approach to atmospheric science provides the opportunity to study the influence of interfacial chemistry on particle growth, aging, and re-admission of gas-phase compounds.
Doctor of Philosophy
"Molecules don't have a passport." - Carl Sagan. Gas molecules and particles emitted into the atmosphere in one area can travel thousands of kilometers over the course of hours to days, even weeks for some compounds. The gas-solid interactions that occur over the lifetime of particulate matter are largely unknown. I focused my doctorate on bridging the knowledge gap between traditional environmental monitoring research and highly controlled laboratory experiments. To do so, I designed a new instrument capable of creating stable model atmospheres that more accurately simulate the gas-particle interactions in Earth's atmosphere than previous environmental chambers. The Atmospheric Cloud Simulation Instrument design included a rotating chamber to increase the duration of stable particle suspensions in a laboratory and a multi-pass infrared spectrometer to monitor gas-phase reactions in situ. I explored the effect of humidity and particle composition on particle-particle coagulation and gas-particle reactions. For example, liquid aerosols at humidities higher than 35% RH do no coagulate as fast as a solid particle with the same composition in <35% RH. Similarly, the same liquid aerosols produced more gaseous product during a heterogeneous reaction with a 'pollutant' gas than solid particles. Overall, the ACSI will be an important tool for future experiments exploring individual aspects of complex atmospheric processes.

Cavity enhanced laser induced fluorescence (CELIF) is the first technique to combine cavity ring-down (CRDS) and laser induced fluorescence (LIF) spectroscopies in a single beam experiment. It has been shown previously to extend the dynamic range of CRDS to cover six orders of magnitude in total when observing BPEB concentrations seeded in a pulsed molecular beam. This study has extended CELIF to the most general application where a fluorescer or scatterer fills the length of a pulsed CRD experiment. Under these conditions CELIF is found to produce consistently smaller errors than CRD and is competitive with it but does not extend the dynamic range. Observing acetone fluorescence and nitrogen Rayleigh scattering it has been shown how the CRD signal normalises the LIF signal generated and that the normalisation remains linear during changes to the input powers, pressures and detector gains. Furthermore it has been shown it can be used to measure absolute quantum yields of fluorescence using acetone as an example. A peltier based set-up for cooling the upper surface of a prism for the growth of thin ice films at temperatures of the troposphere and stratosphere has been constructed. A full temperature range of 225-303K was displayed. Testing showed the optimal conditions of ice growth to be a rapid expansion directed at the surface. Ice films 2.5-11.8um thick have been successfully grown at 225.2+-0.2K covering, at maximum, 96% of a 1cm by 3cm stainless steel prism surface. During growth a strong migration over time to an area 0.028+-0.002cm^2 was seen caused by a temperature gradient on the surface, dT~5K from the centre to the outside of the surface along its short side. To monitor this and ice growth, two methods have been successfully installed and tested. A morphological analysis combined with video monitoring can accurately determine areas within 5% and a HeNe laser reflected from the ice is able to monitor surface thicknesses from interference patterns. Together these offer a complete method to characterise an ice film over the duration of an experiment.

Magister Chirurgiae Dentium - MChD (Oral Medicine and Periodontics)
In recent years, the development and use of autologous platelet rich concentrates (PC's) has gained traction within the rapidly progressive, multidisciplinary field of regenerative medicine. A PC subtype, marketed as advanced platelet rich fibrin (A- PRF), is a recent advancement of the original PRF protocol and promoted as a "blood concentrate" containing platelets, leukocytes, circulating stem cells and endothelial cells. A-PRF in the form of membranes, plugs, or even shredded particulates are increasingly being used as surgical adjuncts in areas of previous infection or left exposed within the microbial rich oral environment. Although recent literature has noted the biologic benefits of this material within the context of wound healing and regeneration, the antimicrobial potential of APRF has remained unexplored. The aim of this investigation is to determine if A-PRF displays antimicrobial activity against microbes of the oral cavity with a null hypothesis that its activity is no different to a clot of unprocessed venous blood. Methodology: A-PRF and whole blood samples were obtained from consenting individuals and utilised to conduct an in-vitro agar disk diffusion investigation to determine their antimicrobial activity. Standardised samples of A-PRF, unprocessed clotted blood and 0.2% chlorhexidine gluconate (CHX) were tested against organisms cultured from fresh oral rinse samples and pure cultures of candida albicans, streptococcus mutans, staphylococcus aureus and enterococcus faecalis. The antimicrobial activity was assessed in accordance to the established principles of the agar disk diffusion method and measurement of inhibition zones. Results: A-PRF displayed antimicrobial activity against all of the individual organisms tested within this study following a 24 hour incubation period. However, no significant differences were noted between A-PRF and a natural clot of blood when tested against cultures of the oral rinse sample. Finally, the antimicrobial activity of A-PRF is significantly inferior to an equal volume of the CHX preparation. Conclusion: Although A-PRF displays antimicrobial activity; its strength, spectrum and biologic activity within a polymicrobial environment requires further investigation.

Mathematical models were developed to understand cavity growth mechanisms, heat and mass transfer in combination with chemical reaction, and the factors which affect gas production from an underground coal gasifier. A model for coal gasification in a one-dimensional spatial domain was developed and validated through comparison with experimental measurements of the pyrolysis of large coal particles and cylindrical coal blocks. The effects of changes in operating conditions and coal properties on cavity growth were quantified. It was found that the operating conditions which have the greatest impact on cavity growth are: temperature, water influx, pressure and gas composition, while the coal properties which have the greatest impact are: the thermo-mechanical behaviour of the coal, the coal composition and the thickness of the ash layer. Comparison of the model results with estimates from field scale trials, indicate that the model predicts growth rates with magnitudes comparable to those observed. Model results with respect to the effect of ash content, water influx and pressure are in agreement with trends observed in field trials. A computational fluid dynamics model for simulating the combined transport phenomena and chemical reaction in an underground coal gasification cavity has been developed. Simulations of a two-dimensional axi-symmetric cavity partially filled with an inert ash bed have shown that when the oxidant is injected from the bottom of the cavity, the fluid flow in the void space is dominated by a single buoyancy force due to temperature gradients established by the combustion of volatiles produced from the gasification of carbon at the cavity walls. Simulations in which the oxidant was injected from the top of the cavity reveal a weak fluid circulation due to the absence of strong buoyancy forces, leading to poor gasification performance. A channel model of gas production from underground coal gasification was developed, which incorporates a zero-dimensional cavity growth model and mass transfer due to natural convection. A model sensitivity study is presented and model simulations elucidate the effects of operating conditions and coal properties on gas production.

O objetivo neste trabalho foi de analisar a geometria nasal, a nasofaringe e a orofaringe, em crianças respiradoras orais com indicação de cirurgia desobstrutiva das vias aéreas superiores, e verificar a existência de uma possível influência direta da respiração na determinação do tipo facial. Foram avaliadas 657 crianças e, dentre elas, foram selecionadas 75, que se submeteram a avaliação otorrinolaringológica por meio de exames clínico, de radiografia cavum e/ou nasofibroscopia, e com as quais ficaram evidenciadas as obstruções das vias aéreas superiores com indicação cirúrgica. Ao final 41 crianças (21 do gênero masculino e 20 do feminino), entre 6,16 e 14,66 anos de idade, brasileiras, leucodermas, sem história de tratamento ortodôntico ou otorrinolaringológico cirúrgico (remoção de tonsilas faringeanas, palatinas, ou estruturas internas da cavidade nasal), aceitaram participar do estudo. Foram obtidas telerradiografias em norma lateral para a determinação do tipo facial e realizado o exame de rinometria acústica para a obtenção da área transversal mínima da cavidade nasal. A análise estatística dos dados (ANOVA, Razão de Verossimilhanças, análises de variâncias com medidas repetidas com dois fatores, comparações múltiplas de Bonferroni, teste Kruskal- Wallis; com nível de significância de 5%) e a interpretação dos resultados obtidos não mostraram diferença estatisticamente significativa na área total em MCA1 e MCA2 entre os tipos faciais (p > 0,05). Além disso, a obstrução das tonsilas faringeanas e palatinas avaliadas separadamente ou combinadas não variou estatisticamente segundo os tipos faciais (p = 0,582 para tonsila faringeana e p = 0,733 para tonsila palatina; e p = 0,925 quando combinadas). Conclui-se que, no presente estudo, não foi encontrada evidência de que a obstrução das vias aéreas superiores tenha influência determinante na definição do tipo facial.
The objective of this paper was to analyze the nasal geometry, the nasopharynx and the oropharynx in oral breathing children with indication for surgery clearence upper airway, in order to verify the existence of a possible direct influence of breathing in the determination of the facial type. A group of 657 children was evaluated and, among them, 75 were selected for otorhinolaryngologic evaluation through clinical exams, cavum radiography and/or nasal endoscopy , when the obstruction of the upper airway with surgical indication has been confirmed. From this subgroup, 41 children agreed to participate in the study (21 males: 20 females), with ages between 6,16 and 14,66 years, brazilians, whites, with no history of orthodontic treatment nor otorhinolaryngologic surgery (removal of the pharyngeal or palatine tonsils or internal structures of the nasal cavity). Radiographs were taken in lateral norm for the determination of the facial type and the acoustic rhinometry exam was performed for the determination of the nasal minimal transversal area. The statistical analyses of the data were made with the variance analysis (ANOVA), likelihood ratio test, analyses of variance with measures repeated with two factors, Bonferroni multiple comparisons, and Kruskal-Wallis test. The significance level was chosen as 0.05. No statistically significant difference was detected in the total area in MCA1 and MCA2 between the facial types. Besides that, the obstruction of the pharyngeal or palatine tonsils, taken separately or in combination, did not vary statistically according to the facial pattern (p = 0.582 for pharyngeal tonsil; p = 0.733 for palatine tonsil; and p = 0.925 when combined). Therefore, in the present study, no evidence has been found that the obstruction of the superior airway has determinant influence in the determination of the facial type.

Increasing energy demand leads to two crucial problems for the whole society. One is the economic cost and the other is the pollution of the environment, especially CO2 emissions. Despite efforts to adopt renewable energy sources, fossil fuels will continue to dominate. The temperature and stress are planned to be raised to 700 °C and 35 MPa respectively in the advanced ultra-supercritical (AUSC) power plants to improve the operating efficiency. However, the life of the components is limited by the properties of the materials. The aim of this thesis is to investigate the high temperature properties of materials used for future power plants. This thesis contains two parts. The first part is about developing creep rupture models for austenitic stainless steels. Grain boundary sliding (GBS) models have been proposed that can predict experimental results. Creep cavities are assumed to be generated at intersection of subboundaries with subboundary corners or particles on a sliding grain boundary, the so called double ledge model. For the first time a quantitative prediction of cavity nucleation for different types of commercial austenitic stainless steels has been made. For growth of creep cavities a new model for the interaction between the shape change of cavities and creep deformation has been proposed. In this constrained growth model, the affected zone around the cavities has been calculated with the help of FEM simulation. The new growth model can reproduce experimental cavity growth behavior quantitatively for different kinds of austenitic stainless steels. Based on the cavity nucleation models and the new growth models, the brittle creep rupture of austenitic stainless steels has been determined. By combing the brittle creep rupture with the ductile creep rupture models, the creep rupture strength of austenitic stainless steels has been predicted quantitatively. The accuracy of the creep rupture prediction can be improved significantly with combination of the two models. The second part of the thesis is on the fatigue properties of austenitic stainless steels and nickel based superalloys. Firstly, creep, low cycle fatigue (LCF) and creep-fatigue tests have been conducted for a modified HR3C (25Cr20NiNbN) austenitic stainless steel. The modified HR3C shows good LCF properties, but lower creep and creep-fatigue properties which may due to the low ductility of the material. Secondly, LCF properties of a nickel based superalloy Haynes 282 have been studied. Tests have been performed for a large ingot. The LCF properties of the core and rim positions did not show evident differences. Better LCF properties were observed when compared with two other low γ’ volume fraction nickel based superalloys. Metallography study results demonstrated that the failure mode of the material was transgranular. Both the initiation and growth of the fatigue cracks were transgranular.

QC 20160905

The aim of this study is to develop a theoretical basis and to perform computational experiments for understanding the grain boundary (GB) grooving in polycrystalline thin film metallic conductors (interconnects) by anisotropic surface diffusion due to capillary, electromigration and elastostatic forces. To this end, irreversible thermo&ndash
kinetics of surfaces and interfaces with triple junction singularities is elaborated, and the resulting well-posed moving boundary value problem is solved using the front&ndash
tracking method. To simulate the strain conditions of the interconnects during service, the problem is addressed within the framework of isotropic linear elasticity in two dimensions (plane strain condition). In the formulation of stress induced surface diffusion, not only the contribution due to elastic strain energy density (ESED) but also that of the elastic dipole tensor interactions (EDTI) between the stress field and the mobile atomic species (monovacancies) is considered. In computation of the elastostatic and electrostatic fields the indirect boundary element method (IBEM) with constant and straight boundary elements is utilized. The resulted non&ndash
linear partial differential equation is solved numerically by Euler&rsquo
s method of finite differences. The dynamic computer simulation experiments identify well known GB groove shapes and shed light on their growing kinetics. They also allow generating some scenarios under several conditions regarding to the applied force fields and/or physicochemical parameters. The destruction of groove symmetry, termination of the groove penetration with isotropic surface diffusivity, ridge/slit formations with anisotropic diffusivity and the role played by the wetting parameter are all identified for electromigration conditions. The kinetics of accelerated groove deepening with an applied tensile stress is examined in connection with GB cavity growth models in the literature and a diffusive micro-crack formation is reported at the groove tip for high stresses. On the other hand, the use of EDTI provided a means to dynamically simulate GB ridges under compressive stress fields with surface diffusion. An incubation time for hillock growth and a crossover depth over which GB migration becomes energetically favorable is defined and discussed in this context.

L’endommagement de fluage des aciers 316L(N) a été étudié expérimentalement et théoriquement à des températures élevées et des temps à rupture jusqu'à dix-neuf ans. Pour le fluage à court terme, les durées de vie sont correctement prédites par le modèle de striction en tenant compte de la dispersion expérimentale. Le modèle de Riedel couplant croissance de cavités par diffusion lacunaire et germination continue est utilisé afin de prédire l’effet de l’endommagement intergranulaire sur la durée de vie des aciers 316L(N). Les durées de vie sont correctement prédites par ce modèle pour le fluage à long terme quelle que soit l'acier austénitique étudié et la température appliquée (525°C-700°C). En tenant compte du régime de vitesse basse contrainte de la loi de Norton, le modèle de Riedel permet de prédire la durée de vie de fluage jusqu'à 25 ans. Aucun paramètre ajusté n’a été utilisé dans le modèle de Riedel. Mais le taux de nucléation de cavités doit être déduit des mesures de densité de cavités à partir des observations MEB-FEG. La cavitation se produit principalement aux interfaces carbures M23C6 /matrice austénitique. L'effet de l'hétérogénéité de la microstructure sur les concentrations de contraintes à l’interface matrice/précipité est simulé par la méthode des éléments finis (logiciel Cast3M). Elle vise à déterminer la distribution des champs de contraintes normales autour de précipités et à prédire numériquement le taux de nucléation de cavités. Les caractéristiques des précipités et le comportement en fluage de la matrice austénitique sont conjointement pris en compte. Les simulations numériques sont en accord avec les observations de sites préférentiels de micro-cavitation
The creep fracture of 316L(N) austenitic SSs has been studied both experimentally and theoretically for high temperatures and lifetimes up to nineteen years. For short term creep, experimental lifetimes are predicted by the necking model taking into account scatter in input parameters. The Riedel modeling of cavity growth by vacancy diffusion along grain boundaries coupled with continuous nucleation is then carried out. Lifetimes are predicted fairly well using this model for long term creep failure whatever the considered austenitic SSs and the applied temperature (525°C - 700°C). Taking into account low and high stress regimes of the Norton-power law, the Riedel model allows us to predict the creep lifetimes in agreement with literature results up to 25 years. No fitted parameter has been used as applying the Riedel model. But the cavity nucleation rate should be deduced from cavity density measurements using FEG-SEM observations. The intergranular cavitation occurs mainly at M23C6 carbides / austenitic matrix interfaces. That is why the effect of the heterogeneity of the microstructure at the matrix/precipitate interface stress concentrations is simulated by the finite element method (Cast3M software). It aims to determine the distribution of normal stress fields around precipitates and to predict the cavity nucleation rate. The features of the precipitates and the creep behavior of the austenitic matrix are both taking into account. Numerical simulations are in agreement with the observations of preferential sites cavitation

Lors de la croissance des monocristaux semi-conducteurs a partir d'un bain fondu, la convection naturelle gouverne de maniere determinante les transferts de masse et de chaleur. Comme la micro-gravite, l'imposition d'un champ magnetique permanent sur le bain - electro-conducteur - est un moyen de stabiliser, de reorganiser l'ecoulement de convection naturelle et, finalement, de le freiner afin de s'approcher au mieux des conditions ideales d'un transport diffusif des especes chimiques. Dans un premier temps, une synthese des connaissances acquises sur les ecoulements thermogravitaires, magnetohydrodynamiques (mhd) ou non, est presentee. Puis, sur la base du dispositif experimental mascot (magnetic stabilisation of convection and turbulence), les phenomenes qui gouvernent l'ecoulement thermogravitaire mhd du mercure dans une cavite cylindrique horizontale elancee, soumise a la fois a un champ magnetique uniforme et a un gradient de temperature horizontal, sont mis en evidence puis interpretes a l'aide de la mhd. Dans cette configuration particuliere, les couches de hartmann demeurent electriquement inactives. L'inertie n'influence l'ecoulement que localement (aux extremites de la cavite), et surtout dans le cas ou la convection est intense (a grand nombre de grashoff). Ailleurs, le couplage entre courants electriques induits et distribution de temperature est illustre par l'equilibre entre le rotationnel de la force de laplace et le rotationnel de la force de flottabilite. Cet equilibre pilote l'ecoulement pour un nombre de rayleigh modifie, dit effectif, suffisamment faible. Une simulation numerique 3-d aux elements finis de cet ecoulement (laminaire) apporte une confirmation satisfaisante de ces resultats experimentaux. Ce memoire est l'etude de la transition de cet ecoulement vers la turbulence, a l'aide de l'experience mascot. Trois ondes oscillantes progressives ou stationnaires sont clairement identifiees pendant la transition. Si la convention est intense, ces ondes interagissent avec des instabilites stationnaires evoluant faiblement dans le temps. Le couplage non-lineaire associe au terme de convection dans l'equation de l'energie engendre une bifurcation sous-critique. Puis, si le regime d'ecoulement est faiblement convectif, le chaos survient a la suite d'une bifurcation supercritique de hopf. Ces resultats ouvrent des perspectives de developpement technologique pour le procede bridgman de croissance cristalline. Et plus generalement, ce progres dans la comprehension de la convection naturelle mhd pourrait s'appliquer dans d'autres situations: en genie metallurgique ou dans les couvertures tritigenes du futur reacteur de fusion thermonucleaire

Cette thèse CIFRE a pour objet d'explorer, de développer et d'exploiter le potentiel des outils de représentation et de modélisation 3D dans l'étude géomorphologique du karst dont la structure géométrique est intrinséquement en trois dimensions. Ce travail a pour support d'étude les gorges de l'Ardèche dont l'évolution géomorphologique et paléogéographique, tant aux temps géologiques qu'aux temps des hommes, est extrêmement riche. Ce territoire propose en outre des défis scientifiques mais aussi sociétaux depuis la découverte de la désormais célèbre grotte Chauvet et la mise en place de l'ERGC (Espace de Restitution de la Grotte Chauvet). C'est dans ce cadre qu'une méthodologie de recherche appliqué au domaine souterrain a été élaborée et appliquée à l'étude de la grotte Chauvet et des cavités des gorges de l'Ardèche pour (i) l'étude de la spéléogenèse et de la karstogenèse, (ii) l'évolution géomorphologique d'une grotte ornée (grotte Chauvet) et (iii) la réalisation d'un projet culturel : l'ERGC. La première partie (chapitre 1, 2 et 3) présente les verrous actuels en géomorphologie karstique, la méthodologie de recherche développée et les apports de la connaissance géomorphologique de la grotte Chauvet et de l'utilisation de modèles 3D dans la construction d'un fac-similé de grande envergure. La deuxième partie (chapitre 4, 5 et 6) présente les problématiques et les résultats de l'étude géomorphologique 3D des gorges de l'Ardèche et des cavités environnantes. Les principaux apports se situent dans la connaissance des formes élémentaires du karst et la géométrie des réseaux karstiques. Ceci a permis d'élaborer un scénario global d'évolution paléogéographique de ce secteur depuis le Néogène jusqu'à l'Actuel. Enfin la troisième partie (chapitre 7, 8 et 9) aborde les problématiques d'étude et de recherches spécifiques des grottes ornées et de leur fermeture. La grotte Chauvet et sa zone d'entrée font l'objet d'une analyse détaillée permettant de répondre aux questionnements pluridisciplinaires (archéologie, préhistoire, conservation, valorisation ...). L'approche géomorphologique 3D développée pour répondre aux différentes problématiques des sciences de la Nature et des Hommes est ici posée et discutée.

Lors des grandes transformations thermoviscoplastiques des aciers, on observe souvent sous l'influence des conditions de contact, une détérioration progressive avec l'apparition de zones ou les microcavités se développent plus rapidement qu'ailleurs. La prévision de la croissance des cavités est obtenue à partir d'un potentiel viscoplastique s'exprimant en fonction des contraintes. Des schémas implicites sont proposés pour le calcul de la déformation, de la température et de la fraction volumique de cavités. Le contact unilatéral tridimensionnel est modélisé par une méthode implicite de pénalisation de la forme variationnelle associée aux équations d'équilibre. Les contacteurs, mobiles en translation ou en rotation, sont discrétisés à partir de la bibliothèque de primitives, implémentée dans le programme de calcul par la méthode des éléments finis Astrid. Les modèles sont valides par comparaison à des solutions analytiques ou à des références expérimentales puis utilises pour le laminage perçage d'ébauches tubulaires. La carte des variables d'état est présentée pour différentes configurations de perçage et la répartition de la croissance de cavités est plus particulièrement analysée. En conclusion, l'auteur montre l'apport essentiel et les performances des modèles développés.

Le mode de rupture des alliages CFC est généralement de type ductile par des mécanismes de germination, croissance et coalescence de cavités internes micrométriques et peut être modifié par l’irradiation. L’irradiation neutronique de ces alliages conduit à la création de défauts cristallins qui induisent un durcissement, une perte de la capacité d’écrouissage, une chute très importante de la ténacité et un mode de déformation localisé à l’échelle intragranulaire. La compréhension des mécanismes physiques élémentaires de la rupture ductile est indispensable au développement de modèles quantitatifs pour prédire la ténacité des matériaux CFC irradiés. Pour cela, trois différents points ont été étudiés dans cette thèse : (1) L’influence de la localisation de la déformation induite par l’irradiation sur la croissance et la coalescence de cavités : des expériences modèles in-situ MEB de croissance et coalescence de cavités micrométriques dans des matériaux irradiés aux protons ont été réalisées. Les résultats montrent un effet limité de la localisation pour des cavités de la taille des grains et une diminution de l’influence de la localisation avec l’augmentation du niveau de déformation pour des cavités intragranulaires. Par conséquent, les modèles homogénéisés de matériaux poreux développés pour les matériaux non irradiés pourraientt être utilisés en première approximation pour modéliser la rupture ductile des matériaux irradiés. (2) Le comportement sous chargement mécanique de nano-porosités d’irradiation et leur contribution éventuelle à la rupture : l’étude expérimentale et numérique de la déformation de cavités dans un matériau nanoporeux a permis de mettre en évidence la très forte hétérogénéité de la déformation à cette échelle et l’absence d’effet de taille significatif sur la déformation des cavités de diamètre supérieur à 10 nm en traction simple. (3) Le développement de modèles homogénéisés de matériaux poreux valides aux fortes porosités : deux nouveaux critères de coalescence obtenus par analyse limite sont proposés et validés par comparaison à des simulations d’analyses limites numériques, dans le cas de cavités de type fissures et de cavités ellipsoïdales
The failure mode of FCC alloys is generally ductile through nucleation, growth and coalescence of micrometric voids, and can be modified by irradiation. Neutron irradiation of these alloys leads to the creation of crystalline defects that induce hardening, loss of work hardening capability, a very large drop in fracture toughness and a heterogeneous deformation mode at the grain scale. Understanding the elementary physical mechanisms of ductile fracture is essential for the development of quantitative models to predict fracture toughness of irradiated FCC materials. Thus, in this thesis, three different subjects have been studied. (1) Influence of the localization of deformation induced by irradiation on void growth and coalescence: Model experiments of growth and coalescence of micrometric voids in proton-irradiated materials have been performed based on SEM in-situ tests. Results show a limited effect of localization for grain-size voids and a decreasing influence of localization with increasing level of deformation for intragranular voids, so that homogenized models of porous materials developed for unirradiated materials may be used as a first approximation to model the ductile fracture of irradiated materials. (2) The behavior under mechanical loading of nanovoids generated under irradiation and their possible contribution to fracture: The experimental and numerical study of void deformation in a nanoporous material highlights the very strong heterogeneity of the deformation at this scale and the absence of significant size effect for voids of diameter greater than 10 nm under tensile loading. (3) Development of homogenized models for porous materials valid at high porosities: Two new coalescence criteria obtained by limit analysis are proposed and validated by comparison with numerical limit analysis simulations, in the case of penny-shaped cracks and ellipsoidal voids

Ce travail porte sur la preparation d'une experience spatiale de croissance du diodure mercurique par la methode du flux force. Des etudes de vitesse de transport, des experiences de nucleation et de croissance dans une cavite sont reportees. Une approche theorique du couplage entre la cinetique de croissance et le transport est effectuee afin de mettre en evidence la localisation du gradient de concentration, du a la gravite, autour du cristal en croissance. Cette etude a permis le choix des conditions experimentales utilisees au cours du vol first international microgravity laboratory

L'endommagement des matériaux ductiles est un processus impliquant trois étapes : la nucléation, la croissance et la coalescence de vides. La phase de croissance des vides a été largement étudiée dans la littérature. Il a été montré que, durant cette étape, la forme des vides joue un rôle fondamental sur le comportement macroscopique du matériau. Dans le cas de sollicitations dynamiques, les effets micro inertiels, qui résultent des accélérations subies par la matrice au voisinage du vide, influent eux aussi fortement sur la croissance des vides. Cependant, les travaux intégrant simultanément ces deux contributions (effets inertiels et forme) sont très rares. L'objectif de ce travail est de proposer un modèle de comportement pour les matériaux poreux qui prend en compte la forme des vides et les effets micro inertiels. Dans une première partie, un volume élémentaire représentatif défini par deux ellipsoïdes allongés confocaux est utilisé pour représenter le matériau poreux. La matrice est rigide viscoplastique. En se basant sur les travaux de Molinari et Mercier (2001), la contrainte macroscopique se décompose en une partie statique et une partie dynamique. La contrainte statique est décrite par le modèle de Gologanu et al. (1997). La contrainte dynamique est obtenue en adoptant le champ de vitesse de Gologanu et al. (1993). Avec cette modélisation, il est montré que la contrainte dynamique est liée de façon quadratique au tenseur des vitesses des déformations et de façon linéaire à sa dérivée par rapport au temps. Le modèle fait l'objet d'une validation sur la base de comparaisons avec des résultats de calculs par éléments finis. Différentes forme de vides et valeurs de la porosité ont été considérées. Dans une seconde partie, le cas de matériaux contenant des vides aplatis est abordé ; le volume élémentaire représentatif est défini par deux ellipsoïdes confocaux aplatis. La contrainte statique est toujours décrite par le modèle de Gologanu et al. (1997). La contrainte dynamique est obtenue en adoptant le champ de vitesse de Gologanu et al. (1994). La procédure de validation est identique à celle mise en œuvre dans le cas des vides allongés. Une bonne adéquation entre les résultats du modèle et les résultats de calculs par éléments finis est retrouvée. L'utilisation des surfaces d'écoulement permet de mettre en lumière les effets de la forme des vides sur le comportement du matériau poreux sous chargement dynamique. En fonction du chargement appliqué, certaines géométries de vide favorisent la déformation du matériau. Le cas particulier du vide sphérique est étudié comme limite des deux modèles. La continuité des deux modèles est démontrée. L'évolution de la porosité et de la forme des vides dans un matériau poreux sous chargement dynamique est analysée. Des comparaisons avec des résultats de simulations par éléments finis sont proposées. L'influence de la triaxialité et de la vitesse du chargement sur le comportement dynamique du matériau poreux est étudiée, ainsi que celle de la forme initiale du vide. Au final, il est démontré que le modèle développé dans cette thèse permet de retrouver les tendances fournies par les calculs éléments finis
The ductile fracture mechanism involves three stages: void nucleation, void growth and void coalescence. Under dynamic loading conditions, void growth is strongly affected by microinertia effects resulting from the local acceleration of the matrix material in the vicinity of the void. Several works devoted to quasi-static conditions also show that void shape has a strong impact on the behavior of porous ductile materials. However, there exist only few works considering the combined effect of these two contributions. In the present work, we propose an original, multi-scale constitutive model of porous materials, taking into account void shape and micro-inertia effects. In a first step, a representative volume element defined by two confocal prolate spheroids is used to represent the porous material. The matrix behavior is assumed to be rigid-viscoplastic. Based on the work of Molinari and Mercier (2001), the macroscopic stress is the sum of a static and a dynamic part. The static contribution is described by the Gologanu et al. model (1997). The dynamic stress is derived by choosing the trial velocity field proposed by Gologanu et al. (1993). With the present modeling, a link is established between the macroscopic dynamic stress, on the one hand and, the macroscopic strain rate tensor and its time derivative on the other hand. To validate the proposed model, finite element computations have been performed for different void geometries and void volume fractions. The influence of micro-inertia on the macroscopic flow surface is analyzed and a good agreement between modeling and simulations is observed. In a second step, a representative volume element defined by two confocal oblate spheroids is used to represent the porous material. For this configuration, the static contribution is also described by using the Gologanu et al. model (1997), while the derivation of the dynamic stress is based on the trial velocity field proposed by Gologanu et al. (1994). As for the prolate case, a good agreement is retrieved between model predictions and results of finite element computations. The spherical void configuration is investigated as the limit case for the oblate and prolate models. The continuity between the two models is established. Finally, the proposed models are combined to investigate the porosity and void shape evolutions in a porous solid under dynamic loadings. A parametric study has been performed by varying the stress triaxiality, the initial void shape and the loading rate. Significant void shape variations are observed for low triaxiality loadings. With the present modeling, the void can evolve from prolate to oblate shapes (and the reverse). Model predictions are compared to finite element computations

Vestiges fragiles et longtemps mésestimés, les empreintes constituent une source précieuse d’informations concernant la fréquentation d’un site. Actuellement largement étudiées en contexte de plein air, elles le sont beaucoup moins en grotte, contexte dans lequel leur étude a connu son apogée entre les années 1970 et le début des années 2000. Ces dernières années, l’intérêt des préhistoriens pour l’ichnologie en milieu souterrain s’est de nouveau manifesté et s’est concrétisé par la reprise de l’étude des empreintes dans plusieurs grottes ornées. Notre étude s’inscrit dans cette dynamique et vise à contribuer à la recherche autour des empreintes à partir du registre karstique et à participer au renouvèlement de la discipline en Préhistoire. Notre intérêt s’est porté sur les empreintes des grottes de Fontanet (Ariège) et de Cussac (Dordogne), d’abord du point de vue de leur formation et de leur conservation au cours du temps, puis de leur contribution à la compréhension de l’appréhension du monde souterrain par l’Homme au Paléolithique.À travers des observations, inventaires, mesures in situ et un travail ex situ grâce aux outils d’imagerie tridimensionnelle, nous avons mené une étude morphologique et morphométrique des empreintes fossiles. La singularité des empreintes de pied de Cussac nous a, en outre, amené à développer une approche expérimentale afin d’appréhender les différents facteurs ayant pu influencer leur morphologie au moment de leur formation et après celle-ci (taphonomie, port de chaussant, autre ?). Ces expérimentations ont mis en évidence un impact du substrat et de sa remobilisation sur la morphologie générale et les dimensions de l'empreinte, ainsi que la préservation de détails comme les orteils. La réalisation d'empreintes à l'aide de chaussants expérimentaux a conduit de plus à envisager l'utilisation de ce type de protection dans la grotte. Notre approche à la fois pluri et interdisciplinaire permet d’affirmer l’unicité des grottes de Fontanet et de Cussac d’un point de vue ichnologique, archéologique et géomorphologique. Tandis qu’à Cussac, la présence humaine semble avoir été limitée (aller/s et retour/s) et avoir répondu à un objectif précis (réalisation des gravures et dépôts humains ?), à Fontanet, la fréquentation semble s’être inscrite dans la durée et a impliqué plusieurs catégories d’individus (présence de juvéniles) et des activités variées.Des comportements souterrains similaires et qui se retrouvent durant l’ensemble du Paléolithique sont aussi mis en évidence (exploration globale des cavités, etc.). Ces travaux se présentent alors comme une contribution essentielle aux discussions relatives à la fonction de ces deux cavités
Tracks, which are among the most fragile and underestimated archaeological remains, represent a valuable source of information on site frequentation. In the past few years, they were widely studied in open air contexts. However, their analysis in caves, a context in which their study reached its peak between the 1970s and the early 2000s, is much less common. Recently, interest towards ichnology in subterranean environments re-emerged among prehistorians, and the study of tracks in several decorated caves was resumed. Our study is part of this dynamic and aims to contribute to research on tracks from the karst register and to participate in the renewal of the discipline in Prehistory. We study the footprints of the caves of Fontanet (Ariège) and Cussac (Dordogne), focusing firstly on their formation and conservation over time, and secondly on their contribution to the understanding of the subterranean environment appropriation by human in the Palaeolithic.Through observations, inventories, in situ measurements and ex situ work based on three-dimensional imaging tools, we conducted a morphological and morphometric study of fossil tracks. In addition, we have developed an experimental approach to understand the various factors that may have influenced the morphology of footprints at the time of their formation and since their formation. This multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach makes it possible to affirm the uniqueness of the Fontanet and Cussac caves from an ichnological, archaeological and geomorphological point of view and at the same time reveals similar behaviours that can be found throughout the Paleolithic period. The profile of individuals who have frequented these two cavities gradually takes shape. We propose several hypotheses concerning their behaviour and activities in this confined and naturally constraining space and contribute to the discussions relating to the function of these two cavities

The study was done in the department of La Paz, providence of Ingavi in the community of Letanias (16° 39’ 15” S; 69° 60’ 18” W), in the Benson Institute building, located 3 kilometers from Viacha. The objectives were: to evaluate the growth and increase in weight and consumption of food in Guinea pig male and females under the effect of diets with different levels of barley sprout in the phases of growth; to determine the nutritional conversion; to determine the optimal level of use of the barley sprouts in the basic feeding of Guinea pigs; and to evaluate the results of the diets from the point of view of its economic efficiency. The diets utilized were isoprotein and isoenergetic and consisted of the following: D l (34% H. alfalfa + 33% P. barley + 33% bran), D-2 (45%H. alfalfa + 25% sprout + 14% P. barley + 16% bran), D-3 (35% H. alfalfa + 50% sprout + 12% P. barley + 3% bran), D-4 (22% H. alfalfa + 75% sprout + 2% P. barley + 1% bran). The design that I used was completely random with factorial arrangement, with four repetitions, taking into account 64 animals 32 male and 32 females. I analyzed the variables with the statistical package MSTATC obtaining the following results.- The analysis of variance obtained for the gaining and increasing of weight, I present differences in the phases of evaluation (sixth and eleventh week). Being D-2 the diet that presents greater weight with referring to the diets D l, D-2 and D-3. The consumption of food was greater in the diet D-2, showing greater flexibility than the diets D-2, D-3 and D-l. Analyzing the nutritional conversion index, weight, and economic relation it is concluded that the diet D-2 with 25% of barley sprout is the one that achieves the best behavior, achieving a good use of the goods that farmers have and the cost of feed is attainable for the producer. Barley sprouts can be an alternative feed for the guinea pig always as long as administered in low levels.

Dans le cadre du développement de nuances d'aciers toujours plus performantes en termes de résistance à l'effort et à l'endommagement, les aciers Dual-Phase (DP) présentent un bon compromis résistance/ductilité. Cependant, il est nécessaire de disposer de meilleures connaissances concernant les mécanismes menant à la rupture de tels aciers. Les mécanismes d'endommagement ont ainsi été étudiés dans cette thèse à l'aide de la tomographie aux rayons X. Des essais de traction in-situ ont été réalisés sur plusieurs nuances d'aciers DP, un acier ferritique et un acier martensitique afin de caractériser chaque étape de l'endommagement ductile. Des observations qualitatives et des données quantitatives concernant la germination de l'endommagement, la croissance des cavités et la coalescence ont été recueillies lors de ces essais. Ces données quantitatives ont ensuite été utilisées pour le développement et/ou la validation de modèles d'endommagement. Une prédiction de la cinétique de germination a ainsi été proposée et la version du modèle de croissance de cavités de Rice et Tracey corrigée par Huang et prenant mieux en compte l'effet de la triaxialité a été validée expérimentalement. L'étape de coalescence des cavités menant à la rupture des matériaux a pour la première fois été caractérisée de façon quantitative dans un matériau industriel et des critères de coalescence ont été appliqués localement sur les couples de cavités présentes dans le matériau. L'utilisation de ces modèles analytiques a permis une meilleure compréhension des propriétés agissant sur les phénomènes mis en jeu. L'effet de la part cinématique de l'écrouissage sur la germination et la croissance de l'endommagement a notamment été souligné et validé par des essais de chargements complexes.

Le développement de matériaux avec différents ordres ferroïques couplés (multiferroïques) motive d’intenses activités de recherche. Une combinaison particulièrement intéressante est celle des paramètres d'ordre magnétique et électrique qui, dans le cas favorable où ceux-ci sont couplés, ouvre la voie au contrôle électrique de l’aimantation. Celui-ci peut être envisagé via la manipulation de la polarisation d’un ferroélectrique ou des déformations d’un piézoélectrique Les propriétés du matériau ferroélectrique/piézoélectrique peuvent être inversement modifiées par l’état d’aimantation, ce qui laisse envisager des applications dans le domaine des capteurs de champs magnétiques. Ce travail s’inscrit dans l’étude de systèmes piézoélectrique/ magnétostrictif, avec un intérêt spécifique porté à l’influence de l’aimantation sur les ondes acoustiques de surface (SAW) générées dans le dispositif. Nous avons ainsi déposé des couches polycristallines de Ni, des multicouches [Co/IrMn], ainsi que des couches épitaxiées de TbFe2 sur des substrats de Niobate de Lithium (LNO) de différentes orientations. Sur LNO Z-cut, la croissance de TbFe2 est réalisée en utilisant différentes couches tampons simples ou doubles qui permettent d’obtenir des directions de croissance [111] ou [110] avec des anisotropies magnétiques respectivement perpendiculaire et planaire. Sur des substrats de coupe 128Y et 41Y, la croissance s’avère beaucoup plus complexe mais il est néanmoins possible d’obtenir un film cristallisé de TbFe2 multidomaines avec des relations d’orientation 3D similaires à celles obtenus sur LNO Z-cut, que ce soit entre la couche magnétique et la couche tampon, ou entre la couche tampon et le substrat. Des dispositifs magnétiques à ondes acoustiques de surface (MSAW) ont été ensuite fabriqués dans une géométrie de résonateur permettant une interrogation à distance aisée. La fréquence de résonance des dispositifs MSAW est sensible à l’application d’un champ magnétique externe, via des effets statiques liés à l’orientation de l’aimantation sous champ et via des effets dynamiques d’origine magnétoélastique liés à l’excitation acoustique. Nous avons examiné les réponses magnéto-acoustiques des différents dispositifs, en corrélation étroite avec les propriétés magnétiques statiques, en particulier l’anisotropie, la coercivité et l’hystérèse. Un modèle piézomagnétique équivalent a été utilisé pour simuler certaines de ces réponses. De manière générale, nous montrons qu’un choix judicieux du matériau magnétique et le contrôle de ses propriétés permettent d’élaborer des capteurs spécifiques : un matériau magnétique doux permet de contrôler l’anisotropie de la réponse acoustique via la forme des IDT; un matériau magnétique dur ouvre la voie au développement de capteurs de forts champs magnétiques; un système à anisotropie d’échange dont on peut contrôler la réversibilité de la réponse magnétique permet d’envisager un capteur de champ magnétique hors plan
The development of materials with different coupled ferroic orders (multiferroics) drives an intense research activity. A particularly interesting combination is the case where magnetic and electrical orders are simultaneously present, which, in the favorable case where these are coupled, opens the way to the electrical control of magnetization. This can be achieved in manipulating the polarization in a ferroelectric or the strains in a piezoelectric compound. Ferroelectric or piezoelectric properties can inversely be influenced by the magnetic state, an interesting feature for the development of magnetic field sensors. This work aims in the investigation of piezoelectric/magnetostrictive systems, more especially in the role of the magnetization and of the magnetization versus field behavior on the surface acoustic waves (SAW). Polycristalline Ni films, [Co/IrMn] multilayers and epitaxial TbFe2 films have been deposited on Lithium Niobate (LNO) substrates of different orientations. On LNO Z-cut, various single or double buffer layers have been used to achieve the TbFe2 epitaxial growth, along either [111] or [110] directions and with either perpendicular or in-plane magnetic anisotropy. On LNO 128Y and 41Y substrates, the growth is more complex but it is nevertheless possible to obtain crystalline multidomains TbFe2 films with 3D orientation relationships similar to those obtained on LNO Z-cut, both between the magnetic and the buffer layers, and between the buffer layer and the substrate. Magnetic surface acoustic wave (MSAW) devices have been patterned in a resonator geometry that enables an easy wireless interrogation. The MSAW device resonance frequency is sensitive to an external magnetic field, both via static effects related to the field-induced magnetization changes, and via magnetoelastic dynamic effects related to the acoustic excitation. We have investigated the MSAW magneto acoustic responses of the various devices in close connection with the static magnetic properties, especially the anisotropy, the coercivity and the hysteresis. An equivalent piezomagnetic model could support some of these observations. We show more generally that the proper choice of magnetic material and the control of the magnetic properties helps to build up specific sensors: soft magnetic materials enable to tailor the anisotropy of the MSAW response by engineering the IDT’s shape; hard magnetic materials enable to achieve high field unipolar or bipolar field response; exchange-biased systems in which the reversibility of the magnetic response is achieved let envision the development of sensors for out-of-plane magnetic fields

Depuis son invention en 1940 mais surtout consécutivement à sa fermeture au public en 1963, la conservation de la Grotte de Lascaux se base entre autres sur la compréhension de ses interactions avec le massif karstique environnant et notamment les processus siégeant dans l’épikarst et la zone de transmission superficielle. Ces travaux de thèse se sont donc attachés à comprendre la dynamique du CO2 dans le continuum sol-épikarst-cavité afin d’en évaluer les potentiels impacts sur la conservation des parois. Nous bénéficions à Lascaux d’une fenêtre d’observation sur les écoulements provenant de l’épikarst sus-jacent dans le SAS 1 de la cavité, mais aussi d’une instrumentation conséquente. Elle permet l’acquisition de nombreuses séries de données temporelles des paramètres microclimatiques ainsi que des teneurs en CO2 de l’air en différents points de la cavité ou encore du débit de l’émergence épikarstique depuis le début des années 2000.Une première partie de l’étude est consacrée à la caractérisation de la dynamique du CO2 dans le contexte d’un épikarst sous couverture pédologique. A cette fin, une parcelle expérimentale est instrumentée afin d’effectuer un suivi des paramètres hydroclimatiques et des teneurs en CO2 à différentes profondeurs. Des périodes de recharge (accumulation) et de vidange (émanations vers l’atmosphère) du CO2 de l’épikarst superficiel sont démontrées tout comme la constitution d’un stock de CO2 peu variable dans l’épikarst subsuperficiel. La compréhension de ces différents mécanismes aboutit à un schéma général de la dynamique du CO2 dans l’épikarst.Cette dynamique est étudiée dans la Grotte de Lascaux au cours d’une seconde partie à partir des séries temporelles des paramètres microclimatiques et des teneurs en CO2, mais aussi du signal isotopique en 13C. Il est alors démontré que les flux de CO2 entrant dans la cavité proviennent de trois origines distinctes : l’atmosphère (entrée), l’épikarst superficiel (Galerie Mondmilch et Salles Ensablées) et le massif (éboulis du Puits du Sorcier). Parallèlement, deux régimes aérologiques responsables de la répartition spatio-temporelle des teneurs en CO2 dans la cavité sont observés : stratification et thermoconvections. Ils sont les principaux responsables de la dynamique du CO2 dans la Grotte de Lascaux du fait des faibles échanges entre cette dernière et l’atmosphère comparativement à d’autres cavités karstiques de la région. Enfin, l’impact du dispositif du pompage de l’air sur l’aérologie et la dynamique du CO2 dans la Grotte de Lascaux est évalué. La comparaison de ces dynamiques avec et sans extraction de l’air de la cavité conduit à la création de schémas conceptuels de la dynamique du CO2 dans la Grotte Lascaux.L’étude des conditions d’écoulement dans l’épikarst de la Grotte de Lascaux, troisième partie de ces travaux, a été effectuée à partir d’un suivi en continu des débits, paramètres physico-chimiques et de la fluorescence naturelle de l’eau. L’analyse des séries temporelles de ces traceurs naturels conduit caractériser de façon détaillée les conditions d’écoulement et notamment l’importance de la teneur en eau de l’épikarst sur la taille zone d’alimentation et les types d’eau arrivant à l’exutoire. Parallèlement, l’impact de ces conditions d’écoulement sur les équilibres calco-carboniques des eaux arrivant dans la cavité est analysé.Enfin, les connaissances acquises sont appliquées pour déterminer l’impact potentiel en continu des eaux (condensation et exfiltration) présentes aux parois ornées de la cavité. A cette fin, une méthodologie d’estimation de la masse de calcite potentiellement précipitée par les eaux d’exfiltration et dissoute par les eaux de condensation basée sur des simulations hydrogéochimiques est développée. Son application à la paroi gauche de la Salle de la Taureaux en contextes de pompage et naturel conduit à l’évaluation de l’impact potentiel du pompage mais aussi de l’aérologie de la cavité sur la conservation des parois
Since its invention in 1940 but especially as a result of its closure to the public in 1963, the preservation of the Cave of Lascaux bases itself among others on the understanding of its interactions with the surrounding karstic massif in particular the processes sitting in the épikarst and the zone of superficial transmission. That is why this thesis research attempted to understand the dynamics of the CO2 in the continuum soil-epikarst-cave to estimate the potential impacts on the preservation of walls. We benefit in Lascaux of an observation window on the flows resulting from the epikarst known emergence in the SAS 1 of the cavity, but also the consequent instrumentation. It allows the acquisition of numerous time series data of the microclimatic parameters, carbon dioxide partial pressures at different points of the cave and the discharge of the epikarstic emergence since the beginning of the century.A first part of the study is dedicated to the characterization of the dynamics of the CO2 in the context of an epikarst under soil cover. To this end, an experimental parcel is instrumented to follow the hydroclimatic parameters and the contents in PCO2 at various depths. Periods of recharge (accumulation) and draining (emanations towards the atmosphere) of the superficial epikarst CO2 are highlighted when the constitution of a low variable CO2 stock is observed in the subsuperficiel epikarst. The understanding of these various mechanisms ends in a conceptual scheme of the CO2 dynamics in the epikarst.In a second part, this dynamic is studied in the Cave of Lascaux from the temporal series of the microclimatic parameters and the contents in CO2, but also the δ13CCO2. It is then demonstrated that the flows of CO2 entering the cavity result from three different origins: the atmosphere (entrance), the superficial epikarst (Mondmilch Gallery and Silted-up Rooms) and the massif (screw of the Shaft of the Sorcerer). At the same time, two aerological regimes responsible for the spatiotemporal distribution of the PCO2 in the cavity are observed: stratification and thermoconvection. They are the main mechanisms responsible for the dynamics of the CO2 in the Cave of Lascaux because of the low exchanges with the atmosphere. Finally, the impact of the pumping of the air on the aerology and the dynamics of the CO2. The comparison of these dynamics with and without extraction of the air of the cavity leads to the creation of conceptual schemes of the dynamics of the CO2 in the Cave Lascaux.The study of the flowing conditions in the epikarst of the Cave of Lascaux, the third part of these works, was made from a continuous monitoring of the discharge, physico-chemical parameters and the natural fluorescence of the water. The analysis of the temporal series of these natural tracers leads to characterize in a detailed way the flowing conditions and the importance of the moisture content of the epikarst on the size of the recharge area and the types of water arriving at the emergence. In parallel, the impact of these conditions on the calco-carbonic balances of waters arriving in the cavity is analyzed.Finally, the acquired knowledge are applied to determine the potential continuous impact of the waters (condensation and exfiltration) present at the adorned walls of the cave. To this end, a methodology of estimation of the mass of calcite potentially precipitated by exfiltration and dissolved by condensation based on hydrogeochemical simulations is developed. Its application to the left wall of the Hall of the Bulls with and without pumping leads to the evaluation of the potential impact of this device but also the aerology of the cavity on the preservation of walls

Il est communément admis que la recharge des aquifères carbonatés est contrôlée par la zone non saturée, siège d’une mise à l’équilibre des phases liquides, solides et gazeuses. L’épikarst, zone superficielle de ces aquifères, recueille les pluies efficaces et les transfère en profondeur via une double porosité de fissure et de fracture. Des épandages détritiques sablo-argileux fossilisent souvent les paléo-reliefs, changeant ainsi les caractéristiques des zones d’infiltration. Toutefois, les données sur ces dépôts superficiels sont rares, et leur impact sur les modalités de recharge en contexte karstique est aujourd’hui mal connu et peu décrit.La célèbre grotte préhistorique ornée de Lascaux offre une fenêtre d’observation à l’intérieur de l’épikarst et constitue ainsi un site privilégié pour le suivi des processus de transferts. La grotte fait partie d’un réseau karstique fossile partiellement comblé par du matériel détritique sablo-argileux. Les parties basses de la cavité montrent des fortes teneurs en CO2 dans l’air, supérieures à 8% (80 000 ppmv) lors de certaines périodes estivales. Cette thèse propose une étude des caractéristiques de l’infiltration en milieu karstique grâce au suivi des variations chimiques et isotopiques d’une émergence épikarstique au plafond de l’entrée de la grotte. Les principaux objectifs sont la compréhension de la dynamique des fluides en transit dans l’épikarst, la recherche de la source des fortes teneurs en CO2 ainsi que la détermination du rôle des épandages détritiques dans les modalités de recharge de l’aquifère karstique.Après avoir mener une étude approfondie de l’environnement géologique et géomorphologique du site, l’analyse hydroclimatique, combinée au suivi bimensuel de la chimie et des variations isotopiques des eaux épikarstiques, a permis d’investiguer le fonctionnement de la zone d’infiltration du karst d’un point de vue des transferts de masse.Les premières observations montrent que l’émergence épikarstique n’est pas pérenne avec un tarissement qui débute au début de l’été. Le système nécessite environ 250 mm de recharge automnale pour se réactiver. Le signal 18O à l’émergence est fortement amorti comparé au signal 18O dans les pluies ce qui démontre la création d’une réserve épikarstique qui conduit à l’homogénéisation chimique des eaux. Ainsi, les transferts de masse sont lents dans ce système caractérisé par un comportement de type fissuré et non karstique. Les données de 13C collectées à l’émergence permettent de retracer les conditions physico-chimiques qu’ont rencontrées les eaux au cours de leur transit. Elles montrent différentes origines possible de l’infiltration et révèlent des phénomènes de dégazage – précipitation lors des périodes de fortes pluies.De plus, les eaux épikarstiques sont fortement sursaturées vis-à-vis de la calcite et leur forte minéralisation résulte de la mise à l’équilibre avec une pCO2 importante (5% en moyenne). De telles valeurs ne correspondent pas à la production de CO2 du sol. L’autre origine supposée est les épandages détritiques sablo-argileux où des teneurs importantes en CO2 ont été mesurées (pCO2air de 4 à 8%). De plus, la présence d’eau dans ces niveaux suggère que le système est en partie alimenté par ces formations. Ainsi, le transit des eaux au travers de milieux aux conditions physico-chimiques très contrastés pourrait être à l’origine de la sursaturation des eaux qui entrent dans la cavité.Enfin, l’étude montre que les épandages détritiques tiennent deux rôles majeurs dans les processus d’infiltration des eaux : (i) ils participent à leur homogénéisation en les stockant proche du sol et (ii) ils fournissent un fort potentiel de karstification au système
It is widely recognized that the recharge of deep carbonated aquifers is controlled by a non saturated zone in which liquids, solids and gases are exchanged to attain equilibrium. The epikarstic zone, which represents the bottom of these aquifers, collects the efficient rain waters and transfers them deeper through a dual fractured and fissured porosity. Sandy-clayey detritic coatings are often observed to fossilize the paleo-relief changing the features of the infiltration zones. However, field data on these superficial deposits are sparse and their impact on the recharge modalities in karstic context is not yet well known and described.The famous prehistoric painted cave of Lascaux (France) provides a window into the epikarstic system and offers a privileged environment for the monitoring of transfer processes. The Lascaux cave is part of a fossil karstic network partly filled with detritic material and it is known to have high CO2 concentrations, greater than 8% (80,000 ppmv) in some summer periods, when measured in the air of the lower parts of the cave. Here, we study the epikarstic seepage traits monitoring the chemical and isotopic variations in waters which seep from the entrance roof of the cave. The aims of this work are to understand the dynamics of the fluids in the epikarstic system, to find the source of the high CO2 concentrations measured into the cave and to understand how the detritic coatings impact on the recharge modalities. After carried out an in-depth geological and geomorphological study of the site, the use of hydroclimatic analysis combined with the semi-monthly hydrochemical and isotopic monitoring of the epikarstic waters allowed us to investigate the karstic infiltration zone functioning in term of matter transfer. First, we observed that the epikarstic emergence is non perennial and dries up at the beginning of summer. The system needs an approximately 250 mm recharge in autumn before seeing flows at the emergence. The 18O signal at the emergence is highly amortized compared to the rain 18O signal which reveals the creation of an epikarstic water table that chemically homogenises waters. Thus, the mass transfers are slow in this system characterized by a fissured and nonkarstic behaviour type. The 13C data obtained at the epikarstic emergence seem to characterize the physicochemical conditions of the environments in which waters circulate during their transit in the system. They confirm the possible various origins of waters and reveal degassing – precipitation phenomena during rising periods.Moreover, épikarstic waters are always supersaturated with respect to the calcite and the the high bicarbonates and calcium concentrations result from water equilibrate with an important pCO2 at saturated state (5% on average). Such values of pCO2 do not correspond to the soil CO2 production. The other supposed origin is the sandy clayey detritic formations where we measured important pCO2 (data range from 4 to 8% in the atmosphere of the coatings). Furthermore, the presence of water in the sandy levels of the coatings suggests that the system can be partly fed by these formations. The transit of water through two physicochemicaly highly contrasted environments would be at the origin of the general flows supersaturation state in the cave.Finally, the study shows that the detritic coatings are involved in two aspects of the epikarstic waters run-off conditions: (i) they homogenize them while retaining near to the soil and (ii) give to them a very high karstification potential

Vertical cavity surface emitting laser design, growth, and characterization is discussed. Theoretical models for gain in semiconductors as well as for the threshold gain in vertical cavity lasers is presented. The distributed Bragg mirrors used in these lasers are treated theoretically using the coupled-mode approach and with a matrix method that is generalized to include gain and loss. The growth by molecular beam epitaxy of these structures is also discussed including steps taken to obtain precise, reproducible growth rates. Specific problems and tradeoffs encountered in the growth include greater oxygen incorporation at the lower substrate temperatures needed to ensure precise thickness control. Beryllium diffusion is also discussed and SIMS measurements are presented. Two types of vertical cavity lasers are demonstrated. The first is a hybrid semiconductor/dielectric structure. In this design, the n-doped mirror and the optical cavity are epitaxially grown semiconductors and the top mirror is a SiO2/Si3/N4 distributed Bragg reflector added to the structure by reactive sputter deposition. These lasers have InGaAs quantum wells and are top-emitting near 980 nm. This design has the advantage of removing the top mirrors from the current path which reduces the series resistance. Threshold voltages of 1.8-1.9 V were obtained from 18 µm diameter lasers. In addition, the hybrid structure allows characterization before the deposition of the top mirror. Measurements of the carrier distribution and the temperature of the devices operating without the top mirrors are presented. A minimum lasers threshold current of 2.5 mA was obtained from a 6 µm diameter laser, and a maximum peak power of 1.67 mW was obtained from a 12 µm diameter laser. The lasers exhibit strongly index-guided transverse modes and are multi-moded above threshold.

The development of high powered electro-magnetic devices has generated interest in the effect of combined electromagnetic and mechanical loading of such structures. Materials used in high-current applications – aluminum alloys and copper – are subjected to heat pulses of short duration (in the range of a few hundred microseconds to a few milliseconds); immediately following or along with such heat pulses, these materials are also subjected to large mechanical forces. In previous work reported in the literature, ejection of material from the vicinity of preexisting defects such as cracks, notches or discontinuities have been observed resulting from short-duration high-intensity current pulses; after a series of pulses, permanent deformation and weakening of intact material has also been reported. But a lack of complete understanding of the effects of short duration current pulses hinders the assessment of the reliability of such conductors in high energy applications. Therefore, an investigation was undertaken to examine the behavior of electromagnetically and mechanically loaded conductors. This work investigates the effects of short-duration, high-current-density pulses in combination with viii mechanical loading. The aim is to develop a theoretical model to describe the resulting mechanical response. The model is to provide a characterization of the possible effects of thermally-induced plastic strains on metals loaded beyond or just below their yield strength or below the critical stress intensity factor. In the experiments reported here, two types of specimens, undamaged and damaged, were subjected to combined electromechanical loads. Undamaged specimens were used to observe thermally-induced plastic strains - strains not caused by an increase in mechanical loading, but rather resulting from the reduction of yield strength and post-yield stiffness due to the increase in temperature. The experiments were conducted such that it would be possible to develop a model that would conclusively account for the observed material behavior. The second sets of specimens were weakened a priori by the introduction of a crack in order to study the influence of such crack-like defects on the electrical and mechanical fields, and to produce a safe design envelope with respect to the loading conditions. Failure was found to occur due to melting triggered by joule heating; a quantitative criterion based on current concentration and heat accumulation near the crack tip has been developed based on these experimental results.
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博士
國立清華大學
電子工程研究所
94
The main intention of this thesis is growth and characterization of InAs/GaAs quantum dot (QD) heterostructure with 1.3 μm emission wavelength and fabricates 1.3 μm-emitting InAs/GaAs quantum dot resonant cavity light-emitting diode (QD RCLED). The QD heterostructure have been successfully realized via Stranski-krastanow growth mode, and the structural and the optical characteristics of InAs QDs determinate by growth parameters. Firstly, we investigate the growth-temperature and growth-rate effect of InAs QDs on GaAs substrate grown by low pressure metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (LP MOCVD). The lower growth temperature makes for the formation of InAs QDs with different growth temperatures, and the optimum optical characteristic of InAs QDs is grown at 500℃, which can extend the emission wavelength to 1.3 μm with strongest photoluminescence (PL) intensity, the narrowest full width at half maximum of 30.8 meV as compare to grow at other growth temperatures. In various growth rates tuning experiment, lower growth rate forms more irregular relaxed islands, and the weaker PL peak intensity is shown in the PL spectrum. Secondly, InAs QD resonant cavity light-emitting diode with 1.32 μm-emitting has been successfully fabricated at room temperature in our work. The active medium of QD RCLED was a single-sheet 3.0 ML InAs QDs inserted in GaAs matrix grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. The epitaxial AlGaAs/GaAs pairs and one dielectric SiO2/Si3N4 pair as distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs) are fabricated as the bottom and top mirrors of QD RCLEDs, which can provide high cavity factor and avoid the In/Ga intermixing of InAs QD during fabricating the top mirror. The InAs/GaAs QD RCLEDs present an emission wavelength of 1.318 mm, a narrow full width at half maximum in the electroluminescent spectrum of 14 meV at 20 mA, a high Q factor of 73.9, a low redshift rate with injection current of 0.033 nm/mA, and a light-output power of 28 mW at 100 mA. Finally, we investigate the structural and the optical characteristics of InAs QDs grown on InGaAs strained buffer layer (SBL). The InAs QD density can increase to 3.5 x 1010 cm-2 as InAs QD deposited on InGaAs SBL, and the QD size uniformity is better than InAs QD directly deposited on GaAs layer. Under highest excited density at low temperature, PL spetra shows the ground, first and second states of InAs QDs due to the state-filling effect; the temperature-dependent PL shows the PL peak energy has a redshift following the Varshni relation and an unusual temperature dependence of linewidth which first reduces and then increases with increasing temperature for the InAs QDs on the InGaAs SBL. The PL thermal quenching arises from the carrier escape of the dots to nonradiative recombination centers like defects. The single sheet InAs QD/ InGaAs SBL edge-emitting p-i-n LEDs is emitting at 1330 nm with an external quantum efficiency of 0.024% at room temperature.